FI:GCP/RLA/140/JPN

TECHNICAL DOCUMENT No. 3

FAO/GOVERNMENT COOPERATIVE PROGRAMME

SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT IN THE LESSER ANTILLES INCLUDING INTERACTIONS WITH MARINE AND OTHER TOP PREDATORS

CETACEAN SURVEYS IN THE LESSER ANTILLES 2000-2006

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Barbados, 2008

FI:GCP/RLA/140/JPN

TECHNICAL DOCUMENT No. 3

FAO/GOVERNMENT COOPERATIVE PROGRAMME

SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT IN THE LESSER ANTILLES INCLUDING INTERACTIONS WITH MARINE MAMMALS AND OTHER TOP PREDATORS

CETACEAN SURVEYS IN THE LESSER ANTILLES 2000-2006

Report prepared for the

Lesser Antilles Pelagic Ecosystem Project

(GCP/RLA/140/JPN)

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Barbados, 2008 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of FAO.

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© FAO 2008

ABSTRACT

Scientific Basis for Ecosystem-Based Management in the Lesser Antilles Including Interactions with Marine Mammals and Other Top Predators: Cetacean Surveys in the Lesser Antilles - 2000-2006, FAO, Barbados, 2008. ix + 57 pp., 11 Figures and 17 Tables, FI:GCP/RLA/140/JPN. Technical Document No. 3 Sighting surveys are the principal means of obtaining information about the species, abundance, distribution and movements of marine mammals and other air-breathing groups. During the course of the project a number of cetacean sighting surveys were conducted in both near-shore (small-scale) and offshore (large-scale) waters of the Lesser Antilles Pelagic Ecosystem (LAPE). In addition, the results from additional surveys, conducted in the same area for the period 2000-2003, were compiled and incorporated into the present analysis. With one exception, statistical analysis of the surveys was not possible due to small numbers of sightings. In the one case where an analysis was completed it was based on species aggregated into groups of similar behaviour (for sighting purposes). Estimates of the abundance of the aggregate groups had high coefficients of variation, ranging from 0.34 to 0.89. The species identified in the surveys were all known to be present in the region although one important group of cetaceans reported to be in the region, the killer whales (e.g. Orcinus orca, Pseudorca crassidens, Feresa attenuate), was not observed during any of the LAPE project surveys.

iii

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES...... VI LIST OF FIGURES...... VIII GLOSSARY ...... IX BACKGROUND...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 3 LARGE-SCALE SURVEYS ...... 5 2000 - USA/NOAA Humpback Survey (R/V Gordon Gunter)...... 5 2004 - LAPE Large-scale Sighting Survey (R/V Shonan Maru)...... 7 Survey design...... 7 Research vessel ...... 9 Survey strategy and procedure ...... 10 Survey Results...... 12 2006 - LAPE Ecosystem Survey (R/V Celtic Explorer)...... 22 Design and Operations ...... 22 Results ...... 23 SMALL-SCALE SURVEYS ...... 25 Small-scale Survey Effort ...... 27 Small-scale survey Sightings ...... 27 Small-scale Survey Abundance Estimation...... 27 CONCLUSIONS...... 39 REFERENCES...... 41 APPENDIX 1 AND CODES FOR CETACEANS AND TURTLES ...... 43 APPENDIX 2 SIGHTING SURVEY MANUAL - 2004 ...... 46 Procedures for Cetacean Sighting Survey in the Lesser Antilles in 2004, under the FAO LAPE Project (GCP/RLA/140/JPN)...... 46 Operational Strategy...... 46 Primary Searching ...... 46 Secondary Searching...... 47 DATA DEFINITIONS AND RECORDING PROCEDURES ...... 47 Effort and Weather Form ...... 47 Sighting Record Form ...... 51 Observer shift form ...... 56 Fishing vessels and gears information ...... 57

v LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Functional group assignments with selected examples of cetacean species in the LAPE area...... 5 Table 2 Sighting counts for taxa identified in or near the LAPE area during sighting survey by NOAA Ship Gordon Gunter in 2000 and functional groups to which they would be assigned...... 6 Table 3 Sighting frequency and total counts by functional groups during the survey in and near the LAPE area in 2000 by the NOAA ship Gordon Gunter. Figures in parentheses are unidentified species assumed to belong to the given group...... 7 Table 4. Summary of survey design and execution based on spatial strata shown on Figure 1. Design targets were based on total area and relative sampling intensity. The randomly generated survey track lines which were used for this survey were based on a total of 2100 n. miles of primary effort. Weather conditions reduced the primary sighting effort actually realized...... 8 Table 5 Survey effort completed each day during 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey ...... 12 Table 6 Primary survey effort in each stratum during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey...... 15 Table 7 Species sighted in primary and secondary searching during the LAPE Large-scale Sighting Survey, 17 April-14 May 2004. Results show the number of sightings/ total number of sighted and the functional group (FG) assigned...... 16 Table 8 Sample sizes and abundance-related parameter estimates from the LSS. All statistics were obtained after right-truncating the data for estimation of esw. L is the survey effort (N. Mi.), n is the number of primary sightings and k is the number of samples (transect lines). n/L is the encounter rate (sightings per 1,000 N. Mi.), E[s] is the mean group size, esw is the effective strip half-width (nm). Numbers in brackets are coefficients of variation expressed as percentages...... 21 Table 9 Abundance estimates by species groups, from the Large-scale Cetacean Sighting Survey, 17 April-14 May 2004. D is density (animals per 1,000 N.Mi.2), N is total abundance (rounded to three significant figures) in the survey area. Numbers in brackets are coefficients of variation expressed as percentages...... 22 Table 10 All cetacean sightings detected on the 2006 LAPE Ecosystem Survey. The sightings are indicated by number (SN) on Figure 10...... 25 Table 11 Sighting survey effort completed each year in small-scale surveys in the Lesser Antilles. Effort is in nautical miles surveyed within the survey area defined from shore to 12 miles offshore...... 28

vi Table 12 Sightings (S) and estimated number of individual animals (A) in small-scale surveys identified to the taxonomic resolution available in the field data. Country key is given on final page of table...... 33 Table 13 Small-scale survey sightings aggregated into functional groups. Country key is as given in Table 12...... 36 Table 14 Frequencies of sighting distances by functional groups, all surveys combined. The sighting rate is the frequency per meter of bin width...... 37 Table 15 Analysis of relative abundance of functional groups by country. See text for details of calculations...... 38 Table 16 Relative comparison of abundance estimates from 2004 large-scale survey and small-scale surveys...... 39 Table 17 Comparison of raw sighting rates from a sample of cetacean surveys...... 39

vii LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 The Lesser Antilles Pelagic Ecosystem study area. Countries which are signatory to the LAPE project are indicated by a larger font than non-project states. The LAPE study area is defined on a grid of 10'x10'...... 3 Figure 2 Survey track lines designed for the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey in the Lesser Antilles...... 9 Figure 3. The R/V Shonan Maru, used in the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey, (17 April-14 May 2004). Two 'topmen' (cetacean sighting specialists) searched from the top barrel, scientific staff and ship's crew searched from the upper bridge area...... 10 Figure 4 Sighting specialist searching the sea surface using binoculars (Note: this photo was not taken during the LAPE survey)...... 11 Figure 5 Wind and sea state observations taken hourly during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey. Circle size indicates the sea state and the arrow indicates the wind speed and direction...... 13 Figure 6 Survey tracks completed in Primary, Secondary and transit modes during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey...... 14 Figure 7 Sightings of baleen whales during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey. Round symbols represent primary survey sightings, squares are secondary sightings. Species are indicated by grey level...... 17 Figure 8 Sightings of deep-diving whales during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey. Round symbols represent primary survey sightings, squares are secondary sightings. Species are indicated by grey level...... 18 Figure 9 Sightings of shallow-diving whales during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey. Round symbols represent primary survey sightings, squares are secondary sightings. Species are indicated by grey level...... 19 Figure 10 Primary sighting transects (black line) on the LAPE ecosystem survey cruise track (fine line). Daylight intervals are marked with grey highlight. Numbers correspond to sightings given in Table 10 ...... 24 Figure 11 Small-scale survey strata defined for LAPE cetacean surveys in 2005...... 26

viii GLOSSARY

Ecopath: model component of EwE that is used to construct a static mass- balanced assessment of the resources in an ecosystem and their interactions, represented by trophically linked biomass ‘pools’. Functional Group: an assemblage of species or higher taxa which are deemed to play very similar ecological roles, specifically tropho-dynamically i.e. similar diet composition, metabolic rates and predator field. g(0): the standard notation for the probability of detecting a survey target that is on the track line i.e. at 0 distance off track; various analytical methods require assumptions about g(0) and are subject to bias in cases where this is not true. Independent Observer: an independent observer, or team can provide information to allow direct estimation of g(0) and reducing that source of bias. Primary (effort/sighting): effort or sighting occurring when all conditions for statistically valid sampling are in place (on the planned track line, weather and sea conditions within acceptable limits, observers in place and following the established protocol). Secondary (effort/sighting): effort or sighting occurring during non-primary conditions (off the track line, in the process of observing a previous sighting, weather or sea conditions unacceptable, during breaks in the observing cycle). Sightability: a short-hand reference to a suite of factors that determines the shape of the sighting function which can include weather and sea conditions, behaviour, and survey platform. Sighting Function: a curve, conventionally designated g(x), describing the probability of detection as a function of the perpendicular distance from the target to the survey track line (x), (Note - not to the survey platform). Sighting: survey: a specific instance of distance sampling; in the LAPE project it is based on a transect survey and visually detecting targets (cetaceans and turtles). Statistical analysis depends on appropriate sampling design and sample size. Sighting: a detection of one or more targets at a known or estimated angle and distance from the survey platform; various manoeuvres may be required to determine species composition and number of individuals. Tropho-dynamic: description of the flows of energy (or proxies such as biomass or carbon) through a foodweb (an ecosystem) by predation, exploitation and physiological processes.

ix

BACKGROUND

The implementation of the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) entails important changes in the way fisheries management is conceived and practiced. The FAO technical guidelines for the ecosystem approach to fisheries (2003) define EAF as follows: “An ecosystem approach to fisheries strives to balance diverse societal objectives, by taking into account the knowledge and uncertainties about biotic, abiotic and human components of ecosystems and their interactions and applying an integrated approach to fisheries within ecologically meaningful boundaries”. Although the main principles that characterize EAF are not new, but already embedded in a number of international agreements and conference documents, there is limited practical experience in implementing them. The project GCP/RLA/140/JPN (Scientific Basis for Ecosystem-based Management in the Lesser Antilles Including Interactions with Marine Mammals and Other Top Predators) addresses one of the challenges related to the implementation of the ecosystem approach to fisheries, i.e. the development of management strategies that take into account biological interactions among species, including cetaceans and other top predators and any species that may be of no direct importance to fisheries but yet, may play an important role in maintaining ecosystem structure and functioning. The medium-term objective of the project is to enable fishery institutions in the region, by 2007, to carry out improved assessments and monitoring of the status of the pelagic resources and fisheries and the ecosystem of which they form a part, for continuous adaptation and improvement of optimum management strategies. Immediate objectives include: 1. obtaining improved estimates of the abundance of key components of the Lesser Antilles pelagic ecosystem, including cetaceans and other top predators; 2. the formulation of a food web model of the ecosystem as a means of investigating ecosystem interactions and impacts; 3. the development of an ecosystem management plan for the pelagic waters of the EEZs of the participating countries, which will include management strategies for key species of fishery interest in the sub- region, as well as for other affected and dependent species, and 4. the development of research and management capacity for ecosystem- based management of their pelagic waters at a national and sub- regional level. Project activities in support of Objective 1 have included cetacean sighting surveys, both regional and offshore as well as national, nearshore surveys. There was a pelagic acoustic/trawling survey to obtain estimates of abundance of forage species and environmental information. Work towards Objective 2

1 included collection, compilation and analysis of data to estimate model parameters regarding diets, physiology, fisheries and primary production. These were incorporated into a mass-balance model of the pelagic food web using the Ecopath with Ecosim software. To address Objective 3 the LAPE project first completed a series of stakeholder consultations in each of the participating countries to identify fisheries management issues with a particular view towards ecological issues and prioritizing the identified issues. In most countries this process continued by developing performance reports, including specific indicators, for at least one of the high-priority issues. There remains work to be done in each case to complete this process for the pelagic fisheries, and other sectors have not been started. The development of national and sub- regional capacity in this regard (Objective 4) primarily included training sessions associated with specific activities i.e. 'on-the-job' training. There was also training for smaller groups involved in specific tasks e.g. GIS modellers or diet analysts.

2

FAO was asked to provide technical assistance to Lesser Antilles states under project GCP/RLA/140/JPN entitled "Scientific Basis for Ecosystem-Based Management in the Lesser Antilles Including Interactions With Marine Mammals and Other Top Predators". This project is also referred to as the Lesser Antilles Pelagic Ecosystem (LAPE) project. The project aimed to develop the data resources and information systems needed to inform an ecosystem approach to fisheries management in the Lesser Antilles. In addition to utilizing existing information to the degree possible, the Project was to conduct surveys and studies to obtain new information on the important components of the pelagic food web, including top predators such as large pelagic fish and cetaceans. The distribution and abundance of cetaceans in the Lesser Antilles was of particular concern to the countries of the region as they address both harvest and non-harvest exploitation of the cetacean resources in the context of the ecosystem approach to fisheries management of all their fisheries as well as interactions with cetaceans and other species of interest. Cetacean surveys are conducted by a variety of means but the most common, and the ones conducted in the Lesser Antilles, are ship-borne visual sighting surveys. For the purposes of this report, the surveys were divided into large- scale, those which covered both near-shore and off-shore waters of multiple countries, and small-scale, which were conducted solely within nearshore waters and generally involved only a single country. Although data at the finest level of taxonomic detail possible is always desired when conducting a survey, in the LAPE project the ecological unit of interest is generally not a single species but rather a functional group. These groups are defined on the assumption that, at least for modelling purposes, they play similar ecological roles (i.e. can be represented with a common diet composition and are subject to common sources and rates of predation). Amongst the cetaceans the LAPE models utilize four functional groups: baleen whales, deep- diving whales, killer whales and shallow-diving whales (Table 1). Survey data have been grouped accordingly when possible. It must be noted that Humpback whales, although present in the region to calve and breed, are not believed to be feeding during their seasonal presence. As a result, this species is not included in the trophically-defined functional group of baleen whales used in the LAPE project. Humpbacks were sighted in several surveys, depending on the seasonal timing. Killer whales have been reported from the LAPE area and are included in the ecosystem functional groups being modelled. However, none were sighted in any of the surveys reported herein.

4 Table 1 Functional group assignments with selected examples of cetacean species in the LAPE area. Functional Group Common Name Scientific Name Baleen whales Bryde's whale edeni Deep-diving whales Physeter catodon Gervais’ Mesoplodon europaeus Killer whales False Pseudorca crassidens Killer whale Orcinus orca Feresa attenuata Shallow-diving Shortfin Globicephala macrorhynchus small cetaceans Atl. Spotted frontalis Tursiops truncatus Spinner dolphin Stenella longirostris Pantropical spotted dolphin Stenella attenuata Fraser's dolphin Lagenodelphis hosei Striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba Melon-headed whale Peponocephala electra

The surveys documented in this report include small-scale surveys conducted in the Lesser Antilles waters by the relevant island states (Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago). These surveys extend in some cases from 2000 to 2005. Large-scale surveys include a dedicated survey conducted by the LAPE project on the R/V Shonan Maru, in 2004, and a sighting survey was conducted as one component of the LAPE project ecosystem survey on the R/V Celtic Explorer in 2006. For comparison and completeness, the results from a survey conducted in the area in 2000 by the USA R/V Gordon Gunter are briefly reviewed as well.

LARGE-SCALE SURVEYS

2000 - USA/NOAA HUMPBACK SURVEY (R/V GORDON GUNTER)

The USA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration conducted a combined sighting and acoustic survey in the Eastern Caribbean including the waters of several LAPE project countries in 2000 (Swartz et al. 2001). Although extensive (from Puerto Rico to ), the survey was limited to near-shore and inter-island waters. The survey was specifically focused on Humpback whales (Megaptera novaaeangliae) and was not designed for statistical abundance estimation. The goals were to test a combined acoustic/visual sighting method and determine the presence or absence of Humpbacks in historical ranges amongst other more-specific objectives. The survey design used passive acoustic monitoring to locate 'singing' Humpback whales (males) which were then sought for visual sighting.

5 Although the authors concluded that the numbers were small relative to historical populations in the area, Humpback whales were found in all areas surveyed with the exception of the Gulf of Paria between Trinidad and Venezuela. This survey identified numerous species (or higher taxa) in addition to the humpback whales (Table 2). Delphinids were most abundant in terms of both sighting frequency and total numbers sighted.

Table 2 Sighting counts for taxa identified in or near the LAPE area during sighting survey by NOAA Ship Gordon Gunter in 2000 and functional groups to which they would be assigned. Scientific name Sightings Functional Group Balaenoptera sp. 4 Baleen whales Balaenoptera physalus 1 Baleen whales Balaenoptera edeni 5 Baleen whales Megaptera novangliae 29 Physeter macrocephalus 16 Deep-diving whales Kogia sp. 3 Deep-diving whales Kogia simus 2 Deep-diving whales Ziphius cavirostris 1 Deep-diving whales Mesoplodon sp. 2 Deep-diving whales Mesoplodon densirostris 1 Deep-diving whales Peponocephalla electra 2 Shallow-diving whales Pseudorca crassidens 1 Killer whales Globicephala sp. 7 Shallow-diving whales Steno bredanensis 5 Shallow-diving whales hosei 1 Deep-diving whales Delphinus Delphi 11 Shallow-diving whales Tursiops truncates 18 Shallow-diving whales Grampus griseus 1 Shallow-diving whales Stenella sp. 3 Shallow-diving whales Stenella attenuate 10 Shallow-diving whales Stenella frontalis 5 Shallow-diving whales Stenella longirostris 2 Shallow-diving whales unid. Dolphin 25 Shallow-diving whales (assumed) unid. Small whale 1 unid. Large Whale 12 Baleen whales (assumed) T. truncatus/ S. frontalis 4 Shallow-diving whales unid. Odontocete 7 Feresa sp. 1 Killer whales

The sightings by functional groups (Table 3) were also dominated by the abundance of delphinids which are largely in the functional group Shallow- diving whales. The Deep-diving whales were the next most frequent group, dominated by Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus).

6 Table 3 Sighting frequency and total counts by functional groups during the survey in and near the LAPE area in 2000 by the NOAA ship Gordon Gunter. Figures in parentheses are unidentified species assumed to belong to the given group. Functional Group Sightings Total count Baleen whales 10 (+12) 14 (+16) Deep-diving whales 25 136 Killer whales 2 20 Shallow-diving whales 77 (+26) 1514 (+250)

Caution must be exercised in interpreting these tables as these data are raw sightings numbers i.e. not corrected for sightability. Comparisons between species or functional groups require assuming sightability is similar for each group.

2004 - LAPE LARGE-SCALE SIGHTING SURVEY (R/V SHONAN MARU)

Many cetacean species, baleen and toothed whales, are distributed in the waters of the Lesser Antilles (Reeves et al. 2001; Roden and Mullin 2000; Smith and Reeves 2003; Swartz et al. 2003). Species of cetaceans detected in small-scale surveys conducted in inshore waters of Lesser Antilles countries, Dominica, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, and Grenada, (see relevant sections of this report) have included humpback, sperm, killer, and pilot whales and numerous species of . Most of the existing information is based on surveys which were conducted in mainly inshore waters of the islands. To obtain further information on cetacean distribution in Lesser Antilles, a large- scale cetacean sighting survey covering not only the inshore but also offshore waters was conducted. The primary aim of the survey was to obtain information on distribution and abundance of cetaceans in waters of the Lesser Antilles. Secondary objectives included sighting information on sea turtles and, if feasible, collection of biopsy samples from selected cetaceans. This survey was specified in Item A1.5 “Surveys” of the Project Document of the FAO Project “Scientific Basis for Ecosystem-Based Management in the Lesser Antilles Including Interactions With Marine Mammals and Other Top Predators”. The survey was conducted from late April to late May 2004. This was thought to be a suitable time for the cetacean sighting survey because of relatively stable weather conditions with no hurricanes and because of the occurrence of many cetacean species including Humpback whales which migrate into low latitude waters in winter and spring.

Survey design

The survey area was based on the defined study area of the LAPE project, i.e. the waters surrounding the participating Caribbean countries, including the

7 hypothetical1 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and territorial waters. Within this area, seven coastal and two offshore survey blocks were placed and zigzag track lines of approximately 2 000 nautical miles of length were set in the blocks after consideration of expected cruising distance (80 nm/day x 25 days). The lines were randomly generated using the ‘Equal Angle Zigzag’ option of the Program Distance 4.1 (( 2004)). This design gives very nearly equal coverage probability for all points within strata. Because it is expected that density of many cetacean species, especially dolphins, would be higher in the coastal waters, higher coverage of lines was designed in coastal blocks than in offshore ones.

Table 4. Summary of survey design and execution based on spatial strata shown on Figure 1. Design targets were based on total area and relative sampling intensity. The randomly generated survey track lines which were used for this survey were based on a total of 2100 n. miles of primary effort. Weather conditions reduced the primary sighting effort actually realized. Design Random Design Design Inputs Realized Effort in 2004 LSS Targets Generated

Relative Percent Percent Percent Area Track Stratum sampling of total of total of total Total (n mi)2 miles

intensity track track primary Primary Secondary Secondary

CWM 7324 1 8.3% 169 8.1% 9.2% 116.8 57.2 174 CMN 5501 1 6.3% 144 6.9% 7.7% 98.6 49.3 148 CWN 7173 1 8.2% 215 10.3% 5.1% 65.3 40.7 106 CMM 7841 1 8.9% 205 9.8% 9.4% 120.1 93.9 214 CMS 11822 1 13.5% 304 14.5% 9.3% 119 62.8 182 CE 15874 1 18.1% 334 16.0% 10.6% 135.5 30 166 CWS 7843 1 8.9% 217 10.4% 12.1% 153.9 53.2 207 OE+OW 122032 0.2 27.8% 508 24.2% 36.5% 465.7 208.8 675 Totals 185410 2096 1274.9 595.9 1871

In the planning phase, survey lines were placed in waters surrounding Trinidad and Tobago but permission to enter their EEZ was refused so lines in their waters were omitted. Permission was not requested from the UK in respect of Montserrat due to the small area within the LAPE study area. The EEZ of that island was crossed under transit without any survey action. The final survey design is given in Figure 2.

1 Few boundary delimitations, including EEZ boundaries, have been completed within the LAPE waters. As result the hypothetical lines derived from the Global Maritime Boundary Delimitation database were used to define the study area.

8 21°

20° strata lines

19°

18°

17° CMN

CWN 16°

15° CWM CMM OW OE

14°

13°

CWS CE

12° CMS

11°

64° 63° 62° 61° 60° 59° 58° 57° 56° FAO Lesser Antilles Pelagic Ecosystem Project 2004 Large-scale Cetacean Sighting Survey Figure 2 Survey track lines designed for the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey in the Lesser Antilles.

Research vessel

A research vessel specialized for cetacean sighting surveys, Shonan Maru, was used for the survey (Figure 3). The R/V Shonan Maru provides a sighting platform (top barrel) at 20 m above the water. The 64.8 m vessel is 712 Gross Tonnes (Japan measure) and cruises at 12.0 kts powered by a single 5500 hp diesel engine. This ship participates in the annual IWC/SOWER survey cruises conducted in the Antarctic Ocean. After participating in the 2003/04

9 IWC/SOWER survey in the Antarctic Ocean, it came to the Lesser Antilles for the present survey. In addition to the ship’s crew, the vessel is staffed by a scientific complement of four. The Survey Leader was an experienced Japanese cetacean scientist and the balance of the science staff on each leg were Caribbean regional fisheries staff.

Top Barrel

Upper bridge

Figure 3. The R/V Shonan Maru, used in the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey, (17 April-14 May 2004). Two 'topmen' (cetacean sighting specialists) searched from the top barrel, scientific staff and ship's crew searched from the upper bridge area.

Survey strategy and procedure

The survey was carried out in accordance with the line transect method (Burnham et al. 1980) that was adopted for cetacean abundance estimation by the Scientific Committee of the IWC. The survey was conducted following the procedure and protocol outlined in “Procedure for Cetacean Sighting Survey in the Lesser Antilles in 2004, under the FAO LAPE Project” (Appendix 2). A Pre-Survey Training Workshop was held at the Department of Fisheries in St Lucia for four days. The workshop included both in-class and at-sea training for the Caribbean participants, as some were inexperienced in cetacean sighting surveys. The in-class training included both theory and practical components, with emphasis on data recording and the at-sea exercise applied the training to a simulated sighting survey using an inshore charter sport fishing vessel, similar to the ones used for the small-scale sighting surveys conducted in near- shore waters.

10 Primary searching mode involved the research vessel following the pre- determined track line at 11.5 knots under acceptable weather conditions as defined below. Only primary sightings (those obtained during primary searching mode) were used for abundance estimation. When primary sightings were made, the vessel attempted to approach the sighting if necessary for species identification, school size counting, or other data collection, e.g., photographs and biopsy sampling. All search effort outside of primary searching mode is referred to as secondary searching mode. This includes steaming from the end point in a block to the starting point in the next block, vessel departures from the track line for observation of animals, and effort during unacceptable primary searching weather conditions, either drifting or running on track lines. Acceptable weather conditions for primary searching were: Beaufort wind scale of Force 4 or less visibility greater than 3 nautical miles During unacceptable weather conditions, the vessel stopped the survey and drifted or ran on the predetermined line under secondary searching mode until the weather improved, or the daily survey was discontinued. During primary searching mode, two topmen, cetacean sighting specialists, searched the sea surface for cetaceans from the top barrel of the vessel (Figure 3). Captain, crew, and participating researchers searched independently from the upper bridge. Searching was conducted with 7x50 binoculars (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Sighting specialist searching the sea surface using binoculars (Note: this photo was not taken during the LAPE survey). Sightings made from either upper deck or top barrel were communicated to the other searchers immediately. Binoculars were also used to identify species and to count the number of whales in a school. Sighting distance was estimated by reticule in binoculars When possible, or simply by eye. Sighting angles were taken from an angle board (protractor) in front of the observer. When secondary

11 mode searching was conducted, searching from the top barrel was not carried out (only from the upper deck). The daily survey began 30 minutes after sunrise (usually 0600) and ended at 30 minutes before sunset (1800). Overnight, the vessel drifted or steamed to the starting point for the next morning.

Survey Results

The research vessel left St Lucia on the morning of 17 April 2004, and the survey commenced on that afternoon. Detailed information on survey effort by day is listed in Table 5. The vessel made port calls in St Kitts and Barbados during the survey to change the Caribbean researchers participating.

Table 5 Survey effort completed each day during 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey Date Start End Strata/Lines Miles* Hours* Comments (lost time cause) 17 April 14:22 17:50 CMM/01-02 18.7 1:38 1st leg survey started 18 April 06:20 17:45 CMM/01-02, 02-03, 03- 54.4 4:34 04 19 April 06:15 17:55 CMM/03-04, 05-06, 53.5 4:41 CWM/01-02 20 April 06:20 17:55 CWM/01-02, 03-04, 05- 89.2 7:51 06 21 April 06:20 17:50 CWM/05-06 21.1 1:51 22 April 06:25 17:55 OW/01-02, 03-04 96.2 8:26 23 April 06:25 17:55 OW/03/04 65.6 5:31 24 April 06:20 15:18 CWN/01-02, 02-03, 04- 65..3 5:28 1st leg survey finished, 05, 05-06 transit to St Kitts. 25 April 0.0 0:00 No survey 26 April 0.0 0:00 No survey. 27 April 06:10 17:55 CMM/09-08, CMN/01- 45.7 3:59 2nd leg survey started. 02, 02-03, 03-04 28 April 06:10 18:00 CMN/03-04, 04-05, 05- 52.9 4:37 06 29 April 06:10 17:55 OE/01-02 27.6 2:27 30 April 06:00 17:50 OE/01-02 73.1 6:19 01 May 06:00 17:45 OE/01-02, 03-04 118.1 9:51 02 May 06:00 17:45 OE/03-04 26.8 2:20 03 May 06:00 17:50 OE/03-04 0.0 0:00 High wind 04 May 06:05 15:00 OE/04-05 58.3 5:15 2nd leg survey finished, transit to Barbados. 05 May 0.0 0:00 No survey 06 May 0.0 0:00 No survey 07 May 06:00 17:50 CE/01-02, 02-03, 04-05 107.2 9:23 3rd leg survey started.

08 May 06:10 17:50 CE/04-05, CMS/05-04 56.0 5:11

09 May 06:15 17:50 CMS/03-02 77.4 6:45 10 May 06:05 17:55 CMS/03-02, 02-01 13.9 1:12 11 May 06:15 17:55 CWS/07-06, 06-05, 05-04 51.0 4:20

12 May 06:15 17:55 CWS/05-04, 04-03 72.6 6:01 13 May 06:10 09:07 CWS/04-03, 02-01 30.3 2:39 3rd leg survey finished, transit to St Lucia

12

Figure 5 Wind and sea state observations taken hourly during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey. Circle size indicates the sea state and the arrow indicates the wind speed and direction. As a result, the vessel often had to sail under secondary mode in order to complete the planned track lines in the available time. Survey tracks sailed by the vessel are shown in Figure 6.

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64° 63° 62° 61° 60° 59° 58° 57° 56° FAO Lesser Antilles Pelagic Ecosystem Project 2004 Large-scale Cetacean Sighting Survey Figure 6 Survey tracks completed in Primary, Secondary and transit modes during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey

14 Survey distance by blocks is listed in Table 6. During 110 hours and 19 minutes cruising, a total of 1274.9 nautical miles were searched under primary effort.

Table 6 Primary survey effort in each stratum during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey. Block Distance (n.m.) Time OW 161.8 13:57 OE 303.9 26:12 CE 135.5 12:06 CMN 98.6 8:36 CMM 120.1 10:19 CMS 119.0 10:25 CWN 65.3 5:28 CWM 116.8 10:16 CWS 153.9 13:00 Total 1274.9 110:19

Sightings A total of 76 cetacean sightings (1 063 animals) including six humpback, six Bryde’s and five sperm whale sightings were obtained. Of these, 42 were primary sightings, the balance were secondary. Numbers of cetacean sightings by species is listed in Table 7. One sighting of an unidentified sea turtle was recorded near Barbados on 7 May (13°21.59’N, 59°36.47’W). Sightings of baleen whales overall (Figure 7) are widely distributed in the LAPE study area. However, Bryde’s whales were sighted only in the southern part of the survey area while sighting positions of humpback whales were only in the northern part. It is well-documented that humpback whales are distributed at low latitudes in the LAPE region, at least during the winter calving season (Swartz, Cole, McDonald, Hilderbrand, Oleson, Martinez, Clapham, Barlow, and Jones 2003; Smith and Reeves 2003). It is likely that at the time of the LAPE survey, humpback whales had already started their northward migration to high-latitude feeding grounds. Sightings of deep-diving species (Figure 8) were generally closer to land than the baleen species. The distribution of sperm whale sightings was similar to that found on previous sighting surveys, suggesting that this species has a similar distribution in waters of the Lesser Antilles throughout the year. Other shallow-diving cetaceans, e.g. pilot whales, melon-headed whales, and most species of dolphins (Figure 9), are also thought to be distributed in the waters throughout the year, though small-scale migrations may occur.

15

Table 7 Species sighted in primary and secondary searching during the LAPE Large-scale Sighting Survey, 17 April-14 May 2004. Results show the number of sightings/ total number of animals sighted and the functional group (FG) assigned Species* Primary Secondary Total FG 4/3 5/3 9/6 baleen Bryde’s whale 5/5 1/1 6/6 baleen Sperm whale 4/4 1/1 5/5 deep Gervais’ beaked whale 8/3 0/0 8/3 deep Unidentified Ziphiidae 0/0 1/1 1/1 deep Unidentified Mesoplodon 3/2 0/0 3/2 deep Unidentified whale 5/5 2/2 7/7 Short-finned pilot whale 25/1 7/2 32/3 shallow Melon-headed whale 127/3 5/1 132/4 shallow Risso’s dolphin 0/0 1/1 1/1 shallow Bottlenose dolphin 15/2 27/4 42/6 shallow Short-snouted spinner dolphin 5/1 38/2 43/3 shallow Pantropical spotted dolphin 240/6 295/5 535/11 shallow Atlantic spotted dolphin 35/1 35/1 70/2 shallow Fraser’s dolphin 30/1 0/0 30/1 shallow Striped dolphin 0/0 90/1 90/1 shallow Unidentified dolphin 8/5 41/9 49/14 shallow Total 514/42 549/34 1063/76

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11° 64° 63° 62° 61° 60° 59° 58° 57° Figure 7 Sightings of baleen whales during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey. Round symbols represent primary survey sightings, squares are secondary sightings. Species are indicated by grey level.

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11° 64° 63° 62° 61° 60° 59° 58° 57° Figure 8 Sightings of deep-diving whales during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey. Round symbols represent primary survey sightings, squares are secondary sightings. Species are indicated by grey level.

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11° 64° 63° 62° 61° 60° 59° 58° 57° Figure 9 Sightings of shallow-diving whales during the 2004 Large-scale Sighting Survey. Round symbols represent primary survey sightings, squares are secondary sightings. Species are indicated by grey level.

Abundance estimation Because of the very limited number of transect lines i.e. samples, within each block, coastal blocks were combined in the analysis to form a single coastal super-stratum (hereinafter referred to as the coastal stratum) for analysis and the two offshore blocks were combined to form a single offshore super-stratum (hereinafter referred to as the offshore stratum). Using day as the sampling unit, this gave ten samples in the coastal stratum and four samples in the offshore

19 stratum. Where possible, the encounter rate and mean group size were estimated within each super-stratum. The realized sample size (42 cetacean detections while on primary search effort) is too small for reliable estimation of detection functions by species. As a rule of thumb, a sample size in the vicinity of 60 is recommended and thus, it is on the low side for reliable estimation even if it was for a single species. Notwithstanding this, there is a need to obtain some estimates of density and abundance from the survey data. To do this, some pooling of species into groups is necessary. The focus of the present project is on trophic functional groups and, considering which species are likely to be similar in terms of detectability, estimation based on the following species groups was felt to be reasonable. Group 1: Shallow-diving small cetaceans (20 primary detections): This group comprises bottlenose dolphins, short-snouted spinner dolphins, pantropical spotted dolphins, Atlantic spotted dolphins, Fraser's dolphins, striped dolphins, short-finned pilot whales and melon-headed whales. Group 2: Deep-diving whales (11 primary detections): This group comprises sperm whales, Gervais' beaked whales, unidentified beaked whales (Mesoplodon sp. and Ziphiidae). Group 3: Baleen whales (11 primary detections): This group comprises humpback whales, Bryde's whales and unidentified baleen whales. Species within these groups were felt to be sufficiently similar to one another in detectability and sufficiently different from other groups, to make estimation of detection probability by group not unreasonable, given the sample sizes. Sample sizes were too small for further subdivision of these groups for the purposes of estimating encounter rate and mean group size. For most species sample sizes were too small for reliable estimation of mean group size by species and for some others, estimation of the variance of mean group size would be impossible. Given that Groups 2 and 3 have such small sample sizes, consideration was given to combining them for estimation. However, the differences in detectability between the two groups were felt to be too great to be combined. In particular, Group 2 will likely have g(0) substantially less than 1 due to the extended duration of the dives they make. Owing to the surface feeding behaviour of Group 3 species they will have a substantially higher g(0) than Group 2. The two groups are also very different trophically and would have to be separated for any ecosystem modelling purposes anyway. In order to increase sample size for abundance estimation, primary sightings of unknown species were reclassified to the three functional groups based on additional sighting information from the participants and Survey Leader as follows:

20 Stratum Original Reclassified Group OW 2 unknown whales 2 unknown baleen baleen whales whales CWM 1 unknown whale 1 unknown beaked whale deep-diving whales CWS 2 unknown whales 1 unknown beaked whale deep-diving whales 1 unknown baleen whale baleen whales

The analysis of sightings data involves estimation of the form and parameters of the sighting function first (Table 8), and then estimating the abundance based on the selected sighting function. The effective strip (half) width (esw) estimated from the selected sighting function determines the spatial raising factor to be applied when estimating abundance.

Table 8 Sample sizes and abundance-related parameter estimates from the LSS. All statistics were obtained after right-truncating the data for estimation of esw. L is the survey effort (N. Mi.), n is the number of primary sightings and k is the number of samples (transect lines). n/L is the encounter rate (sightings per 1,000 N. Mi.), E[s] is the mean group size, esw is the effective strip half-width (nm). Numbers in brackets are coefficients of variation expressed as percentages. Species group stratum n L k n/L (%cv) E[s] (%cv) esw (%cv) small coast 12 645 10 18.6 (25%) 16.5 (31%) 0.120 (73%) cetaceans offshore 4 293 4 13.6 (59%) deep-diving coast 10 645 10 15.5 (32%) 1.80 (18%) 0.429 (47%) whales offshore 0 293 4 0 (0%) coast 6 645 10 9.3 (40%) baleen whales 1.20 (7%) 0.923 (35%) offshore 5 293 4 17.1 (35%)

Using the 42 primary sightings, abundance was estimated using the program Distance (version 5, Thomas et al., 2004). Results of estimation pooled by super- stratum are listed in Table 9, by species groups. Because the detection functions for large-whales (deep-diving and baleen combined) were similar they were re- estimated together, using a covariate factor to distinguish species groups. The pooled estimate of total large whale density and abundance is equivalent to the estimates for the two groups separately. However, the precision of the overall estimate is much better (CV=0.34) than for either group separately (CV=0.65 and 0.42 for deep-diving and baleen respectively), clearly demonstrating the gains from the larger sample size.

21 Table 9 Abundance estimates by species groups, from the Large-scale Cetacean Sighting Survey, 17 April-14 May 2004. D is density (animals per 1,000 N.Mi.2), N is total abundance (rounded to three significant figures) in the survey area. Numbers in brackets are coefficients of variation expressed as percentages.

Species group D N (%cv) Dpooled Npooled (%cv) 95% Confidence Interval Small cetaceans 1,040 181,000 (89%) 37,400 - 879,000

Deep-diving 9.54 1,660 (65%) whales 19.1 3,340 (34%) 339 - 32,900 Baleen whales 9.61 1,680 (42%)

The number of primary sightings obtained was too small to estimate reliable abundance of cetaceans in the research area. This is a consequence of relatively low coverage of the survey region and reduced detectability as a result of sea conditions. Furthermore, in the analysis, the detection probability on the track line, g(0), was assumed to be 1.0, i.e., all of individuals on the track line were sighted. In practice, however, many animals may have been missed due to their diving or simply due to the poor sighting conditions, making g(0)<1.0. This would bias abundance estimates downward, especially for deep-diving species, which may have substantially lower g(0) than shallow divers. Abundance estimates may also be biased in the opposite direction if animals are attracted to the survey vessel prior to being sighted. This problem of responsive movement by the whales in reaction to the survey vessel can be a source of substantial bias for some small cetaceans; it is unlikely to be a source of much, or any, bias for most large cetaceans. In the case of dolphins, which often approach vessels to bowride, the apparent sighting distances are reduced and hence, the effective strip width is underestimated. Thus, these abundance estimates should be treated with caution.

2006 - LAPE ECOSYSTEM SURVEY (R/V CELTIC EXPLORER)

The relative importance and ecological role of different species in a given ecosystem are largely related to their abundance. Therefore, obtaining biomass estimates of key ecosystem components in the LAPE area is an important contribution to achieving the overall objectives of the LAPE project. Two fishery-independent surveys were proposed as part of the LAPE project to provide biomass estimates of priority species. These were combined and expanded into a single ecosystem survey reported herein. In addition to abundance, biomass and distribution information for selected species, the ecosystem survey included sampling for trophic relationships and physical and biological environmental sampling.

Design and Operations

The ecosystem survey combined an acoustic/trawling survey of pelagic forage species with a cetacean sighting survey using a common set of transect lines (Figure 10). The survey was conducted over 26 sea-days between 26 April and

22 22 May 2006. The sighting survey was limited to 0600 to 1800 only (approximately daylight hours) although the acoustic survey operated 24 hours a day. A sighting survey team of four observers operated from the crow's nest (three persons at the primary station) and ‘monkey island’ (one independent observer station). Although similar in many respects to the procedures used in the 2004 large- scale sighting survey conducted by the LAPE project (Appendix 1), there were a few key differences. The data recording was reduced substantially as much of the pertinent information was recorded continuously by the vessels underway data logging system (Simrad MDM400). The pertinent time-stamped data included position, heading and speed derived from GPS. Because the vessel was involved in numerous activities, the time actually on-effort was regularly interrupted by CTD and fishing stations. The sighting survey was suspended completely when the ship stopped for CTD stations or left the transect to investigate acoustic targets. Sighting continued in secondary mode when fishing tows were conducted along the transect because of the biasing effect on sightability as the speed was reduced to 3.5-4.0 kts instead of 10.5. Sighting data were recorded on the same data forms used in the 2005 small- scale surveys (Appendix 2). However, the information recorded by the MDM system was not needed, only the accurate recording of the time of various observations. The data from the MDM were extracted using the DATEX application at 5-minute intervals into an Excel spreadsheet. The survey data were then appended to the appropriate rows, based on the time of the event. Another difference from the earlier large-scale survey was the use of an independent observer (stationed on the 'monkey island'). This design feature would allow for estimation of bias in track line sightability (g(0)). Unlike the survey in 2004, the observers in the two stations did not communicate their sightings to each other. The independent observer's results were recorded separately.

Results

Sighting conditions were generally good throughout the survey with winds at Beaufort Force 2 or 3 and, very rarely, Force 4 for a few hours at a time. As expected, the other programme activities did interfere with sighting effort resulting in the loss of potential sighting effort most days. A total of almost 150 hours of on-effort sighting time was obtained.

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64° 63° 62° 61° 60° 59° 58° 57° 56° 55° Figure 10 Primary sighting transects (black line) on the LAPE ecosystem survey cruise track (fine line). Daylight intervals are marked with grey highlight. Numbers correspond to sightings given in Table 10 The sighting survey results were disappointing overall. There were very few sightings; ten in total (Table 10) which includes primary sightings, secondary sightings and three sightings reported by independent observers and not reported by the primary observers. As a result of the sample size, no statistical analysis was attempted. One subjective observation supported by these data is that the spatial distribution of cetacean sightings appears to be relatively close to the chain of Lesser Antilles islands, consistent with results from the 2004 Large-Scale Survey.

24 Table 10 All cetacean sightings detected on the 2006 LAPE Ecosystem Survey. The sightings are indicated by number (SN) on Figure 10. SN TimeStamp Latitude Longitude Species Num. Min. Max. 1 27/04/2006 17:25 17.5995 -62.1735 unidentified dolphins 30 15 40 2 27/04/2006 17:42 17.6450 -62.1630 Humpback 2 2 2 3 06/05/2006 17:21 12.7778 -60.3488 Humpback 5 4 5 4 07/05/2006 16:21 13.8013 -59.9908 Baleen whale 2 2 2 5 07/05/2006 16:46 13.8531 -60.0462 Humpback 1 1 2 6 07/05/2006 17:01 13.8826 -60.0436 Humpback 4 4 4 7 17/05/2006 11:35 16.0526 -61.8799 dolphins or 3 4 8 17/05/2006 12:30 15.9168 -61.9582 dolphins or porpoises 3 3 9 18/05/2006 13:15 14.2363 -61.9618 dolphins or porpoises 3 5 10 20/05/2006 12:55 17.0430 -61.0164 Spinner Dolphins 3 3

SMALL-SCALE SURVEYS

Small-scale surveys are conducted from locally-chartered vessels, generally used for sport-fishing charters and, in one instance, for whale-watching. Several countries had conducted small-scale surveys prior to the start of the LAPE project. During the LAPE project there were two years, 2004 and 2005, when small-scale surveys were conducted. Although the survey designs, vessels, staffing and other factors varied between years, these data are combined in this report. Starting in 2000, four countries, Dominica, Grenada, St Lucia and St Vincent and the Grenadines, had undertaken near-shore surveys for cetaceans. In three of the four years, the surveys in Grenada and St Vincent and the Grenadines were conducted jointly and they are combined in the following analyses. Surveys were based on a series of zig-zag transects running from points along the coast to points offshore, either 6 n. mi. or 12 n. mi. from land. Surveys were generally restricted to west coast waters of each island as sea conditions were better and transit distances were shorter. The setting of transect lines was largely arbitrary. In 2004 the LAPE project became involved and four additional countries participated (Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, St Kitts and Nevis, and Trinidad and Tobago). For most purposes, the small-scale surveys from 2000 to 2004 were similar in design and operation. In 2005, the second set of small-scale surveys conducted under the LAPE project introduced the use of statistical i.e. randomized, methods for transect selection based on a stratified survey area. Survey areas were defined as a 12-mile zone defined in the Global Marine Boundary Delimitation database. Stratum boundaries were inserted based primarily on the orientation of the adjoining coast and the presence of offshore islands (e.g. the various Grenadines islands). The resulting strata (Figure 11) were included in a GIS basemap which was used in the line transect statistical software Distance ( 2006) to randomly

25 generate equal-angle zig-zag transects. Effort was allocated proportional to stratum area.

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9° 64° 63° 62° 61° 60° 59° 58° 57° 56° 55° Figure 11 Small-scale survey strata defined for LAPE cetacean surveys in 2005.

26 SMALL-SCALE SURVEY EFFORT

Survey effort is summarized in terms of track miles surveyed (Table 11). The primary "on-effort" and secondary "off-effort" searching are combined within each survey although transit travel is excluded unless it was specifically coded as secondary effort. To provide a basis for comparison of spatial coverage, the maps of annual effort (Figure 12) show the strata assigned in 2005 but the effort and subsequent analysis are based on the entire survey area in each country, not the strata.

SMALL-SCALE SURVEY SIGHTINGS

The sightings, at the finest taxonomic level available, are listed in Table 12 for each survey (country and year). The numbers of sightings are small, with a maximum of nine sightings of any species in a single survey. Following the practice adopted in the large-scale survey analysis, the sightings were pooled by functional groups i.e. baleen whales, deep-diving whales and shallow-diving whales (Table 13). Although killer whales are reported from the region and are included in the model as a functional group, none have been sighted in any of the surveys, thus they do not appear in the results presented here.

SMALL-SCALE SURVEY ABUNDANCE ESTIMATION

Even after pooling sightings into functional groups none of the surveys had an adequate sample size to attempt a rigorous statistical analysis. In addition to the problems arising from the small sample size, the perpendicular distance estimates (recorded at sea as radial distance and sighting angle) were missing in some cases. Those that were recorded had a very high incidence of 0 distances (Table 14) ranging from 30 to 45% of all sightings. The results in Table 14 combined the individual surveys as they were similar in design and operation. Because of the large differences in bin width, reflecting the highly skewed distance estimates, the frequencies are difficult to compare. The sighting rate is provided to estimate the number of sightings expected per meter within the given bin. By inspection it is apparent that any estimate of effective strip half width is likely to be in the order of a few meters for all functional groups. No further analysis was made of these data and consequently, no estimates of absolute abundance can be made.

27

Table 11 Sighting survey effort completed each year in small-scale surveys in the Lesser Antilles. Effort is in nautical miles surveyed within the survey area defined from shore to 12 miles offshore. Survey Area Track miles surveyed each year track miles Country Line type (N. Mi.)2 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Average /square mile Antigua 2811 Primary 337 304 320 0.11 Secondary 103 74 88 0.03 Barbados 1090 Primary 262 291 277 0.25 Secondary 235 151 193 0.18 Dominica 973 Primary 152 291 207 319 261 246 0.25 Secondary 181 116 81 93 81 111 0.11 Grenada 1167 Primary 109 109 0.09 Secondary 262 262 0.22 Grenada & 2531 Primary 304 197 221** 730 363 0.14 St Vincent* Secondary 246 200 407** 325 294 0.12 St Kitts Nevis 1162 Primary 282 372 327 0.28 Secondary 54 69 61 0.05 St Lucia 1787 Primary 41 236 195 245 246 193 0.11 Secondary 161 103 377 221 233 219 0.12 St Vincent and 1364 Primary 165 112 264 180 0.13 the Grenadines Secondary 23 145 179 115 0.08 Trinidad 3857 Primary 548 303 425 0.11 and Tobago Secondary 426 386 406 0.11 * a single survey was conducted covering both countries in most years ** in 2003 separate surveys were conducted by each country but a combined analysis is also included

28

Figure 12 Effort maps for individual small-scale sighting surveys in the Lesser Antilles

29 Figure 12. Effort maps for individual small-scale sighting surveys in the Lesser Antilles (continued)

30 Figure 12. Effort maps for individual small-scale sighting surveys in the Lesser Antilles (continued) 31

Figure 12. Effort maps for individual small-scale sighting surveys in the Lesser Antilles (continued) 32 Table 12 Sightings (S) and estimated number of individual animals (A) in small-scale surveys identified to the taxonomic resolution available in the field data. Country key is given on final page of table. 2000 2001 2002 Common name DOM SLU SVG DOM SLU GND/SVG DOM SLU GND/SVG S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises /humpback whales 2 / 3 4 / 6 1 / 2 1 / 1 Humpback whale 1 / 1 3 / 8 Toothed whales Giant sperm whale 6 / 8 1 / 3 4 / 7 1 / 10 1 / 2 1 / 6 Pygmy sperm whale Beaked whales 1 / 3 Dolphins and porpoises 2 / 2 1 / 6 1 1 4 / 13 1 / 20 Pygmy killer whale 1 / 3 Globicephala sp. Short-finned pilot whale 2 /100 2 / 2 1 / 15 1 / 15 Risso's Dolphin Fraser's dolphin Killer whale 1 / 4 Atlantic spotted dolphin 1 / 6 3 /100 1 / 20 Clymene dolphin Spinner dolphin (long-snouted) Stenella sp. 1 / 65 3 / 76 2 / 40 Striped dolphin 1 / 10 Bottlenose dolphin 3 / 60 3 /235 1 / 15 Turtles, tortoises, terrapins Green turtle 1 / 1 Hawksbill turtle 2 / 2 Leatherback sea turtle 3 / 4

33 Table 12 (continued . S - Sightings / A - Animals)

2003 2004 Common name DOM GND/SVG SLU ANU BBD DOM SKN SLU SVG TT S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises 1 / 1 Rorquals/humpback whales 5 / 5 1 / 1 Humpback whale 1 / 1 1 / 1 Toothed whales 1 / 3 Giant sperm whale 8 / 12 1 / 2 1 / 3 1 / 1 Pygmy sperm whale 1 / 1 Beaked whales Dolphins and porpoises 3 / 8 3 / 203 4 / 125 2 / 3 Common dolphin Pygmy killer whale 1 / 10 Globicephala sp. Short-finned pilot whale 2 / 17 1 / 2 Risso's Dolphin 1 / 2 Fraser's dolphin 1 / 30 Killer whale 1 / 4 False killer whale 2 / 5 1 / 10 Atlantic spotted dolphin 9 / 545 1 / 150 Clymene dolphin 1 / 20 Spinner dolphin (long-snouted) Stenella sp. 1 / 100 2 / 100 1 / 200 1 / 5 1 / 3 Striped dolphin Bottlenose dolphin 1 / 150 2 / 17 1 / 3 1 / 1 2 / 23 Turtles, tortoises, terrapins Green turtle 1 / 1 1 / 1 Hawksbill turtle 1 / 1 2 / 2 1 / 1 1 / 1 Leatherback sea turtle

34 Table 12 (continued . S - Sightings / A - Animals)

2005 Common name ANU BBD GND/SVG TT S / A S / A S / A S / A Total S / Total A Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises 1 / 1 2 / 2 Rorquals/humpback whales 14 / 18 Humpback whale 6 / 11 Toothed whales 1 / 3 Country Key Giant sperm whale 5 / 9 30 / 63 ANU Antigua Pygmy sperm whale 1 / 1 BBD Barbados Beaked whales 1 / 3 DOM Dominica Dolphins and porpoises 1 / 1 2 / 16 3 / 8 27 / 406 GND Grenada Common dolphin 2 / 26 1 / 8 1 / 40 4 / 74 SKN St Kitts/ Pygmy killer whale 1 / 10 3 / 23 Nevis Globicephala sp. 2 / 21 2 / 21 SLU St Lucia Short-finned pilot whale 2 / 4 11 / 155 SVG St Vincent Risso's Dolphin 1 / 2 TT Trinidad & Fraser's dolphin 1 / 30 Tobago Killer whale 2 / 8 False killer whale 3 / 15 Atlantic spotted dolphin 3 / 156 18 / 977 Clymene dolphin (short-snouted spinner dolphin) 1 / 60 2 / 80 Spinner dolphin (long-snouted spinner dolphin) 2 / 400 2 / 400 Stenella sp. 1 / 6 2 / 40 15 / 635 Striped dolphin 3 / 130 4 / 140 Bottlenose dolphin 1 / 8 15 / 512 Turtles, tortoises, terrapins 1 / 1 1 / 1 Green turtle 3 / 3 Hawksbill turtle 7 / 7 Leatherback sea turtle 3 / 4

35

Table 13 Small-scale survey sightings aggregated into functional groups. Country key is as given in Table 12. a) Baleen Whales

baleen Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A ANU 1 / 1 1 / 1 BBD DOM 2 / 3 4 / 6 5 / 5 11 / 14 GND SKN 1 / 1 1 / 1 SLU 1 / 2 4 / 9 1 / 1 6 / 12 SVG 1 / 1 1 / 1 TT Grand Total 2 / 3 6 / 9 4 / 9 5 / 5 3 / 3 20 / 29 b) Deep-diving Whales

deep Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A ANU BBD DOM 7 / 11 4 / 7 1 / 2 9 / 13 1 / 3 22 / 36 GND SKN SLU 1 / 3 1 / 10 1 / 6 1 / 2 1 / 1 5 / 22 SVG 1 / 3 5 / 9 6 / 12 TT Grand Total 8 / 14 5 / 17 2 / 8 10 / 15 3 / 7 5 / 9 33 / 70 c) Shallow-diving Whales

shallow Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A S / A ANU 2 / 17 5 / 31 7 / 48 BBD 1 / 3 7 / 59 8 / 62 DOM 6 /118 6 /183 4 / 13 16 / 575 8 /237 40 /1126 GND 7 / 363 3 /125 10 / 488 SKN 1 / 1 1 / 1 SLU 2 / 2 5 / 81 5 / 95 2 / 300 3 /206 17 / 684 SVG 4 / 66 3 /235 1 / 15 1 / 5 11 /679 20 /1000 TT 5 / 29 2 / 40 7 /69 Grand Total 12 /186 14 /499 10 /123 25 /1238 21 /498 28 /934 110 /3478

36 Table 14 Frequencies of sighting distances by functional groups, all surveys combined. The sighting rate is the frequency per meter of bin width. Distance Bin (m) width Sighting Frequency Sighting Rate (/m) from to (m) Baleen Deep Shallow Baleen Deep Shallow 0 1 1 9 11 34 9.000 11.000 34.000 1 10 9 0 1 8 0.000 0.111 0.889 10 50 40 0 3 16 0.000 0.075 0.400 50 100 50 0 1 9 0.000 0.020 0.180 100 150 50 0 5 5 0.000 0.100 0.100 150 200 50 0 1 6 0.000 0.020 0.120 200 500 300 2 4 16 0.007 0.013 0.053 500 1000 500 1 1 9 0.002 0.002 0.018 1000 5000 4000 8 6 7 0.002 0.002 0.002

As discussed in the previous section, the available sample sizes are still too small to make reasonable statistical estimates of sightability and abundance. However, an assessment of relative abundance based on highly pooled results was made, noting that it is critically dependent on some untested assumptions (Table 15). The data from individual surveys within each country were pooled across years, and the average annual sightings and individual animals were compiled for each functional group. Since probability sampling was not assumed in the analysis, the primary and secondary effort and sightings were combined as well. This assumed that the sightability, while unknown, was constant at all times within country and functional group. The survey intensity was defined as the number of track miles surveyed per square mile of survey area in each country. Survey area was as defined for the 2005 stratified survey design as a standard although in fact the actual area varied between years. By extending the assumption of constant sightability between countries, and weighting for effort differences by the calculated survey intensity, the relative density i.e. the number of animals per unit area can be compared between countries. The final step is to weight the relative density by the survey area for each country to get a relative abundance estimate. All of these calculations are contained in Table 15. The other survey which produced abundance estimates was the 2004 large-scale survey. However, because no estimated sighting function was used in this small-scale survey analysis, the absolute numbers from this analysis are not directly comparable to those from the large-scale survey in 2004. However, relative comparison is possible (Table 16). The relative proportions of the three functional groups are similar although deep-diving whales appear relatively more abundant in the small-scale survey analysis. They appear to be about twice as abundant as baleen whales in small-scale surveys whilst in the large- scale survey they appear to be nearly equal.

37 Table 15 Analysis of relative abundance of functional groups by country. See text for details of calculations. Primary and Secondary Effort and Sightings Combined Average Annual Average Annual Sightings Animals Relative Density Relative Abundance Annual Survey Annual Survey surveys surveys Line type Line type intensity* intensity* Number of Number (Sq. N. Mi.) Country and Survey Area average miles miles average miles average Baleen Deep Shallow Baleen Deep Shallow Baleen Deep Shallow Baleen Deep Shallow P 320 0.11 ANU 2811 2 409 0.15 0.50 3.50 0.50 24.0 3.4 165.0 9661 463737 S 88 0.03 P 277 0.25 BBD 1090 2 470 0.43 4.00 31.0 71.9 78358 S 193 0.18 P 246 0.25 DOM 973 5 357 0.37 2.20 4.40 8.00 2.80 7.20 225.2 7.6 19.6 614.3 7433 19112 597794 S 111 0.11 P 150 0.13 GND 1167 2 333 0.28 5.00 244.0 856.6 999834 S 182 0.16 P 327 0.28 SKN 1162 2 389 0.33 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.5 1.5 1.5 1738 1738 S 61 0.05 P 193 0.11 SLU 1787 5 411 0.23 1.20 1.00 3.40 2.40 4.40 136.8 10.4 19.1 594.2 18625 34145 1061613 S 219 0.12 P 240 0.18 SVG 1364 6 391 0.29 0.17 1.00 3.33 0.17 2.00 166.7 0.6 7.0 581.2 793 9516 793020 S 151 0.11 P 425 0.11 TT 3857 2 831 0.22 3.50 34.5 160.1 617618 S 406 0.11

38 Table 16 Relative comparison of abundance estimates from 2004 large-scale survey and small-scale surveys. Relative Abundance Baleen Deep Shallow abundance from large-scale survey using estimated sightabilities 1680 1660 181000

estimated effective strip width (i.e. sightability) 0.923 0.429 0.12

relative abundance from small-scale surveys, assuming constant sightability 38249 62774 4613712

CONCLUSIONS

Although several of the surveys were designed with statistical abundance estimation planned, the small sample sizes obtained have made this very uncertain. In only one case, the 2004 Large-Scale Survey was there sufficient data obtained to make statistical analysis feasible For research cruises dedicated to large-scale surveys it appears that effort within the LAPE area would need to be increased by about a factor of 4 to expect sample sizes meeting the desirable range of 40-60 sightings. This implies upwards of 100 sea-days. A comparison of raw sightings rates (either sightings or individuals sighted per kilometre of track line) was made using cetacean surveys reported in the SEAMAP/OBIS database (http://seamap.env.duke.edu/datasets/), and other web sources, accessed in August 2007 (Table 17). The Small-Scale and two Large-Scale Surveys involving the LAPE project countries are indicated first (SSS - Small-Scale Sighting surveys 2000-2005 based on annual averages; ES - Ecosystem Survey conducted in 2006 on the Celtic Explorer; LSS - Large-Scale Sighting Survey conducted in 2004 on the R/V Shonan Maru).

Table 17 Comparison of raw sighting rates from a sample of cetacean surveys. Survey miles km sightings animals s/km a/km SSS (annual averages) 2000/05 3590 6649 42 882 0.006 0.133 ES 2006 1500 2778 10 56 0.004 0.020 LSS 2004 1275 2361 42 514 0.018 0.218 Tyrannean Sea 1993/95 0.110 Lesser Antilles 2000 2986 5530 152 2486 0.027 0.450 Sargasso Sea 2005 5923 10969 27 344 0.002 0.031 Eastern Tropical Pacific 1993 12496 23143 652 27944 0.028 1.207 Ross Sea, Antarctica 2003 2237 4143 142 442 0.034 0.107 N. Atlantic 2005 3473 173 2000 0.050 0.576 Bering Sea 2032 93 896 0.046 0.441

The very low rates in the ES are notable for both sightings per km and animals per km. The only other survey with comparable raw rates of sightings was

39 conducted in the Sargasso Sea, an area of very low productivity. This may be as a result of breaks in the sighting effort caused by fishing or oceanographic sampling during the multidisciplinary survey. It suggests it may not be cost- effective to attempt sighting surveys on a vessel-of-opportunity basis unless costs are extremely low and total available time is adequate.

40 REFERENCES

Reeves, R.R., Khan, J.A., Olsen, R.R., Swartz, S.L., and Smith, T.D. 2001. History of whaling in Trinidad and Tobago. J. Cetacean Res. Manage 3: 45-54.

Roden, C.L. and Mullin, K.D. 2000. sightings of Cetaceans in the northern Caribbean Sea snd adjacent waters, Winter 1995. Caribbean Journal of Science 36: 280-288.

Smith, T.D. and Reeves, R.R. 2003. Estimating American 19th Century catches of Humpback whales in the West Indies and Cape Verde Islands. Caribbean Journal of Science 39: 286-297.

Swartz, S.L., Cole, T., McDonald, M.A., Hilderbrand, J.A., Oleson, E.M., Martinez, A., Clapham, P.J., Barlow, J., and Jones, M.L. 2003. Acoustic and Visual Survey of Humpback Whale (megaptera novaeangliae) Distribution in the Eastern and Southeastern Caribbean Sea. Caribbean Journal of Science 39: 195-208.

Swartz, S.L., Martinez, A., Cole, T., Clapham Phillip J., McDonald, M.A., Hilderbrand, J.A., Oleson, E.M., Burks, C.M., and Barlow, J. 2001. Visual and acoustic survey of Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the eastern and southern Caribbean sea: Preliminary Findings. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC 456: 37pp.

Thomas, Len, Laake, Jeffrey L., Strindberg, Samantha, Marques, Fernanda F. C., Buckland, Stephen T., Borchers, David L., Anderson, David R., Burnham, Kenneth P., Hedley, Sharon L., Pollard, John H., and Bishop, Jon R. B. 2004. Distance 4.1. (software). Research Unit for Wildlife Population Assessment. St Andrews, United Kingdom.

Thomas, Len, Laake, Jeffrey L., Strindberg, Samantha, Marques, Fernanda F. C., Buckland, Stephen T., Borchers, David L., Anderson, David R., Burnham, Kenneth P., Hedley, Sharon L., Pollard, John H., Bishop, Jon R. B., and Marques, Tiaga A. 2006. Distance 5.0. (software). Research Unit for Wildlife Population Assessment, University of St Andrews. St Andrews, United Kingdom.

41

APPENDIX 1 TAXONOMY AND CODES FOR CETACEANS AND TURTLES

ITIS - Integrated Taxonomic Information System (http://www.itis.gov/) is a definitive source for taxonomic nomenclature.

Sub- Order Family Species Common name Functional Group ITIS Code order Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises 180403 Mysticeti Baleen whales Baleen whales 552298 Balaenopteridae Rorquals/humpback whales Baleen whales 180522 Balaenoptera sp. Rorquals Baleen whales 180523 Balaenoptera acutorostrata Minke whale Baleen whales 180524 Balaenoptera borealis Sei whale Baleen whales 180526 Balaenoptera edeni Bryde's whale Baleen whales 180525 Balaenoptera musculus Blue whale Baleen whales 180528 Balaenoptera physalus Fin whale Baleen whales 180527 Megaptera sp. Humpback whale 180529 Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback whale 180530 Odontoceti Toothed whales 180404 Physeteridae Sperm whales Deep-diving whales 180486 Physeter sp Giant sperm whale Deep-diving whales 180487 Physeter catodon Giant sperm whale Deep-diving whales 180489 Kogiidae Pygmy/dwarf sperm whale Deep-diving whales 621144 Kogia sp. Pygmy/dwarf sperm whale Deep-diving whales 180490 Kogia breviceps Pygmy sperm whale Deep-diving whales 180491 Kogia simus Dwarf sperm whale Deep-diving whales 180492 Ziphiidae Beaked whales Deep-diving whales 180493 Mesoplodon sp Beaked whales Deep-diving whales 180506 Mesoplodon densirostris Blainville's beaked whale Deep-diving whales 180517 Mesoplodon europeus Gervais' beaked whale Deep-diving whales 180509 Mesoplodon mirus True's beaked whale Deep-diving whales 180508 Ziphius sp Beaked whales Deep-diving whales 180497 Ziphius cavirostris Cuvier's beaked whale Deep-diving whales 180498

43 Sub- Order Family Species Common name Functional Group ITIS Code order Delphinidae Dolphins and porpoises 180415 Delphinus sp. Delphinus sp. Shallow-diving whales 180437 Delphinus delphis Common dolphin Shallow-diving whales 180438 Feresa sp. Feresa sp. Killer whales 180460 Feresa attenuata Pygmy killer whale Killer whales 180461 Globicephala sp. Globicephala sp. Shallow-diving whales 180464 Globicephala macrorhynchus Short-finned pilot whale Shallow-diving whales 180466 Grampus sp. Grampus sp. Shallow-diving whales 180456 Grampus griseus Risso's Dolphin Shallow-diving whales 180457 Lagenodelphis sp. Lagenodelphis sp. Deep-diving whales 180439 Lagenodelphis hosei Fraser's dolphin Deep-diving whales 180440 Orcinus sp. Orcinus sp. Killer whales 180468 Orcinus orca Killer whale Killer whales 180469 Peponocephala sp. Peponocephala sp. Shallow-diving whales 180458 Peponocephala electra Melon-headed whale Shallow-diving whales 180459 Pseudorca sp. Pseudorca sp. Killer whales 180462 Pseudorca crassidens False killer whale Killer whales 180463 sp. Sotalia sp. Shallow-diving whales 180421 Sotalia fluviatilis Tucuxi Shallow-diving whales 180422 Stenella sp. Stenella sp. Shallow-diving whales 180428 Stenella attenuata Pantropical spotted dolphin Shallow-diving whales 180430 Stenella clymene Clymene dolphin Shallow-diving whales 180435 Stenella coeruleoalba Striped dolphin Shallow-diving whales 180434 Stenella frontalis Atlantic spotted dolphin Shallow-diving whales 552460 Stenella longirostris Spinner dolphin (long-snouted) Shallow-diving whales 180429 Steno sp. Steno sp. Shallow-diving whales 180416 Steno bredanensis Rough-toothed dolphin Shallow-diving whales 180417 Tursiops sp. Tursiops sp. Shallow-diving whales 180425 Tursiops truncatus Bottlenose dolphin Shallow-diving whales 180426

44 Sub- Order Family Species Common name Functional Group ITIS Code order Reptilia Reptiles 173747 Testudines Turtles, tortoises, terrapins 173749 Cheloniidae Sea turtles Other turtles 173828 Chelonia sp. Green sea turtles Other turtles 173832 Chelonia mydas Green turtle Other turtles 173833 Eretmochelys sp. Hawksbill turtles Other turtles 173835 Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle Other turtles 173837 Dermochelyidae Leatherback sea turtles Leatherback turtles 173841 Dermochelys sp. Leatherback sea turtles Leatherback turtles 173842 Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback sea turtle Leatherback turtles 173843

45

APPENDIX 2 SIGHTING SURVEY MANUAL - 2004

PROCEDURES FOR CETACEAN SIGHTING SURVEY IN THE LESSER ANTILLES IN 2004, UNDER THE FAO LAPE PROJECT (GCP/RLA/140/JPN)

OPERATIONAL STRATEGY

These procedures are used for the Large-Scale Cetacean Sighting Survey (hereinafter referred to as LSS) and the small-scale sighting survey (SSS). Primary searching is conducted when the research vessel follows the pre- determined track lines at around 11.5 knots in LSS and 8 knots in SSS under acceptable weather conditions as defined below. Acceptable weather conditions for primary searching are: Beaufort wind scale of Force 4 or less in LSS (Force 3 or less in SSS), visibility greater than 3 nautical miles. When weather conditions are unacceptable, the vessel may stop and drift until the weather improves, or the vessel runs on the line under secondary searching mode, or the survey for the day is discontinued. This will be a decision of the lead scientist based on the circumstances at the time.

Primary Searching

Sightings obtained during primary searching are primary sightings, and are the only sightings which can be used for estimation of animal density. When a primary sighting is made, the vessel attempts to approach the sighted target to make species identification, school size counts, and additional data collection, e.g., photographs and biopsy sampling. After each such approach, the vessel returns to the track lines, following “Procedures for return to Cruise track” defined below. In SSS, research vessels can go back to the position where the vessel leaves the line. Action codes are indicated in the data form instructions listed below. During primary searching, two or more observers should be on duty on the upper deck of the vessel. In the LSS, an additional two topmen, who are cetacean sighting specialists, search the sea surface for cetaceans from the top barrel. Captain, crews, and scientists search from the upper deck. The area searched is generally a sector ahead of the vessel from 60° port to 60° starboard of the bow. Searching is conducted with binoculars as available, otherwise by naked eye. Binoculars are also used for species identification and school size counting. When cetaceans (or sea turtles) are detected, the observer must report the following information to others: estimated radial distance, sighting angle and cue. Detailed descriptions of the data definitions and recording procedures are

46 given below. The recorder writes down the observed data and time and position of the sighting and then the vessel approaches the sighted target. Data forms: In the LSS, 4 types of data forms are used. These are “Effort and weather form”, “Sighting record form”, “Observer shift form”, and “Fishing vessels and gears information”. The “Sighting record form” is recorded by scientists and others are collected by officers of the vessel. In the SSS, the “Observer shift form” is not used and the other 3 forms are recorded by scientists. In the SSS the scientists should rotate role of the recorder as well as observer shifts on a schedule based on the specific circumstances. The sighting/recording schedule is pre-determined for the LSS and recorded on the Observer Shift form.

Secondary Searching

Secondary searching is carried out as the vessel runs between the harbour and the start/end point of the survey; during the vessel’s departures from the track line for observation of animals; and during unacceptable primary searching weather conditions, either drifting or running on track lines. During secondary searching the vessel speed may vary as it is not necessary to be at 11.5 knots or 8 knots. Sightings obtained during secondary searching are secondary sightings. In general, for secondary sightings the research vessel does not attempt to approach the targets, however, it maybe necessary to obtain the additional information and samples collected during a primary sighting approach. The decision to approach or not will be based on circumstances at the time. When in secondary searching mode, captain, crew, and scientists search from the upper deck. The area searched is generally as in primary searching however the search sectors and practices (e.g. use of binoculars) are adjusted to the circumstances at the time. The same data forms and recording practices are followed in secondary searching mode.

DATA DEFINITIONS AND RECORDING PROCEDURES

Effort and Weather Form

This form is recorded every hour (weather conditions only) and whenever major changes occur in weather conditions or searching effort. The data fields are: Vessel: Name of the research vessel . Block: Code name of block (only in LSS). Date: Year-month-day. Page: Numbered sequentially from 1, every day. Time: Time when action code and weather are recorded, in 24-hours and minutes (local time).

47 Position: Position (latitude and longitude) of vessel from GPS system. Action: Each survey action is designated by a code and in specified cases, the course and speed at the time of the action NOTE: The action codes and coding practices differed from survey to survey. This list was in effect as of March 2004 when the first LAPE survey was planned. A coordinated set of codes has been standardized and applied to all the surveys in the LAPE cetacean survey database. The final database code list is included in the relevant appendix.

(a) Codes are: S speed change during primary searching, e.g., to avoid another vessel C course change during primary searching, e.g. to avoid another vessel or navigation obstacles e.g. reef or sand bank L beginning of primary searching with intent to approach sighted animals P beginning of primary searching without intent to approach (passing mode) D beginning of secondary searching due to unacceptable weather conditions or transit between track lines or between harbour and start/end points H beginning of drifting, e.g. in order to avoid bad weather E end of the survey for the day O sighting obtained and beginning of approach to the animals R beginning of return to the track line after approach and observation (b) Course: Pre-determined true course of the ship. If possible, compute from two or more fixes. (c) Speed: in knots with one decimal. If possible, calculate the average speed from two or more fixes. Course and speed are recorded for action codes C, L, P, D, and R. It is not necessary to record sightings (Code O), for action codes P, D, H, and R. For secondary sightings and sea turtles, action code O is not recorded. Weather: Weather conditions are recorded every hour during searching and whenever an action code is recorded. These conditions are recorded on the basis of observations within 2 nautical miles in front of the vessel. If several conditions are observed simultaneously, the most severe one, based on the effect on searching is recorded.

48 (d) Codes are: Code Condition Description b Blue sky <10% cloud coverage bc Fine but clouds 11-80% cloud coverage c Clouds 81-99% cloud coverage d Drizzling rain f Fog/ Gloom Partially obscured visibility m Mist / Haze Slightly obscured visibility o Overcast 100% cloud coverage p Passing showers q Squalls r Rain t Thunderstorm/Thundercloud u Ugly weather

(e) Wind: If possible, wind speed in m/s. (f) Wind direction: Direction to the nearest 5 degrees, if possible (g) Beaufort wind scale: Record Beaufort Scale values from 0-6, use 7 for any higher winds

Beaufort Windspeed Description Sea Condition Scale Knots m/s Force 0 0 0-0.2 Calm Sea likes a mirror Force 1 1-3 0.3-1.5 Light Air Ripples but without foam crests Force 2 4-6 1.6-3.3 Light Breeze Small wavelets. Crests do not break Force 3 7-10 3.4-5.4 Gentle Breeze Large wavelets. Perhaps scattered white horses Force 4 11-16 5.5-7.9 Moderate Breeze Small waves. Fairly frequent white horses Force 5 17-21 8.0-10.7 Fresh Breeze Moderate waves, Many white horses Force 6 22-27 10.8-13.7 Strong Breeze Large waves begin to form; White foam crests, probably spray Force 7+ >27 >13.8 use code “7” for Force 7 and above

(h) Sea state: Record Sea State values from 0-6, use 7 for any sea state greater than 6.

49

Sea State Height of Description Sea Condition Waves (m) 0 0 Calm (Glassy) Sea like a mirror 1 0-0.1 Calm (Ripples) Sea appears to represent scales 2 0.1-0.5 Smooth sea Smooth, wavelets 3 0.5-1.25 Slight sea Small waves 4 1.25-2.5 Moderate sea Long waves 5 2.5-4 Rough sea Large waves 6 4-6 Very rough sea Sea heaps up 7+ >6 use code “7” for scale 7 and above

(i) Visibility: Visibility is given as nautical miles with two decimals. Maximum visibility is the distance from the vessel to the horizon line.

(j) Sea Temperature: Record the sea surface temperature to the nearest 0.1 degrees

(k) Air Temperature: Record the air temperature to the nearest 0.1 degrees centigrade, if possible.

(l) Glare: The severity of glare according to the following scale: 0 no glare 1 glare present but with minimal impact on sightability 2 glare present but with some impact on sightability 3 glare present and substantial or total affect on sightability

(m) Glare Angles The compass bearings of the left and right extreme edge of the glare is recorded.

50

Sighting Record Form

When cetaceans (and sea turtles) are detected, the observer must notify the other observers and especially, the recorder. The recorder writes down the ‘Time’, ‘Type’, ‘Position’, and sighting information (angle, distance, cue, etc.). For primary sightings the other information, e.g., species name and school size, is recorded at the time of the vessel’s closest approach to the sighted target. For secondary sightings, the other information is also recorded to the degree possible. If the identification of species and school size are uncertain, i.e. because no approach was made, the situation is noted in ‘Comments’. The data fields are: Vessel: Name of vessel. Block: Code name of block (only in LSS). Line: Name of track line, using turning points of both side of the line. Date: Year-month-day. Recorder: Initials of recorder. Sighting no.: Numbered sequentially from No. 1, every day. Time: Time when cetaceans or turtles are detected, in 24-hours and minutes (local time).

51 Type: 1 primary sighting, 2 secondary sighting made while the vessel is confirming another group 8 secondary sighting made during secondary searching 9 other (e.g., sighting made when the vessel is drifting or after the daily survey ended. When this code is used, the situation must be noted in the ‘Comments’ on the sighting record). R/L: Relative location of animals detected with respect to the vessel: P Port S Starboard A Dead ahead N Dead astern Angle: Sighting angle from the bow of the vessel to the sighting, read from the angle board. The angle is recorded as degrees, e.g., 28 and not rounded. This reading should be made at the moment the sighting is obtained and not after the ship has progressed along the track line or after the ship has turned toward the sighting. Distance: Record the estimate of the radial distance from the vessel to the sightings by 0.1 nm, at the time this was made. Reticle binocular reading is used, if possible. Other units can be also used (e.g., meter). When other unit is adopted, it must be noted in the Unit of distance field. Unit of distance: The distance to the sighting is assumed to be in nautical miles (nm) unless otherwise noted in this field. Seen at: Place where sighting was observed 1 top barrel 2 IO platform 3 upper bridge 4 bridge 5 deck 9 other (when this code is used, the place must be noted in the sighting record). Seen By: Initial (or code number, if assigned) of the observer who first made the sighting.

52 Cue: Indicator, or sighting cue, that led to the sighting recorded as: 1 blow 2 jump; splash 3 body of animal, e.g. fin, tail, neck, carapace 4 ring, e.g. sea surface raised by a stroke of tail or fin of animal swimming under water 5 colour, e.g. silhouette of animal swimming under water 7 associated wildlife, e.g. birds flying above cetaceans and turtles 9 other (when this code is used the situation must be recorded in the sighting record) Swimming direction: The estimated swimming direction (compass heading) of animals at the moment the sighting is made. Course: The compass heading of the vessel. If a reading of the compass repeater can be made simultaneously with the estimation of the angle to the sighting, record the compass reading with code C. If the compass reading can not be taken simultaneously with the observation, record the course the vessel was being steered with code T. Position of vessel: Position of vessel when animals are detected. This position is the same as recorded with Action Code O on the Effort and Weather form. Closest distance: The minimum distance to animals when passed with no diversion from course to approach recorded in nautical miles to two decimal places, when possible. The minimum distance is to be recorded as 0.01, not 0.00. Other units can be also used, e.g. meter, which must be noted in the Unit of distance field, e.g. “M”. Time left: Record the time when confirmation or approaching of the animals ceased and some other activity began. When animals are passed (with no diversion from course to approach), this refers to the time when the animals were last seen at an angle less than or equal to 90 degrees. Species: Record the common or scientific species name for positively identified species i.e. one for which the diagnostic features have been observed. Where the observer has seen enough to be reasonably sure of the species identity then record with the qualification “like” (e.g. “like melon headed whale” if a clear view of the body was not obtained but the observer believed the sighting was probably a melon headed whale).

53 Always record the sighting to the finest taxonomic level with which you are confident, e.g., on a scale of increasing uncertainty “fin whale” => “like fin whale” => “unidentified large baleen whale” => “unidentified whale”. Where possible, try to include an explanation in the notes if other than a positively identified species. School size: Counted (or estimated) number of animals in the school detected. A school is defined as a tight concentration of animals, which dive and swim synchronously when they are detected. Animals surfacing independently from each other are considered as separate schools, even if they constitute a part of a high density aggregation. For small cetaceans in high density aggregations, e.g. dolphins, it may be appropriate that ‘minimum’ and ‘maximum’ estimates are also recorded. No. of Calves: Number of calves swimming with their mothers. No. of Photos: Number of photographs taken. Comments: Record estimated body length (carapace length for turtles), remarkable pigmentation, external morphology, behaviour, etc. If possible, sea temperature and water depth are recorded. If a biopsy sample is taken, note the sample number, YYMMDD- sighting number-individual number. Samples from the same school, but from different animals, should be noted by individual numbers assigned for that sighting i.e. starting from 1 in each sighting.

54 55

Observer shift form

This form is recorded when observers (topmen, captain, crew, and scientists) change. Vessel: Name of vessel Date: Year-month-day Time: Time when observers change, in 24-hour format (local time) Observer: Initials or code number of each observer

56

Fishing vessels and gears information

This form is recorded when the research vessel encounters any fishing vessels or gear. Vessel: Name of vessel Page: Numbered sequentially from 1, through survey Date: Year-month-day Time: Time when vessel encountered fishing vessels and gears (local time) Position: Position (latitude and longitude) of vessel from GPS system. Vessel or gear: Note whether encountered a fishing vessel, recorded as “vessel”, or gear, recorded as "gear". Number: Number of fishing vessels or gears encountered Fishing type and comments: Fishing type (e.g. longline) and include in comments a careful description of any gear that was disturbed, damaged or closely approached

57