A Portfolio of Literary Translations

Home , The Weeping Woman

Conor Brendan Dunne Student Number: 14314123

Trinity College Dublin M.Phil. in Literary Translation School of Lang., Lit. & Cultural Studies

Year of Submission: 2019 / 2020 Supervisors: Drs Ciara O’Hagan & James Hanrahan

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the authors of the source texts for their-our-my texts.

I would like to thank both my supervisors for their collaboration and critical eye.

I would like to thank my fellow lit. trans. students for rustling my feathers.

I would like to thank my professors for their insight and expertise.

I would like to thank my family and friends for being.

I would like to thank myself.

The friends that have it I do wrong, When ever I remake a song, Should know what issue is at stake; It is myself that I remake.

– Wilbo Yeats

Contents

X. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1

1. Rendering Riverrun, or Translating Stream of Consciousness: Solar Bones, by Mike McCormack………………………………………………………. 2

2. Thalerian Translation, or Translating with Constraints: Le Train de Nulle Part, by Michel Thaler……………………………………………………….. 12

3. Language Games, or Translating Children’s Literature: La belle lisse poire du prince de Motordu, by Pierre Élie Ferrier……………………. 23

4. Audiovisual Translation, or Subtitling Intralingual Difference: Top Boy S03E01: Bruk Up, by Ronan Bennet……………………………………… 35

5. Being the Third Lover, or Translating Private Correspondence: Five Love Letters from Jean Cocteau to Jean Marais………………………… 50

6. Translational Diplomacy, or Investigating National Affinities: La Cuesta de las Comadres, by Juan Rulfo………………………………………….. 61

7. Transdaptation, or Translating for the Modern Theatre: Le Neveu de Rameau, by Denis Diderot……………………………………………………… 74

8. Reshaping Language with Music, or Translating Folk Song: Zamba de los Humildes & de Balderrama, by Mercedes Sosa………………… 103

9. Reviving Renaissance Rap Battles, or Translating Flyting Sonnets: Regrets LXV & LXIX, by Joachim Du Bellay……………………………………. 112

10. Translational Activism, or (Con)Textualising Performance: The World is Waking Up, by Greta Thunberg………………………………………….. 118

A1. Appendix One: Source Text Illustrations for La belle lisse poire du prince de Motordu by Pierre Élie Ferrier……………………………………… 139

A2. Appendix Two: Netflix Timed Text Style Guide: General Requirements……………………………………………………………………………………………. 145

A3. Appendix Three: Netflix Timed Text Style Guide: French Language Requirements……………………………………………………………………………. 149

A4. Appendix Four: Annotated Versions of Zamba for the Humble & Zamba Balderrama………………………………………………………………………. 157

A5. Appendix Five: Google Drive Link to Performances of Translations Four, Eight, Nine, Ten………………………………………………………………… 162

Introduction

The texts translated in this portfolio share no one unifying theme. Ditto the strategies used to translate them. What holds both in some sort of common constellation is the will, on my behalf, to experiment with the widest possible variety of authors, artistic styles, literary genres, media types, historical eras, geographical locations, cultural contexts, ideopolitical standpoints, languages, or subcategories and substrata of languages, target audiences, translatorly attitudes, and, of course, translational approaches.

In the pages that follow, the reader will therefore discover, text-wise, everything from verbless novels and idiosyncratic love letters, to ululating folk music and Renaissance rap-battle sonnets, to climate activist speeches and theatrical adaptations of philosophical dialogues. Similarly, with regard to strategy, nothing is off the table: faithful and free, formal and dynamic, domesticating and foreignising, figuratively literal and literally literal, explicitation and implicitation, diplomacy and cannibalism, infiltration and hijacking, pastiche and transformance, third-coding and Thalerian translation, et cetera, et cetera. All have some part to play here.

You there, the reader, hold in your hands a loose baggy monster. And in that sense the experiment has come off. But in other senses it has not. One flagrant betrayal of the principle of diversity which, as I have said, has guided the gestation of this portfolio, and which I feel obliged to address here, is the lack of female voices. Of my ten source texts, only two have been authored by women, the other eight by men. Things look even bleaker from an intersectional point of view. I can only apologise for such disparities, shift the blame partly onto the literary culture in which I have come to readerly maturity, and promise to do better in the future.

I remember when my grandmother and I would go to mass on Sundays and when, on the way home, she would buy me a lucky-dip bag in the newsagents. All of the excitement lay in not knowing what you were going to get while simultaneously sensing that the combinatorial possibilities of the diverse contents were boundless. I can only hope that this lucky-dip bag, with its assortment of texts never before translated, or previously translated texts translated in new and daring ways, will stoke something of the same excitement.

– April 2020 Somewhere in the Irish Wilderness

One: Rendering Riverrun, or Translating Stream of Consciousness ST: Opening Passage from Solar Bones by Mike McCormack Language Pairing: from English into French

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Mallarmé, translating Poe’s ‘The Bells’ into French, claimed that the most untranslatable lines in that poem were the eponymous ones: ‘Of the bells, bells, bells, / Of the bells, bells, bells, bells, / Bells, bells, bells—’. And so on and so forth. Mike McCormack’s novel begins with a bell, the bell, the Angelus bell, and with a man hearing the bell, listening to the bell, for whom the bell is tolling, has already tolled, is in fact re-tolling, tolling again, reverberating its way across the length and breadth of this grey day, but also the length and breadth of time, drawing and pulling and dragging him through the house, sure enough, but also through a life, his life, his lived life, made life, given life, with all its rhythms and routines, ups and downs, ins and outs, cogs and wheels and other infrastructures about which existence orbits as surely as the earth orbits the sun, holding it in place, holding it all in place, the bones, if you will, of our solar-powered, solar-measured, solar- defined and -determined being, the skeleton of everything, the solar bones.

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Student Number 14314123 Text Number 01

Source Text Target Text Title Solar Bones Year Published 2016 Title Les os solaires Author Mike McCormack Language English (Ireland) Language French (France) Word Count 777 Word Count 799

This is the opening passage from a one-sentence novel. Marcus, the protagonist, died some months ago, but has returned to his home in Mayo on All Souls’ Day. Sitting at the kitchen table, half-hypnotised by the Angelus bell, his mind wanders amidst memories and meditations. Internal monologues on the politics, sociology and geography of rural Ireland lend his musings a parochial flavour, while Baudelairean expansions into metaphysics, morality and mortality render their purview cosmic. Because of its interest in the banal, its riverrun narrative style, the novel has been hailed as a ‘resurrection for Description of Source Text Irish modernism’ (Boland 2016). I would add that it ‘resurrects’ the Irish literary tradition of casting dead protagonists, too, e.g. Cré na Cille (1949). And it also shares formal features with these predecessors. À la Joyce, or Beckett, the pace and direction of the prose is dictated by narrator consciousness (100-117), while this meandering consciousness is itself reflected in the use of language. The many present participles which lack auxiliary verbs and personal pronouns, for example, create an atmosphere of intemporality and impersonality (3-15). Rhythm, rhyme and repetition, meanwhile, structure the prose not linearly, but laterally, circularly, according to the associative logic of the mind (69-72).

The source text has been translated into French once before (McCormack 2019). However, in that translation, the translator has primarily focused on rendering its semantic content (e.g. 2019: 1). I will therefore aim to produce a target text Strategy that pays more attention to the formal features of the source text. As such, my translation is intended for francophone experimental-literature enthusiasts, who currently have access to the ‘meaning’ of the source text, but not to what makes

it distinctive from a stylistic point of view. The first part of my strategy, since present participles do not perform the same functions in French as in English, will be to replace these with infinitives. Infinitives, in French, evoke intemporality and impersonality in a way functionally equivalent (de Waard & Nida 1986) to present participles in English (Salkoff 1999: 40). To recreate the prosodic qualities of the source text, I will preserve the largely monosyllabic diction (48-55), and reproduce assonance and alliteration (10-12), wherever possible. I will pursue this second part of my strategy even if it means fo- regoing exact semantic equivalence (Newmark 1981: 39), proper grammar, or standard syntax. I may, for example, omit articles and prepositions, or ignore grammatical gender.

An unforeseen, and fascinating, effect of my formal-feature-oriented strategy was that it resulted in a target text which is significantly shorter than one might have expected it to be. English-to-French translations tend to be between ten and fifteen percent longer than their source texts (Miller 2000: 469). Yet my target text is only three percent longer than its source text. I believe this is because I concentrated on prosody rather than meaning. For example, in translating ‘builder’s yard’ (51) by the isosyllabic ‘chantier’ [building site] (51), as opposed the more semantically accurate ‘fournisseur de mat- Critical Reflection ériaux de construction’, I traded five words for one. Although I had planned to reproduce the open-vowel sounds of the source text, I soon found, as I translated, that assonance in [i] was emerging organically in the target text (e.g. 4-7). I embraced this slight sonic shift and, owing to these closed-vowel sounds, the target text seems to add something of bells chiming to the grey-day drone of the source text (e.g. 10-11). Similarly, alliteration, though contrived in some places (e.g. 72), sprang up serendipitously in others. The triple [p] in lines 109-110, for instance, evokes breathlessness in a way the source text does not.

Boland, Stephanie. 2016. ‘Bedad he Revives: Why Solar Bones is a Resurrection for Irish Modernism’, New Statesman, 4 July [Accessed 08/04/2020]

McCormack, Mike. 2019. D’os et de lumière, trans. by Nicolas Richard (Paris: Grasset)

Miller, George S. 2000. ‘French’, in Encyclopedia of Literary Translation into English, ed. by Olive Classe, 2 vols (London & Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn), i, pp. 468-469

Newmark, Peter. 1981. Approaches to Translation (Oxford & New York: Pergamon)

Ó Cadhain, Máirtín. 1949. Cré na Cille (Dublin: Sáirséal agus Dill)

Salkoff, Morris. 1999. A French-English Grammar: A Contrastive Grammar on Translational Principles (Amsterdam: John Benjamins)

Waard, Jan de and Eugene Nida. 1986. From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating (Tennessee: Thomas Nelson)

Source Text Target Text

Solar Bones (Opening Passage) Les os solaires (ouverture) the bell 1 la cloche the bell as 2 la cloche lorsque hearing the bell as 3 entendre la cloche lorsque hearing the bell as standing here 4 entendre la cloche lorsque debout ici the bell being heard standing here 5 la cloche qui s’entend lorsque debout ici hearing it ring out through the grey light of this 6 l’entendre sonner dans la lumière grise de ce morning, noon or night 7 matin, midi ou nuit god knows 8 dieu seul le sait this grey day standing here and 9 ce jour gris lorsque debout ici et listening to this bell in the middle of the day, the 10 écouter cette cloche à midi, la midi-cloche, la clo- middle of the day bell, the Angelus bell in the middle of the 11 che de l’Angélus à midi, sonner dans la lumière grise jusque day, ringing out through the grey light to 12 ici here 13 debout dans la cuisine standing in the kitchen 14 entendre la cloche hearing the bell 15 accrocher mon cœur et snag my heart and 16 concentrer le monde entier en draw the whole world into 17 être ici being here 18 pâle et essoufflé après avoir longtemps voyagé po- pale and breathless after coming a long way to sta- 19 ur me trouver debout dans cette cuisine nd in this kitchen 20 perplexe

confused 21 aucun doute à ce sujet no doubt about that 22 mais entendre la cloche de l’église du village à une but hearing the bell from the village church a mile 23 demi-lieue à vol d’oiseau, en face du poste de police, en- away as the crow flies, across the street from the garda 24 dessous des sycomores immenses qui la surplombent et station, beneath the giant sycamore trees which tower over 25 dans lesquels une colonie de freux a construit ses nids, si it and in which a colony of rooks have made their nests, so 26 nombreux et si bruyants que parfois lorsqu’ils nichent en many and noisy that sometimes in spring when they are 27 printemps l’église est remplie de leur clameur et nesting their clamour fills the church and 28 épuisé maintenant, si vite exhausted now, so quickly 29 ce sprint à l’église et à la cloche that sprint to the church and the bell 30 oui, elles sont les vraies des vraies yes, they are the real thing 31 les vraies cloches the real bells 32 non pas une retransmission ni une émission car not a transmission or a broadcast because 33 impossible de se tromper sur la profondeur et la there’s no mistaking the fuller depth and resonance 34 résonnance plus riches du son qui m’atteint à travers la of the sound carried towards me across the length and 35 longueur et largeur de ce jour et qui, même à cette di- breadth of this day and which, even at this distance re- 36 stance, retentit dans ma poitrine verberates in my chest 37 un coup systolique depuis l’autre côté de la paro- a systolic thump from the other side of this parish, 38 isse, laquelle se trouve au bord de ce monde connu, avec which lies on the edge of this known world with Sheeffry 39 Sheeffry et Mweelrea au sud et l’étendue dégagée de la and Mweelrea to the south and the open expanse of Clew 40 Clew Bay au nord Bay to the north 41 la cloche de l’Angélus the Angelus bell 42 qui sonne partout dans ses villages et ses townla-

ringing out over its villages and townlands, over the 43 nds, dans les champs et collines et tourbières qui se tro- fields and hills and bogs in between, six chimes of three 44 uvent au milieu d’eux, six sonneries de trois coups chacune across a minute and a half, a summons struck on the lip of 45 pendant une minute et demie, une convocation frappée the void which gathers this parish together through all its 46 sur le bord du néant qui rassemble cette paroisse par tou- primary and secondary roads with 47 tes ses routes principales et secondaires avec all its schools and football pitches 48 toutes ses écoles et tous ses terrains de foot all its bridges and graveyards 49 tous ses ponts et toutes ses cimetières all its shops and pubs 50 tous ses magasins et tous ses pubs the builder’s yard and health clinic 51 le chantier et le centre de santé the community centre 52 le foyer municipal the water treatment plant and 53 la station d’épuration et the handball alley 54 le court de handball gaélique the made world with 55 le monde tout fait avec all the focal points around which a parish like this 56 tous les points focaux autour desquels une paroisse gathers itself as surely as 57 comme celle-ci se rassemble aussi sûrement que the world itself did at the beginning of time, through 58 le monde lui-même le fit à l’origine des temps, en mountains, rivers and lakes 59 montagnes, fleuves et lacs when it gathered in these parts around the Bun- 60 lorsqu’il se rassembla dans ces parages autour du owen River which rises in the Lachta hills and flows north 61 fleuve Bunowen qui prend sa source dans les collines de towards the sea, carving out that floodplain to which all 62 Lachta et coule vers le nord et vers la mer, creusant cette roads, primary and secondary, following the contours of 63 plaine inondable vers laquelle toutes les routes, principales the landscape, make their way and in the middle of which 64 et secondaires, en suivant les contours du paysage, se

stands 65 dirigent et au milieu de laquelle se trouve the village of Louisburgh 66 le village de Louisburgh from which the Angelus bell is ringing, drawing up 67 depuis lequel la cloche de l’Angélus sonne et fait the world again 68 naître le monde de nouveau mountains, rivers and lakes 69 montagnes, fleuves et lacs acres, roods and perches 70 arpents, vergées et perches animal, mineral, vegetable 71 animal, minéral, végétal covenant, cross and crown 72 contrat, croix et couronne the given world with 73 le monde donné avec all its history to brace myself while 74 toute son histoire pour me fortifier lorsque standing here in the kitchen 75 debout ici dans la cuisine of this house 76 de cette maison I’ve lived in for nearly twenty-five years and raised 77 où j’habite depuis presque vingt-cinq ans et où j’ai a family, this house outside the village of Louisburgh in the 78 élevé une famille, cette maison aux abords du village de county of Mayo on the west coast of Ireland, the village in 79 Louisburgh dans le comté de Mayo sur la côte ouest de which I can trace my seed and breed back to a time when it 80 l’Irlande, le village au sein duquel je sais retracer mes ra- was nothing more than a ramshackle river crossing of a few 81 cines jusqu’à l’époque où il n’était qu’une traversée flu- smoky homesteads clustered around a forge and a log bri- 82 viale précaire composée de quelques propriétés effumées dge, a sod-and-stone hamlet not yet gathered to a proper 83 autour d’une forge et d’un pont en rondins, un hameau en plan nor licensed to hold a fair, my line traceable to the 84 tourbe et en pierre, pas encore aménagé selon un vrai plan gloomy prehistory in which a tenacious clan of farmers and 85 ni autorisé à tenir une foire, une lignée qui remonte à la fisherman kept their grip on a small patch of land 86 préhistoire sombre dans laquelle un clan tenace d’agric-

through hail and gale 87 ulteurs et de pêcheurs se raccrochèrent à un petit lopin de hell and high water 88 terre men with bellies and short tempers, half of whom 89 contre bêtes et tempêtes went to their graves with pains in their chests before they 90 contre guerre et enfer were sixty, good singers many of them, all 91 des hommes à bedaine et irascibles, dont la moitié adding to the home place down the generations till 92 s’éteignirent en se plaignant de douleurs de poitrine avant it swelled to twenty acres, grazing and tillage, with access 93 d’atteindre la soixantaine, de bon chanteurs, beaucoup to open commonage on Carramore hill which overlooks the 94 d’entre eux, tous bay and 95 contribuant au chez-nous de génération en génér- this pain, this fucking pain tells me that 96 ation jusqu’à ce qu’il atteignît vingt arpents, pâturage et to the best of my knowledge 97 culture, avec un accès aux terres communales en haut de knowledge being the best of me 98 la colline de Carramore qui domine la baie et that 99 cette douleur, cette putain de douleur me dit que there is something strange about all this, some twi- 100 à ma meilleure connaissance tchy energy in the ether which has affected me from the 101 la connaissance étant le meilleur de moi-même moment those bells began to toll, something flitting thr- 102 que ough me, a giddiness drawing me 103 il y a quelque chose d’étrange dans tout cela, que- through the house 104 lque énergie fiévreuse dans l’éther qui me touche depuis door by door 105 que ces cloches ont commencé à sonner, quelque chose room by room 106 qui traverse mon être en virevoltant, une excitation qui up and down the hall 107 m’entraîne like a mad thing 108 dans toute la maison

bedrooms, bathroom, sitting room and 109 porte par porte back to the kitchen again where 110 pièce par pièce Christ 111 d’un bout du couloir à l’autre such a frantic burst 112 comme un fou Christ 113 chambres, salle de bain, salon et not so much a frantic burst as a rolling crease in the 114 de retour dans la cuisine où light, flowing from room to room only to find 115 doux Jésus this house is empty 116 quel accès frénétique not a soul anywhere 117 doux Jésus 118 pas tant un accès frénétique qu’une ridule lisse et 119 lumineuse, passant de pièce en pièce pour découvrir fin- 120 alement que 121 cette maison est vide 122 pas âme qui vive

Two: Thalerian Translation, or Translating with Constraints ST: Chapter Iota from Le Train de Nulle Part by Michel Thaler Language Pairing: from French into English

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Borges, in a short story titled ‘Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius’, describes the language of the fictional people of Tlön. Berkeleyan in their subjective idealism, the Tlönians believe no object exists outside of perception, and as such their language contains no nouns. In the Northern Hemisphere of their world, the Tlönians speak in adjectival clusters, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they communicate via impersonal verbs. Thus, ‘the moon rose above the water’ becomes ‘round airy-bright on dark, high, over blue’, for boreal Tlönians, and ‘upward, behind the onstreaming, it mooned’, for their austral counterparts. Chris Clarke, of the OuTransPo, or Ouvroir de Translation Potencial, has invented a translation procedure on the basis of this language. He calls it, unsurprisingly, tlönslation. Also unsurprisingly, tlönslation involves translating a text à la Tlön, which is to say using either only adjectives or only impersonal verbs. Michel Thaler, whose real name, as it turns out, is Michel Dansel, has taken one look at all of this, decided no, not for me, then proceeded to flip off both the Tlönians and Clarke by writing a novel composed of nothing but nouns. Okay, there are adjectives, too, but not one single verb. This may, however, have less to do with the Tlönians and tlönslation than with the fact that Thaler simply hates verbs. As in, really, truly hates them. In the foreword to his verbless novel, the author declares ‘death to all verbs!’, and, not to be outdone, the front cover of my edition features memorial flowers and a sash that reads: ‘in unloving memory of verbs’. And it does not end there. Thaler went so far as to organise an actual funeral, held at the Sorbonne and attended by roughly three-hundred writerly types, in order finally to lay verbs to rest. The ceremony was, sadly, cut short when the police prevented those in attendance from completing a lap of the university while marching solemnly behind a horse-drawn hearse. All of which is somewhat ironic because, if the nounless Tlönian

language, and Clarke’s tlönslation, upset Western notions of being, then verbless Thalerian French upsets Western notions of time, and so nothing can ever really die, not even verbs. Instead, everything exists in a kind of absolute present, moving, definitely moving, but unable to actually get anywhere. As if all were on a train, but a train to nowhere, a train from nowhere, a nowhere train.

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Student Number 14314123 Text Number 02

Source Text Target Text Title Le Train de Nulle Part Year Published 2004 Title The Nowhere Train Author Michel Thaler Language French (France) Language English (Global) Word Count 1191 Word Count 1173

This is a chapter from a novel written without verbs. It thus belongs to the source literary tradition known as littérature à contraintes, or constrained writing, whereby the author produces a text while subject to one or more formal constraints (Morrison 2010: 47). One exception to the constraint, in this case, is that nouns and adjectives formed using verb participles, e.g. ‘clebs politisé’ [politicised pooch] (13), are allowed. Although nominally a novel, the absence of verbs has resulted in features which some, e.g. McLemee (2004), have labelled ‘anti-novelistic’: no plot progression, no character Description of Source Text development, non-sequitur vignettes as opposed sequential chapters. Set on a train, narrated in the first person by a professor from the Sorbonne, the text ranges from socio-political commentary (52-56), to bawdy and scatological comedy (28-36), to flurries of absurd action (95-104). The several discursive and sociolinguistic levels corresponding to this range are reinforced by formal features in the source text, in particular, the interweaving of various semantic fields and registers (1-9). Punctuation, meanwhile, takes on the function of verbs. Commas, for instance, signal the progression of events (77- 78). Chains of prepositional clauses and post-posed adjectives, on the other hand, are used to comic effect (82-94).

The source text has not, to the best of my knowledge, been translated into English before. This may be because of the special translation problem it supposedly poses for this target language. Contrastive grammars often state that, where Strategy French prefers nominalisation, English prefers verbalisation (Salkoff 1999: 119). In theory, therefore, it appears less ‘natural’ to write without verbs in English than in French. I will aim to produce a target text, intended for academic anglo-

francophone bilinguals, which demonstrates that English is not so verb-dependent as contrastive grammars have main- tained. To make the point the more emphatically, I will adopt a more stringent variant of the constraint used by the source author. I will disallow, not only verbs, but nouns and adjectives formed using verb participles. In practice, this means that words like ‘meeting’, or ‘exhausted’, will be forbidden. Aside from tightening the constraint, and to further prove the point, I will also reproduce the various discursive and sociolinguistic levels of the source text. For example, I will pay close attention to register and connotation, and will substitute series of post-posed adjectives in French with pre-posed co- mpound ones in English, thus recreating humour via functional equivalence (de Waard & Nida 1986).

It has long been debated whether translators of constrained writing ought to ‘translate the product’, i.e. privilege the source text over the source constraint, or ‘translate the process’, i.e. the reverse (Baillehache 2016). I believe my target text problematises such all-or-nothing attitudes: it respects the semantic and functional elements of the source text (e.g. 10-11) while not only abiding by, but elaborating, the source constraint (e.g. 80-92). Moreover, insofar as even non- academic readers have reacted positively to it, without knowing it to be a translation, the target text suggests that English is indeed less verb-dependent than contrastive grammars have pretended – even in literary contexts. At times, the stricter Critical Reflection constraint made it impracticable to reproduce discursively- or sociolinguistically-significant terms word-for-word. Neve- rtheless, it was generally possible to compensate (Klaudy 2008: 163) for these losses locally (e.g. 51-56). Contrary to what might be expected, the language of the target text did not strike sample readers as contrived, but rather as redolent of ‘old-man-anecdote-ese’ and textspeak (e.g. 39-42). Also unexpectedly, they reported that, instead of miring it, the verbless clauses accelerated the pace of the narrative. Thus, verbless English may well have a literary function, as against being mere ‘linguistic acrobatics’ (Oulipo 1973: 20).

Baillehache, Jonathan. 2016. ‘Traduire la littérature à contraintes: traduction ou transposition?’, MLN, 131(4): 892-904 Works Cited Klaudy, Kinga. 2008. ‘Compensation in Translation’, in “…mit den beiden Lungenflügeln atmen”: Zu Ehren von János

Kohn, ed. by Patra Szatmári & Dóra Takács (Munich: Lincom), pp. 163-175

McLemee, Scott. 2004. ‘A New Novel, No Verbs, in France, No Less’, The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2 June [Accessed 09/04/2020]

Morrison, Matt. 2010. Key Concepts in Creative Writing (London: Red Globe Press)

Oulipo. 1973. La littérature potentielle (Paris: Gallimard)

Salkoff, Morris. 1999. A French-English Grammar: A Contrastive Grammar on Translational Principles (Amsterdam: John Benjamins)

Waard, Jan de and Eugene Nida. 1986. From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating (Tennessee: Thomas Nelson)

Source Text Target Text

Le Train de Nulle Part (Chapitre Iota) The Nowhere Train (Chapter Iota) Au beau milieu des gémissements et des sanglots canins, une 1 Amidst the canine howls and yowls, a heavy old hag of the hou- mémère pot-au-feu, frappée d’un bel érythème, à une autre dondon au 2 sewife variety, a fine dose of erythema upon her face, next to another profil syphilitique, peut-être ancienne mère maquerelle du temps de sa 3 two-tonne Tessie with the look of syphilis about her, perhaps once a ma- vie active car, au cou, une impressionnante batterie de médailles. Toutes 4 dam in her professional days, since, around her neck, an impressive array les saintes au grand complet, et au milieu le Christ ! Bref, le rendez- 5 of tokens and medals. All the angels and saints with Christ in the middle! vous de la bondieuserie la plus mièvre, donc de la plus admise, parce 6 In short, a pietist assembly of the utmost vapidity, and so of the utmost que la plus ostentatoire ! Des images taillées, du moins pour les parp- 7 palatability, because of the utmost ostentation! Not very Christian, these aillots, pas très catholiques ! Certainement pas assez pour l’expiation de 8 fetishes, at least not from a Proddie point of view! Certainly not enough toutes ses incartades. De ses vies en ménage. De ses vies en manège ! 9 for the expiation of her many sins: the many sins of her many love lives! – Plus de participants que pour l’enterrement de mon mari ! Po- 10 ‘More attendees than at my husband’s funeral! And my Ferdin- urtant, mon Ferdinand, lui aussi pas rouge ! 11 and, not even a commie, him!’ – Non Henriette ! Ici, le défunt, un chien ! Un toutou ! Un ouah 12 ‘No Henrietta! In this case, the loss of life, a dog! A bow-wow! A ouah. Mais pas un clebs politisé ! Un bas-rouge, un peu comme chez no- 13 woof-woof! But not a political pooch! A collie. Rather like those Welsh, us un auvergnat, un alsacien, un normand ou un breton ! 14 Scotch, Shetland or Cumberland breeds back home!’ – Quelle culture ma petite Mado ! Et tout ça appris au bordel entre 15 ‘What erudition, my dear Maddie! And all this knowledge the deux passes ! Chapeau ! Quelle chance ! Pendant ce temps-là, moi, com- 16 product of time between two tricks in the brothel! Brava! How lucky! As me une conne, cantinière pour des mioches dans une maternelle de ba- 17 for me, meanwhile, a nursery-school lunch lady in a filthy suburb, like a nlieue crapoteuse. Quarante-cinq ans au milieu des gamelles et des ab- 18 bloody fool. Forty-five years among lunch trays and the yaps of little brats. oiements de moutards ! Et tout ça pour des poignées de cerises ! Ici, au 19 And all of it for peanuts! Here, at least, the cries of dogs. How delightful!

moins, les cris de chiens, quel bonheur ! Quelle récompense ! 20 What a reward!’ – Ma pauvre Henriette ! Pourtant avec ta belle petite gueule, un 21 ‘My poor Henrietta! A half-century ago, with your pretty little demi-siècle plus tôt, et ton cul moins abondant qu’aujourd’hui, tout un 22 mush and tidy little arse, the world at your feet. What a waste! What a devenir devant toi. Quel ratage ! Quel gâchis ! Malheureusement, trop 23 shame! Too late now unfortunately! What a pity!’ tard ! Tant pis pour toi ! 24 ‘Yes, the wrong career path, perhaps, but not daring enough at the – Oui, peut-être une vocation contrariée. Mais pas assez auda- 25 time, me. Then again, handjobs, year in, year out, and legs forever open! cieuse à l’époque. Et puis, des tripotages de queues à longueur d’année, 26 How monotonous in the long run!’ et les cuisses toujours ouvertes ! À la fin, quelle monotonie ! 27 ‘And the mess in little brats’ nappies: no less nauseous than a – Et le torchage des mômes, pas moins nauséabond qu’une giclée 28 cumshot! But, in my old job, raptures several times a day! And customers de sperme ! Dans mon ancien métier, le pied plusieurs fois par jour ! Et 29 with liquid assets, literally as well as figuratively! As for the guys: a feast! toute en liquide, au propre comme au figuré ! Quant aux mecs : un rég- 30 No two the same: workmen, students, cops, politicians, shopkeepers, al ! Toujours différents : des ouvriers, des étudiants, des poulets, des ho- 31 arseholes, eggheads and a whole lot besides… The work of an entomo- mmes politiques, des commerçants, des cons, des grosses têtes et bien 32 logist, my dear Henrietta! A school of pleasure and pillows, with hands- d’autres… Du travail d’entomologiste, ma chère Henriette ! À cette école 33 on lessons in psychology and sociology, and for the most part pseudo- du plaisir et du plumard, en matière de psychologie et de sociologie sur le 34 intellectual arsehole students, but all with the gift of the gab!’ terrain, largement le niveau des connards d’intellos avec tout dans la 35 In such difficult circumstances, and after all the fuss of the whole tchatche ! 36 funeral hullabaloo, my heart, somewhat like Atlas, a burden-bearer. And Mon esprit, en cette si pénible circonstance, et après une telle 37 my wearisome burden, none other than the memory, a brand on my plâtrée de fadaises associée au charivari funéraire, un peu comme un 38 brain, of the Ashen Dame. atlante porteur de son fardeau. Et cet harassant fardeau, rien d’autre que 39 Because, for her, nada: less than for a pooch! No one for her le souvenir, vrillé en moi, de la Dame de cendre. 40 funeral. Not even a mangy mongrel! Of no importance to certain people

Car pour elle, nada, moins que pour un clebs ! Personne pour ses 41 with religious beliefs because, for them, one truth and one truth only: god obsèques, pas même un cador galeux ! Sans importance pour certaines 42 and dog! personnes de croyance religieuse, car pour elles, broutille, une seule 43 Thus, farewell and fare well, magnificent collie, former inhabitant vérité : Dieu et les chiens ! 44 of this nowhere train in the depths of the Sorayades! And a pleasant Donc à Dieu et adieu à toi superbe bas-rouge de ce train de nulle 45 journey to you, up above, down below, or in the great void! But also, until part au cœur des Sorayades ! Et bon voyage à toi, en haut, en bas ou dans 46 our next encounter, another place, another time! le grand néant ! Mais aussi à plus tard, sur d’autres chemins de vie ! 47 What an emotional ceremony! Quelle émouvante cérémonie ! 48 And now, after the descent of the collie into his coffin, a canine Maintenant, une chorale canine, après la mise en bière du bas- 49 choir, along with the howls of all the passengers, in the windows of their rouge, accompagnée par les aboiements de tous les voyageurs, aux fe- 50 compartments and on the platform. nêtres des compartiments et sur le quai. 51 Here and there, some modestly middle-class women, and some Ici et là des bourgeoises de modeste rang et des Dames de la haute 52 ladies of a superior station, on all fours, on leashes in the hands of their à quatre pattes, tenues en laisse par leur baudet ! Entre nous, un com- 53 porters! Between you and me, over-the-top and a bit snobbish, such ca- portement excessif et un peu snob… Peut-être aussi, de leur part, dans 54 rry-on… Perhaps, on their part, the hopes of a sniff – and maybe more! – l’espoir d’un reniflage, et plus à la rigueur, de leur derrière déjà parfumé 55 in the direction of their derrière, the latter in a shroud of goose-fat à la graisse d’oie dans une bien vicieuse perspective ! 56 perfume and with a rather libidinous aspect! Et Henriette, radieuse, à son amie de longue date retrouvée sur 57 And Henriette, radiant, to her long-time friend on the platform: le quai : 58 ‘Why not you, too, like all the other ladies, on all fours?’ – Pourquoi pas toi également, comme toutes ces Dames, à quatre 59 ‘Over, well and truly over, my career! And especially freebies! Not pattes ? 60 like all these little tarts! Besides, top-notch clodhoppers, the lot of them! – Pour moi, terminé et bien terminé, le métier ! Surtout à l’œil 61 Not a whiff of professionalism! Either with their back like a camel’s hump,

comme toutes ces pisseuses ! D’ailleurs, elles, des empotées de première 62 or their knees as if in prayer, or their legs too far apart, like a nag at the bourre ! Pas des professionnelles pour un rond ! Ou le cul trop serré, ou 63 waterhole. Amateurs, my dear Henrietta!’ les genoux comme sur un prie-Dieu, ou les pattes tendues comme celles 64 But Henrietta, harbourer of all kinds of complexes vis-à-vis her fr- d’une vielle carne à l’abreuvoir. Du travail amateur, ma petite Henriette ! 65 iend, and on the crest of a veritable surge of pride, all too happy at the Alors Henriette, comme particulièrement complexée vis-à-vis de 66 prospect of her hitherto inoperative wares on immediate display, on all son amie, par un légitime sursaut d’orgueil, trop heureuse de l’offrande 67 fours and full of barks. d’une immédiate démonstration de ses dons non exploités, à quatre 68 And her friend in amazement: pattes et toute aboyante. 69 ‘An arse like dynamite fifty years ago! But now, for all your hand- Et son amie, émerveillée : 70 some leftovers, too late! Much too late…’ – Cinquante ans plus tôt, un malheur avec ton cul ! Mais 71 Thus, despite her inviting pose, not one dog near to Henrietta, not aujourd’hui, malgré tes beaux restes, trop tard ! Bien trop tard… 72 even for a modest little sniff! No fools, dogs! No problem with their ton- D’ailleurs, en dépit de sa position suggestive, aucun chien autour 73 gues in rancid pumpkins, granted, but no interest in one with a glaze of d’Henriette, même pour une modeste reniflette ! Pas fous, les clebs ! À 74 goose fat! fortiori pour le léchage d’un potiron rance, certes, mais non enduit à la 75 And so the hapless Henrietta, upright once more, handkerchief in graisse d’oie ! 76 hand, in tears and snivels. Alors, l’infortunée Henriette, à nouveau debout, mouchoir en 77 And the stationmaster, on his way past, emotional at the sight of main, en pleins sanglots ! 78 such sincere grief, with these few words to the inconsolable woman: Et l’officier des chemins de fer de passage devant elle, ému par 79 ‘A relative of the collie perhaps?’ un chagrin si empreint de sincérité, ces quelques mots à l’inconsolable : 80 At this, poor Henrietta, ordinarily so simple-minded, her little cor- – Peut-être une parente du défunt ? 81 setmaker’s soul so often in astonishment before the supreme banalities Alors, la pauvre Henriette, elle d’ordinaire si simplette, avec une 82 of everyday life, she, the possessor of a flaccid kindness in line with her

petite âme de corsetière émerveillée devant les suprêmes banalités de la 83 soporific artistic tastes for which, the inspiration, an Old Moore’s Almanac vie quotidienne, et de plus dotée d’une bonté mollasse à l’image de ses 84 atop the telephone table in the hall of her modest floral-wallpaper apa- goûts lénifiants en matière artistique avec, en référence, le calendrier des 85 rtment, its walls, nowadays, dull, desperately yellow and saturate with postes suspendu dans l’entrée de son modeste appartement au papier à 86 the stench of food and medication because already some decades old, fleurs, aux couleurs aujourd’hui éteintes, désespérément jaunies et 87 her choice, wallpaper-wise, but ultimately the handiwork of the land- imbibées de quelques relents de cuisine et de médicaments, car posé à 88 lady’s husband, formerly an officer of the law but now tenant of a hearts- l’amiable, depuis quelques décennies, par le mari de sa pipelette, ancien 89 and-flowers grave in an enormous burial ground in the capital’s dreariest gardien de la paix devenu depuis locataire d’une sépulture à l’eau de rose 90 suburb; she, then, her nickname ‘rashers’ in her neighbourhood, suddenly dans un immense champ de repos de la banlieue la plus monotone de la 91 ferocious and in a fit of barks without equal, worse than even the most capitale, donc elle, connue dans son quartier sous le sobriquet de ‘rille- 92 formidable of pooches. ttes’, devenue soudainement féroce dans une crise d’aboiements jamais 93 And the stationmaster, his throat already bloody with bite marks: égalée, même par les plus redoutables clebs. 94 ‘Help! Help! Over here! Over here!’ Et l’officier des chemins de fer, déjà mordu au sang à la gorge : 95 Immediately, three doggy undertakers, out-and-out tanks the lot – Au secours ! Au secours ! À moi ! 96 of them, muzzles on, like all members of their profession, on the scene in Immédiatement, trois croque-morts pour chiens, de fieffés bara- 97 a flash, already in full control of the two-legged she-dog, infectee of the qués, muselés comme tous les membres de leur corporation, accourus et 98 canine virus. déjà en pleine maîtrise de cette chienne à deux pattes, contaminée par le 99 And so, poor Henrietta, a muzzle over her snout, in the firm res- virus canin. 100 traints of a leash and choke collar, on her way to the correctional kennels Alors, la pauvre Henriette, la muselière sur la truffe, tenu solide- 101 for delinquent dogs, next to the canine coffin shop. ment en laisse et porteuse d’un collier étrangleur, traînée jusqu’au chenil 102 What a commotion! carcéral, pour chiens délinquants, installé à proximité du magasin pour 103 As for me, a loyal cynophile, the collie’s sudden departure from

cercueils canins. 104 this world due to the canicidal drive of a pathological prude, what a punch Quelle affaire ! 105 in the gut! Because the thought of a dog, free from all depravities of the Pour moi, cynophile conséquent, cette inattendue désertion de la 106 human soul, the victim of a murder, of a massacre, of a cowardly knife planète de ce bas-rouge par la pulsion criminelle d’une pathologiquem- 107 across the throat… The horror! ent réfractaire à la chose sexuelle, quel pincement aux coronaires ! Car la 108 No doggy mass for him! No mass, nor any other ceremony, for that vision d’un chien, innocent de toutes turpitudes de l’âme humaine, ass- 109 matter. What ingratitude! What a tremendous stain on the reputation of assiné, massacré, lâchement égorgé dans un compartiment, quelle dou- 110 our species! leur ! 111 Because, between you and me, and for repetition’s sake, that dog, Et pour lui, pas de messe canine ! Messe ou autre cérémonie d’ai- 112 what a beautiful creature! lleurs. Quelle ingratitude ! Quelle grandiose salissure pour ceux de notre 113 espèce, quand même ! 114 Car le chien, entre nous, et pour la redite, quelle belle bête ! 115

Three: Langauge Games, or Translating Children’s Literature ST: La belle lisse poire du prince de Motordu by Pierre Élie Ferrier Language Pairing: from French into English

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Children are prodigiously creative languages users. A single child, by the time she has been drilled to speak properly, i.e. boringly, has probably done more for the expressive capabilities of her mother tongue than all its avant-garde poets combined. Only, no one ever pays her exploits any attention, and avant-garde poets get all the credit. When children contort language so as to speak some previously unspeakable element of their subjective reality, they are babbling; when avant-garde poets do it, they are profound, visionary, emancipatory. I am firmly convinced that avant-garde poets are merely big babies, all of them Peter Pans who never made it beyond the experimental phase of language acquisition, or who did but conduct smash-and-grab raids back into that psychological Neverland every now and then. As far as I can make out, the only difference between what they do and what children do is that, in the first case, we view the act as intentional, whereas in the second we consider it accidental. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin serendipitously; did we boycott his discovery…? Pierre Élie Ferrier, known affectionately as Pef on home turf, was forty- one when he began writing language-game books for children. What a big baby. His most beloved protagonist, Motordu, is a young French prince who cannot, for the life of him, stop mispronouncing words as their near homophones. Which francophone children themselves tend to do, there being many, many near homophones in that cursed language. Do not even remind me of the time I pronounced the sibilant sound in the verb ‘baisser’, in front of my elderly landlady, no less, as [z] instead of [s]. Pef went on to publish a further fifteen such books. He even compiled a ‘Dictionary of Twisted Words’ (1983). And he’s not bread yet!

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Student Number 14314123 Text Number 03

Source Text Target Text Title La belle lisse poire du prince de Motordu Year Published 1980 Title The Wonderful Furry Tail of the Prince of Twistyton Author & Illustrator Pierre Élie Ferrier Language French (France) Language English (Ireland & UK) Word Count 977 Word Count 1020

This is an illustrated book intended for children aged three to seven (Gallimard 2010). It tells the story of a prince who has trouble pronouncing words correctly, often with comical results, and of the princess who teaches him to speak properly. He says, for example, that he lives in a ‘chapeau’ [hat] (2) rather than a ‘château’ [castle]. The source text thus fits within the tradition of wordplay in French children’s literature (Chelebourg & Marcoin 2007: 44). It has, moreover, become a staple on school syllabuses, because its language games offer an opportunity for the ludic and pedagogic to intertwine Description of Source Text (Léon 2014: 213). These puns also constitute the most striking formal feature of the source text. Generally, they rely on phonetic and orthographic similarities between semantically dissimilar words, like ‘boutons’ [buttons] (9) and ‘moutons’ [sheep]. Otherwise, the language is of an appropriate lexical, grammatical and syntactical difficulty for its readers. It employs basic vocabulary (15-22) and its sentences seldom contain more than two clauses (4-13). Even so, in the name of pedagogy, some challenging phrases do appear (105-107), while the literary passé simple is used to create a fairy-tale tone (35-37) and ‘grown-up jokes’ are included for the parent-reader (45-46).

Despite interest in wordplay literature for children in the target context (Lathey 2016: 93), the source text has not, as far as I know, been translated into English before. I will therefore aim to produce a target text, for readers aged three to seven Strategy in Ireland and the UK, which recreates the language games of the source text. Because English is more phonetic than French (Smith 2019: 227), and so offers less possibilities for wordplay, I will invent sometimes denotatively, but most often

pragmatically, equivalent puns in the target language (Koller 1995). It will thus be impracticable to keep the source illustrations. The puns, meanwhile, must satisfy two criteria: they must (a) involve absurd juxtapositions, to retain their ludic function, and (b) be lexically suitable for the target reader. Whilst I will ensure the language of the target text, as a whole, also remains suitable (e.g. by limiting the number of syllables in words, and clauses in sentences, to three), I will include more complex vocabulary and structures wherever the source text does, to preserve its pedagogical function. I will, finally, modernise dated elements of the source text. For example, I will render the telegram (127-137) as an email.

Having to invent target-language puns which satisfied my three criteria of equivalence, absurd humour and appropriate lexical difficulty reduced my range of translation options considerably. An obvious play on ‘palace’/‘chalice’, for instance, could not be used to render the one on ‘château’/‘chapeau’ [castle/hat] (2) since ‘chalice’ was neither lexically suitable for the target reader, nor, therefore, funny enough. As my solution, ‘tower’/‘flower’ (2), demonstrates, the demands of these criteria often resulted in plot alterations, some superficial (40-44), others more substantial (51-58). On occasion, I was even obliged to create plot elements (e.g. 86-88). New illustrations, particular to the semantic information of the Critical Reflection target text, will thus be necessary. Another effect of all this was that some puns, e.g. ‘adventures’/‘mad dentures’ (6-7), or ‘hiccups’/‘bishops’ (57), have ended up more complex, and so demand more of their reader, than their source-text counterparts. This, however, is not necessarily a bad thing, since one of its functions is indeed pedagogic – that is, to expand the vocabulary and wordplay faculties of the target reader. It is curious, moreover, that these puns depend mostly on phonetics, rather than orthography. Given that English is more phonetic than French (Smith 2019: 227), one might have expected the opposite.

Chelebourg, Christian and Francis Marcoin. 2007. La littérature de jeunesse (Paris: Armand Colin)

Works Cited Gallimard. 2010. ‘La belle lisse poire du prince de Motordu’, Gallimard Jeunesse [Acc-

essed 10/04/2020]

Koller, Werner. 1995. ‘The Concept of Equivalence and the Object of Translation Studies’, Target, 7(2): 191-222.

Lathey, Gillian. 2016. Translating Children’s Literature (London & New York: Routledge)

Léon, Renée. 2014. Enseigner la grammaire et le vocabulaire à l’école (Paris: Hachette Éducation)

Smith, Brenda. 2019. Diction in Context: Singing in English, Italian, German and French (San Diego: Plural)

Notes All twenty-eight source text illustrations can be found in Appendix One.

Source Text Target Text

La belle lisse poire du prince de Motordu The Wonderful Furry Tail of the Prince of Twistyton À n’en pas douter, le prince de Motordu menait la belle vie. 1 There was no doubt about it: the Prince of Twistyton lived the life. Il habitait un chapeau magnifique au-dessus duquel, le dimanche, 2 He lived in the tallest flower of the royal palace. It was so tall that flottaient des crapauds bleu blanc rouge qu’on pouvait voir de loin. 3 on Sundays, when the Union Yaks were hoisted, they could be seen from Le prince de Motordu ne s’ennuyait jamais. Lorsque venait l’hiver, 4 all around. il faisait d’extraordinaires batailles de poules de neige. 5 There was never a dull moment with the Prince of Twistyton. Du- Et le soir, il restait bien au chaud à jouer aux tartes avec des cou- 6 ring the day he and his friends would go on all kinds of marvellous mad ssins dans la grande salle à danger du chapeau. 7 dentures. Le prince vivait à la campagne. Un jour, on le voyait mener paître 8 Then, in the evening, they would return to the flower and have son troupeau de boutons. 9 epic battles of Bug O’ War in the royal breadrooms. Le lendemain, on pouvait l’admirer filant comme le vent sur son 10 The Prince of Twistyton lived in the countryside. One day you râteau à voiles. 11 might see him in the fields grazing his herd of baby boats. Et, quand le dimanche arrivait, il invitait ses amis à déjeuner. Le 12 The next you could find him gliding across the water on his sailing menu était copieux : 13 goat. 14 On Sundays he would invite his friends over for dinner. There were Menu du jour : 15 always plenty of dishes to choose from: Boulet rôti 16 Purée de petit bois 17 Starters: Pattes fraîches à volonté 18 Prawn Foxtail Suisses de grenouilles 19 Chicken Freezer Salad

Au dessert : 20 Main Courses: Braises du jardin 21 Shepherd’s Thigh Confiture de murs de la maison 22 Thief Burger & Chips 23 Bangers & Trash Un jour, le père du prince de Motordu, qui habitait le chapeau vo- 24 isin, dit à son fils : 25 Desserts: – Mon fils, il est grand temps de te marier. 26 Jelly & Mice Cream – Me marier ? Et pourquoi donc, répondit le prince, je suis bien 27 Lemon Cheeserake tout seul dans mon chapeau. 28 Sa mère essaya de le convaincre : 29 One day the King, who lived in another flower of the royal palace, – Si tu venais à tomber salade, lui dit-elle, qui donc te repasserait 30 said to his son: ton singe ? Sans compter qu’une épouse pourrait te raconter de belles li- 31 ‘My son, it is about time you got married.’ sses poires avant de t’endormir. 32 ‘Me? Married? But why?’ replied the Prince. ‘I am quite happy Le prince se montra sensible à ces arguments et prit la ferme réso- 33 living all alone in my flower.’ lution de se marier bientôt. 34 The Queen tried to convince him: Il ferma donc son chapeau à clef, rentra son troupeau de boutons 35 ‘What if you caught the chickensocks?’ she said to him. ‘Who dans les tables, puis monta dans sa toiture de course pour se mettre en 36 would iron all your crows? Not to mention that a wife could read wonde- quête d’une fiancée. 37 rful furry tails to you at bedtime.’ Hélas, en cours de route, un pneu de sa toiture creva. 38 The Prince of Twistyton listened carefully and saw that his parents – Quelle tuile ! ronchonna le prince, heureusement que j’ai pensé 39 were right. He decided to get married as soon as possible. à emporter ma boue de secours. 40 And so he locked the front boar to his flower, returned his herd of

Au même moment, il aperçut une jeune flamme qui avait l’air de 41 baby boats to the farm sled, then climbed into his rocket chip and set off cueillir des braises de bois. 42 in search of a bride. – Bonjour, dit le prince en s’approchant d’elle, je suis le prince de 43 ‘Oh blast it!’ groaned the Prince. ‘Now I have lost time. I will have Motordu. 44 to play ketchup.’ – Et moi, je suis la princesse Dézécolle et je suis institutrice dans 45 Just then he noticed a young pearl who was smelling the wild sun- une école publique, gratuite et obligatoire, répondit l’autre. 46 towers. – Fort bien, dit le prince, et que diriez-vous d’une promenade dans 47 ‘Hello,’ said the Prince as he came over to her. ‘I am the Prince of ce petit pois qu’on voit là-bas ? 48 Twistyton.’ – Un petit pois ? s’étonna la princesse, mais on ne se promène pas 49 ‘And I am Princess Scoolteashire. I am headmistress of the local dans un petit pois ! C’est un petit bois qu’on voit là-bas. 50 school – for children of all faiths and none!’ she replied. – Un petit bois ? Pas du tout, répondit le prince, les petits bois, on 51 ‘I see,’ said the Prince. ‘Say, would you like to go and visit the les mange. J’en suis d’ailleurs friand et il m’arrive d’en manger tant que 52 swans in the little cake over there?’ j’en tombe salade. J’attrape alors de vilains moutons qui me démangent 53 ‘The little cake?’ exclaimed the Princess. ‘Swans do not live in little toute la nuit ! 54 cakes! What you see over there is a little lake.’ – À mon avis, vous souffrez de mots de tête, s’exclama la princesse 55 ‘A little lake? Not at all,’ replied the Prince. ‘A little lake is Dézécolle, et je vais vous soigner dans mon école publique, gratuite et 56 something you eat. I am very fond of little lakes, by the way, and some- obligatoire. 57 times I eat so many that I get the bishops. Then I break out into these little Il n’y avait pas beaucoup d’élèves dans l’école de la princesse et 58 angry Scots that keep me up all night!’ on n’eut aucun mal à trouver une table libre pour le prince de Motordu, 59 ‘I think your tongue must be screwed in backwords!’ cried Princess le nouveau de la classe. 60 Scoolteashire. ‘I will take you to my school, which is free at the point of Mais, dès qu’il commença à répondre aux questions qu’on lui pos- 61 access, and help you to get better.’

ait, le prince déclencha l’hilarité parmi ses nouveaux camarades. Ils 62 There were not many pupils in the Princess’ school, and so it did n’avai-ent jamais entendu quelqu’un parler ainsi ! 63 not take long to find a spare desk for the Prince of Twistyton, the new boy Quant à son cahier, il était, à chaque ligne, plein de taches et de 64 in the class. ratures : on eût dit un véritable torchon. 65 However, as soon as he began to answer the questions they asked 66 him, his classmates could hardly control their laughter. They had never Lundi 67 met anyone who spoke like him before! 68 As for his exercise book, it was a real mess, full of scribbles and x’s Calcul : 69 on every line. Quatre et quatre : huître 70 Quatre et cinq : bœuf 71 Monday Cinq et six : bronze 72 Six et six : bouse 73 Maths: 74 One + One = Blue Mardi 75 One + Two = Flea 76 Two + Three = Hive Que fabrique un frigo ? 77 Three + Five = Gate Un frigo fabrique des petits garçons qu’on 78 met dans l’eau pour la rafraîchir. 79 Tuesday 80 Jeudi 81 Why do we put water in the freezer? 82 To make little mice cubes to put in our drinks.

Histoire : 83 Thursday Napoléon déclara la guerre aux puces, il 84 envahit la Lucie mais les puces mirent le feu à 85 History Moscou et l’empereur fut chassé par les vers très 86 In 1066 the Norman shoulders of King William froids qu’il faisait cette année-là, glaglagla… 87 the Conker invaded England and defeated the 88 Anglo-Saxophones at the Battle of Tastings. Je n’ai pas tout compris. 89 Bonne écriture. 90 I did not quite understand everything. D. 91 Good handwriting. 92 S. Mais la princesse Dézécolle n’abandonna pas pour autant. Patie- 93 mment, chaque jour, elle essaya de lui apprendre à parler comme tout le 94 Princess Scoolteashire, however, would not give up so easily. Day monde. 95 after day she patiently tried to teach him how to speak like everyone else. – On ne dit pas j’habite un papillon, mais j’habite un pavillon. 96 ‘We do not say: I live in a sausage. We say: I live in a cottage.’ Peu à peu, le prince de Motordu, grâce aux efforts constants de 97 Little by little, and thanks to the help of his teacher, the Prince of son institutrice, commença à faire des progrès. 98 Twistyton began to make progress. 99 Sept et six = treize ! 100 Five + Five = Ten! 101 Au bout de quelques semaines, il parvint à parler normalement, 102 After a couple of weeks he was able to speak normally. His class- mais ses camarades le trouvaient beaucoup moins drôle depuis qu’il ne 103 mates, however, found him much less funny now that his tongue was no

tordait plus les mots. 104 longer twisty. À la fin de l’année, cependant, il obtint le prix de camaraderie car, 105 Nevertheless, at the end of the year, he won the prize for best comme il était riche, il achetait chaque jour des kilos de bonbons qu’il 106 classmate. This was because, since he was rich, he would buy boxloads of distribuait sans compter. 107 sweets every day and share them all with the rest of the class. Lorsqu’il revint chez lui, après avoir passé une année en classe, le 108 By the time he returned home, after spending a year at the school, prince de Motordu avait complètement oublié de se marier. 109 the Prince of Twistyton had forgotten all about getting married. Mais quelques jours plus tard, il reçut une lettre qui lui rafraîchit 110 A few days later, however, he received a letter that jogged his la mémoire. 111 memory. 112 Mardi 4 113 Tuesday 4th 114 Cher Motordu, 115 Dear Prince of Twistyton, 116 A présent que vous ne souffrez plus de mots de têtes j’aime- 117 Now that your tongue is no longer screwed in backwords, I rais savoir si vous aimeriez bien vous marier avec moi ! 118 wanted to know if you would like to marry me! 119 Princesse Dézécolle. 120 Princess Scoolteashire. 121 P.S. Vous avez oublié de me rendre votre livre de géographie. 122 P.S. You forgot to return your geography book. 123 Merci. 124 Thank you.

Il s’empressa d’y répondre, le jour même. 125 He wasted no time in replying. He wrote back the very same day. 126 Télégramme 127 Email 128 To: [email protected] Destinataire : Nombre de Mots : Mention de Service : 129 Princesse Dézécolle 23 la poste ferme à 5 heures ! 130 Subject: Re: Letter 131 J’ai fini de lire le livre, il est très bien et 132 Dear Princess Scoolteashire, j’accepte de me marier avec vous et avec joie. 133 134 I have finished reading the book. It is very good and yes I will Amitiés. Stop. 135 gladly marry you. 136 Signé : Motordu (prince) 137 Kind Regards, 138 Et c’est ainsi que le prince de Motordu épousa la princesse Dézé- 139 Twistyton (Prince) colle. Le mariage eut lieu à l’école même et tous les élèves furent invités. 140 Un soir, la princesse dit à son mari : 141 And that is how the Prince of Twistyton married Princess Scooltea- – Je voudrais des enfants. 142 shire. The ceremony took place in the school itself and all the pupils were – Combien ? demanda le prince qui était en train de passer l’aspir- 143 invited. ateur. 144 One evening the Princess said to her husband: – Beaucoup, répondit la princesse, plein de petits glaçons et de 145 ‘I would like to have children.’

petites billes. 146 ‘How many?’ said the Prince, who was in the middle of hoovering. – Le prince le regarda avec étonnement, puis il éclata de rire. 147 ‘Lots!’ replied the Princess. ‘Lots of little nuns and authors!’ – Décidément, dit-il, vous êtes vraiment la femme qu’il me fall- 148 The Prince looked at her in amazement. Then he burst out laugh- ait, madame de Motordu. Soit, nous aurons des enfants et, en attendant 149 ing. qu’ils soient là, commençons à leur tricoter des bulles et des josettes 150 ‘Without a doubt,’ he said, ‘you really are the right wife for me, pour l’hiver… 151 Princess of Twistyton. Alright then. We will have children. But while we 152 wait for them to arrive, we ought to start knitting their woolly rats and 153 clocks for the winter…’

Four: Audiovisual Translation, or Subtitling Intralingual Difference ST: Selected Scenes from Top Boy S03E01: Bruk Up by Ronan Bennet Language Pairing: from English & Patwah into French & Kreyòl

* * *

Interlingual subtitles are rarely taken seriously enough. Neither by those who make them, nor by those for whom they are made, and especially if English is involved. Interlingual subtitlers sometimes seem to think they exist merely to offer gist translations. Only last night, while watching a docuseries on the Movistar cycling team on Netflix, I came across the following, which was supposed to constitute ecstatic end-of-race commentary: ‘Richard Carapaz is moving forward. Yes, Carapaz is moving. Turn up the heat, Richard! Feed the fire!’. Everything is there, content-wise, but it is difficult to get buzzed about the situation when the commentator is supposedly screaming things like ‘turn up the heat!’. You might hear that phrase from a character in the Pixar film, Cars, but never from any self-respecting endurance sport commentator still alive in this millennium. Yet I do not want to be too harsh on the interlingual subtitler. It is not entirely their fault. It is also the fault of production companies, like Netflix, who allocate too little time and too few resources to interlingual subtitling. And it is our fault, as viewers, too, because we do not seem to care all that much. Films with interlingual subtitles, typically foreign-language films, are more ignored than films without them. At least in the anglophone world. Bong Joon-ho’s Parasite has been a welcome exception to this rule, and yet his appeal for audiences to ‘overcome the one-inch-tall barrier of subtitles’, while well-meaning, plays directly into the hands of interlingual subtitles enemy number one. This is the pretentious aesthete who dismisses subtitles altogether, not as a matter of preference, but as one of principle. tHeY aRe DiStRacTinG, tHeY sPoiL thE ciNeMatOgraPHy, tHeY dRaiN aLL eXPreSsiOn fRoM thE vOicE… Right. On the evidence of the interlingual subtitles provided by Netflix for the recent crime-drama series, Top Boy, things are not much different in the francophone sphere. All the series’ linguistic heterogeneity, from Jamaican Creole to Turkish-inflected English to the underworld parlance

of the East End, is reduced, in the French subtitles, to the lingo of the Parisian banlieue. I do not believe that viewers at large are uninterested in interlingual subtitles on principle. And I do not believe that interlingual subtitles and aesthetic concerns are mutually exclusive. In the first case, it is simply a matter of providing them with more more engaging, more lively, more real, interlingual subtitles. In the second, of training viewers, via experimental interlingual subtitling practices, to appreciate the ways in which subtitle and image can work in tandem to enrich the viewerly experience. Not to mention our hearing-impaired friends, who are often at the forefront of the debate on intralingual subtitling, but hardly get a look-in when it comes to its interlingual counterpart. Arguably, they have even more to gain from creative, daring, difficult interlingual subtitles than the rest of us do. And, surely, they deserve better than ‘turn up the heat!’, do they not?

* * *

Student Number 14314123 Text Number 04

Source Text Target Text Title Top Boy S03E01: Bruk Up Year Released 2019 Title Top Boy S03E01 : Krazè Writer / Director Ronan Bennett / Reinaldo Marcus Green Language English (East London) & Jamaican Creole Language French (North Paris) & Haitian Creole Word Count / Runtime 1037 / 06:45 Word Count 991

These are five scenes from an acclaimed crime drama. The first three take place in Hackney, East London, while the last two take place in Kingston, Jamaica. The first and third scenes introduce two rival drug gangs, the Fields and Summer- house, as they face price hikes from their Turkish supplier. The remaining scenes centre on their respective leaders, Jamie and Dushane, as the one parents his orphaned younger brothers, and the other sets about establishing a supply chain in the Caribbean. The source text is thus part of the vogue for ‘cosmopolitan gangland drama’ in the source context (Özer Description of Source Text 2019: 202). Because of its cosmopolitanism, and its underworld lens, the source text is replete with linguistic heterogeneity. In the Hackney scenes, for example, natives use slang (72), code words (15-16), elisions (34) and syntacto-grammatical constructions (70) particular to their geographic and socio-economic situation, while Turkish immigrants speak with heavy accents (25) and interference errors (27-29). In the Kingston scenes, meanwhile, one character speaks Patwah (156). Moreover, the dialogue is fast-paced, with characters speaking at an average of 173 words/min, and often talking over one another (129-134). Finally, characters use expletives freely, most often ‘fuck’ or one of its variants (115-119).

There are already target-language subtitles available for the source text (Netflix 2019). Yet these subtitles, insofar as they standardise non-standard uses of language and translate all utterances into a uniform banlieue idiom, do not reflect the Strategy linguistic heterogeneity of the source text. I will therefore aim to produce subtitles that better capture this heterogeneity, for urban francophones aged sixteen to thirty-four, who currently have no access to this dimension of the source text. I

will use the Aegisub subtitling software and will abide by the Netflix Timed-Text Style Guide in all but two cases. Firstly, I will translate the Patwah of the source text into French, but one infused with the lexicon and orthography of Haitian Creole, with reference to Aristor (2011). Similarly, I will substitute Turkish-inflected English with Turkish-inflected French, with reference to Rahnamayekooyan and Parivash (2017). Secondly, I will reproduce non-standard uses of language using textspeak orthography (e.g. ‘bcp’ for ‘beaucoup’ [a lot]), elisions (e.g. ‘t’sais’ for ‘tu sais’ [you know]), and minimal punctuation (e.g. not separating clauses with commas). Because my Haitian-Creole-infused French will take the target audience longer to process than ‘French’ French, I will lower the characters-per-second limit from seventeen to fifteen in these scenes.

The most risk-laden part of my strategy was translating Jamaican Creole into Haitian-Creole-infused French. Yet none of my sample viewers noticed the discrepancy, in the fourth and fifth scenes, between the language spoken by the characters in the subtitles and their supposed geographical location. It may therefore be the case that my strategy has done enough to orient the viewer toward the Antilles, or to create a Caribbean atmosphere, without going so far as to relocate the scenes from Jamaica to Haiti (e.g. 156-159). One unforeseen, but felicitous, consequence of my abbreviating strategy, Critical Reflection meanwhile, was that it reduced the number of characters needed to translate the ‘essential content’ (Bannon 2010: 28) of an utterance. I was thus able to include elements in my subtitles, whether semantic (16-17) or functional (126-127), which I would otherwise have had to exclude. Some sample viewers reported difficulties in keeping up with the subtitles. This is unsurprising, given that standard-language subtitles are the norm in the target context (Heiss 2014: 19). It may well be the case, not that subtitles reflecting linguistic heterogeneity are impractical per se, but rather that viewers are not yet skilled enough at reading them, for want of practice.

Aristor, Lifaite. 2011. Grammaire linguistique comparée trilingue : créole haïtien, français, anglais (Paris: Société des Works Cited Écrivains)

Bannon, David. 2010. The Elements of Subtitles: A Practical Guide to the Art of Dialogue, Character, Context, Tone and Style in Subtitling (London: Lulu)

Heiss, Christine. 2014. ‘Multilingual Films and Integration? What Role Does Film Translation Play?’, in Media and Translation: An Interdisciplinary Approach, ed. by Dror Abend-David (London & New York: Bloomsbury), pp. 3-24

Netflix. 2019. ‘S03E01: Bruk Up’, Top Boy, Netflix Ireland [Accessed 22/04/2020]

Özer, Luis. 2019. ‘Marginalised Tower Blocks: Crime and Community on the Council Estate in Top Boy (2011-2013)’, in Community, Seriality, and the State of the Nation: British and Irish Television Series in the 21st Century, ed. by Caroline Lusin and Ralf Haekel (Tübingen: Narr), pp. 193-212

Rahnamayekooyan, Behrooz and Safa Parivash. 2017. ‘Étude des erreurs intralinguales chez les apprenants turcophones de français langue étrangère’, Synergies Turquie, 10: 29-39

a) The ‘Netflix Timed Text Style Guide: General Requirements’ can be found in Appendix Two.

Notes b) The ‘Netflix Timed Style Guide: French Langauge Requirements’ can be found in Appendix Three.

c) All five scenes, with French subtitles, can be viewed using the Google Drive link provided in Appendix Five.

Source Text Target Text

Top Boy S03E01: Bruk Up (Selected Scenes) Top Boy S03E01 : Krazè (Scènes Choisies) 1 SCENE 1 2 1ère SCÈNE 3 – [Kieron] Ay. Ay. 4 0:00:02.72 0:00:05.03 - Hé. Hé. \N - Ho! Regardez-moi-ça. – [Jaq] Oh, look, here we go: the zombies are back again. 5 0:00:06.16 0:00:07.85 Les gueuches sont de retour. – [Kieron] Keep to dem. 6 0:00:10.10 0:00:10.93 Les pookies hein... – [Dris] Told you lot, don’t fuckin come round ere. 7 0:00:11.95 0:00:13.83 Je vous ai dit de plus revenir ici putain. – [Sarah] Will you just give us a hit, please? 8 0:00:14.18 0:00:15.55 Tu nous file une dose stp ? – [Dris] Where’s your P? 9 0:00:15.67 0:00:17.19 - C'est où ta moula ? \N - Il l'a lui. – [Sarah] He’s got it. 10 0:00:21.07 0:00:24.04 - C'est pas du blé ça, mec, putain. \N - Elle est – [Dris] That ain’t no fuckin money, man. 11 Bluetooth. – [Lee] It’s got Bluetooth. 12 0:00:24.18 0:00:27.56 Tout est Bluetooth frérot. \N Mes ancêtres – [Jaq] Everyone’s got Bluetooth, cuz. My ancestors’ve got Bluetooth. Bri- 13 ont le Bluetooth. ng me summin more interestin, like an iPad or summin. 14 0:00:28.14 0:00:30.50 Amène-moi mieux que ça. \N Genre un iPad – [Sarah] Can we just get two white, please? Just, come on, man. It’s wor- 15 ou quoi. th two stone, yeah? It’s not that bad, like. You can-- 16 0:00:30.79 0:00:33.74 Stp, mec, deux cailloux. \N Allez, ce bail vaut – [Romy] Yooo… 17 deux galettes, hein ? – [Dris] Fuck off, man. 18 0:00:33.77 0:00:35.24 C’est calme, t’vois, t’peux… – [Romy] Dris, the Turks! 19 0:00:35.28 0:00:36.13 Yo !

– [Jaq] Fuck off! 20 0:00:36.20 0:00:37.40 - Dégagez. \N - Dris, les Turcs ! – [Supplier] My friend, good news for you. 21 0:00:37.45 0:00:38.34 Dégagez putain ! – [Dris] Yeah? That makes a change. 22 0:00:43.92 0:00:45.50 Bonnes nouvelles pour toi mon ami. – [Supplier] You going need monies. 23 0:00:46.33 0:00:47.56 Mouais ? Voilà qui change. – [Dris] Yeah, I always need monies when it’s youse people. 24 0:00:48.74 0:00:49.85 Il va falloir des frics. – [Supplier] This time is fifty. 25 0:00:50.32 0:00:52.48 Il faut toujours des frics avec votre espèce. – [Dris] Fifty?! 26 0:00:53.84 0:00:54.74 Ce coup-ci c’est 50. – [Supplier] Prices high, my friend. You want oranges, you want pineapple, 27 0:00:55.42 0:00:56.25 Cinquante ?! you pay more monies, no? Everybody’s paying more monies for everyth- 28 0:00:57.12 0:00:58.38 Prix élevés mon ami. ing. Cars, food, coffee… Is Brexit. 29 0:00:59.16 0:01:02.17 Tu veux orange, tu veux ananas, \N ça coûte – [Dris] [kisses teeth] 30 plus de frics, non ? – [Supplier] [speaking in Turkish] 31 0:01:02.97 0:01:04.64 Tout coûte plus de frics maintenant. – [Dris] Speak fuckin English, man! 32 0:01:05.24 0:01:06.93 Voiture, nourriture, café.... – [Supplier] My friend say you is a man, but I say you is woman, no? 33 0:01:08.27 0:01:09.15 C'est le Brexit. – [Jaq] Why’on’t you ask your wife? 34 0:01:17.34 0:01:18.76 Parle anglais, mec, putain ! – [Supplier] My wife? 35 0:01:21.18 0:01:24.54 Mon ami dit, tu es homme. – [Jaq] Mm-hmm. 36 0:01:25.28 0:01:27.20 Mais moi je dis, tu es femme, non ? – [Supplier] Look, you don’t want, is no problem. Call you later, huh? Tell 37 0:01:27.38 0:01:28.70 Demande à ta meuf plutôt. you place, time. 38 0:01:31.02 0:01:31.84 Ma meuf... ? – [Jaq] Dunno why you let him treat us like that, you know that? 39 0:01:35.90 0:01:37.93 Écoute, tu veux pas, pas problème. – [Romy] Dickhead! Lil pussio! 40 0:01:45.10 0:01:46.08 Je te rappelle hein ?

– [Kieron] ‘Call you later’. What the fuck does that mean? 41 0:01:46.18 0:01:47.28 Dire quand, où. 42 0:01:48.11 0:01:50.11 Et tu le laisse nous traiter comme ça hein ? 43 0:01:50.78 0:01:52.10 Bolos ! Espèce d'enculé ! 44 0:01:52.15 0:01:53.42 « Je te rappelle » 45 0:01:54.00 0:01:55.31 Ça veut dire quoi ça bordel ? 46 SCENE 2 47 2ème SCÈNE 48 – [Aaron] Wha you sayin? You need help wi that? 49 0:00:09.10 0:00:11.40 POULET MARINÉ – [Stefan] Nah. It’s calm, still. 50 0:00:14.88 0:00:16.20 Wesh t'as besoin d'aide là ? – [Aaron] Listen, if it’s not done soon I’m just gonna have to tuck you in 51 0:00:16.56 0:00:18.48 Nan. Ça passe crème. tho – you know that, right? 52 0:00:18.92 0:00:21.45 Écoute, grouille-toi ou je t’mets au lit, pigé ? – [Stefan] Wha? Tuck me in? 53 0:00:21.73 0:00:23.05 - Quoi ? Me mettre au lit ? \N - Oui. – [Aaron] Yes. 54 0:00:23.40 0:00:24.22 Chéla frère. – [Stefan] Allow it man. 55 0:00:28.77 0:00:29.88 Ça pue la mort mec. – [Aaron] [kisses teeth] 56 0:00:29.92 0:00:31.15 La ferme ! Tu parles à qui toi ? – [Stefan] [whistles] 57 0:00:31.18 0:00:32.30 C'est moi qui parle frère. – [Aaron] Smells dead, bro. 58 0:00:32.33 0:00:33.64 - C'est prêt ? \N - Deux secondes. – [Stefan] Shut up! Who you talkin to?! 59 0:00:33.66 0:00:34.49 Allez! – [Aaron] I’m talkin, bruv. 60 0:00:34.53 0:00:35.54 Ho ! – [Jamie] When’s it ready? 61 0:00:36.01 0:00:39.12 - Te brûle pas quand même frère. \N - C'est

– [Stefan] Comin, still. 62 prêt. C'est prêt. – [Jamie] Come on! Oi! Ay, don’t burn yourself tho, man. 63 0:00:40.25 0:00:41.98 Ça sent bon quand même, Stef, t'as assuré. – [Stefan] Ready! It is ready! 64 0:00:42.46 0:00:44.85 - Enlève les livres de la table ! \N - C'est fait. – [Jamie] Smells kinda nice tho, Stef. You done well. I beg you move the 65 Calmos hein. books off the table! 66 0:00:47.64 0:00:50.09 Grouille-toi quand même Stefan. \N J'ai des – [Aaron] Alright. Chill, innit. 67 bails à faire. – [Jamie] Hurry up tho, Stefan. I got some other things I need to be doi- 68 0:00:50.30 0:00:51.64 Nan, sers-moi en premier frère. ng, you know. 69 0:00:53.32 0:00:55.76 - Ouais. J'attends depuis un bail mec. \N - – [Aaron] Nah, give me it first, man! Yeah. I been waitin, bruv. 70 Pfft ! Merde. – [Jamie] Psssh! 71 0:00:56.46 0:00:58.90 File-moi un gros bout. \N Ouah ! C'est du – [Aaron] Lemme get a big ting. This actually looks too dank. Ay, yo? 72 lourd ça. – [Stefan] Yeah? 73 0:01:02.00 0:01:03.21 - Ho. \N - Ouais ? – [Aaron] Thought it was supposed to be jerk? 74 0:01:03.40 0:01:04.48 On dirait poulet rôti. – [Jamie] Why you always tryna get on to him for? Allow him, man. 75 0:01:05.00 0:01:07.02 Pourquoi tu l'embêtes toujours ? Chéla frère. – [Stefan] Always gettin on to me when it’s my turn. 76 0:01:07.08 0:01:08.43 Toujours quand c'est mon tour. – [Jamie] Don’t worry, Stef. It’s good. Tastes really nice. 77 0:01:08.55 0:01:10.38 T'inquiète, Stef, c'est délicieux. – [Stefan] You know wha, yeah? Who better at cookin, me or Aaron? It’s 78 0:01:10.54 0:01:11.33 T’sais quoi hein ? me, innit? 79 0:01:11.60 0:01:13.90 Qui cuisine le mieux ? \N Moi ou Aaron ? – [Jamie] Homeboy, it’s not even a contest. 80 C'est moi, non ? – [Aaron] Ayyy, yo, don’t even lie to the kid, fam. You know he’s not in 81 0:01:14.10 0:01:16.99 - Y a même pas photo frangin. \N - Ho ! Mens my league. 82 pas au gosse frère.

– [Stefan] Shut up, man. 83 0:01:17.02 0:01:19.11 - Il boxe pas dans ma catégorie. \N - La ferme – [Aaron] Look! He’s not even eatin it, bruv. He’s tryna leave. 84 frère. – [Stefan] Why you not eatin it for?! 85 0:01:20.43 0:01:22.72 Regarde. Il bouffe même pas. Il se barre. – [Jamie] I’ve got stuff to do, innit. I’mma come back an’ eat it later. Just 86 0:01:22.89 0:01:24.12 Pourquoi tu bouffes pas ? put it in the fridge for me, yeah? 87 0:01:24.14 0:01:25.10 J'ai des bails à faire. – [Stefan] Yeah. 88 0:01:25.33 0:01:27.22 Je bouffe plus tard. \N Mets-le au frigo hein ? – [Aaron] [laughing] 89 0:01:27.26 0:01:28.09 Ouais. – [Jamie] Why you laughin for? 90 0:01:28.64 0:01:29.98 - Pourquoi tu t’marres ? \N - Bolos... – [Aaron] Waste-- 91 0:01:30.41 0:01:32.59 - C'est toi qui fais la vaisselle. \N - Quoi ? – [Jamie] You’re washin up. 92 Calmos mec. – [Stefan] Ha! 93 0:01:34.30 0:01:36.03 Stefan a cuisiné. Tu fais la vaisselle. – [Aaron] Ay, wha? Ay, chill, man… Bruv! 94 0:01:36.05 0:01:38.83 Et pas de casseroles sales \N dans l'évier – [Jamie] I said you’re washin up. Stefan cooked. You’re washin up. An’ I 95 quand j’rentre pigé ? don’t wanna see no dirty pans in the sink when I get back, you understa- 96 0:01:38.85 0:01:40.58 Écoute, frère, j'ai deux devoirs à faire. nd? 97 0:01:41.03 0:01:42.13 Tu fais la vaisselle. – [Aaron] Cuz, look, I got two assignments here, bruv. 98 0:01:42.25 0:01:43.43 Stef au lit avant 21 h hein ? – [Stefan] You’re washin up. 99 0:01:43.60 0:01:44.43 - Ouais. \N - Allez. – [Jamie] Stef, make sure you’re in bed by nine, yeah? 100 0:01:44.49 0:01:46.16 - T’as pigé ? \N - La ferme. – [Stefan] Yeah. 101 0:01:46.91 0:01:48.43 Tu fais la vaisselle. T’as pigé ? – [Jamie] Love. 102 0:01:48.48 0:01:50.44 - La ferme ! \N - Ho ! Jamie ! Attends ! – [Stefan] You hear that? 103

– [Aaron] Shut up. 104 – [Stefan] You’re washin up. You hear that? 105 – [Aaron] Shut up! 106 – [Stefan] Ay, Jamie! Wait, wait, wait! Ay, Jamie! 107 108 SCENE 3 109 3ème SCÈNE 110 – [Tyrone] Fam, you are chattin shit. Modie ain’t said nothin like that. 111 0:00:06.77 0:00:09.59 Tu dis de la merde poteau. \N Modie a jamais – [Leyton] You didn’t hear him right then, cuz. Mo said, if he gets sent do- 112 dit rien de tout ça. wn, Leyton takes over. What the fuck time you call this, cuz? 113 0:00:09.70 0:00:11.16 Alors tu l'as pas entendu frérot. – [Kit] Traffic, bro. Nightmare. 114 0:00:11.93 0:00:15.06 Mo a dit que s'il plonge \N Leyton reprend le – [Leyton] The fuck’s that got to do wi me? Fuckin traffic. Don’t keep man 115 flambeau. waitin, you know? You get me?! 116 0:00:17.10 0:00:18.47 Vous avez vu l'heure bordel ? – [Tyrone] Eighteen fuckin’ years, G. That is heavy, bro. 117 0:00:19.74 0:00:21.31 Des bouchons frère. Pète-couilles. – [Leyton] You ‘eard the news, innit? Modie’s gone down. So I’m runnin 118 0:00:21.61 0:00:23.75 Je m'en fous des bouchons putain. the fuckin mandem now. 119 0:00:24.10 0:00:25.60 M’faites pas attendre hein ? – [Jamie] So what’re you gonna do about the Turks, big man? 120 0:00:25.85 0:00:26.66 C'est pigé ? – [Tyrone] Yeah, fam. The Ps they’re askin for is way too high. The mandem 121 0:00:27.71 0:00:29.86 Putain, 18 ans, les gars. can’t make no bread like that. 122 0:00:30.18 0:00:31.62 C'est du lourd frère. – [Farah] Preeaaach. 123 0:00:31.80 0:00:33.96 Vous êtes au courant hein ? Modie a plongé. – [Leyton] I’ll chat to the Turks. 124 0:00:34.27 0:00:36.07 C'est moi qui dirige la mifa maintenant.

– [Jamie] When? 125 0:00:37.62 0:00:39.13 Alors t'fais quoi des Turcs caïd ? – [Leyton] The fuck ‘when’? When I’m fuckin ready, fam! 126 0:00:39.41 0:00:42.04 Ouais, mec, ils demandent bcp trop de – [Jamie] What’re you gonna say? 127 moula eux. – [Leyton] I’m gonna tell them… that their prices need to drop, cuz. 128 0:00:42.09 0:00:44.50 - La mifa peut jamais s'faire du blé comme ça. – [Jamie] Someone I know, they have food, innit? They’ll sell to us way lo- 129 \N - Amen. wer than what the Turks are. 130 0:00:44.56 0:00:45.63 Je parlerai aux Turcs. – [Farah] Fam, sorted! 131 0:00:46.04 0:00:46.87 Quand ? – [Si] Boom! 132 0:00:47.16 0:00:48.24 Comment ça « quand » ? – [Farah] Sorted. 133 0:00:48.70 0:00:50.08 Quand je l’veux bien putain. – [Si] Fuck the Turks! 134 0:00:50.18 0:00:51.01 Et t'vas dire quoi ? – [Leyton] So what’s gonna happen, yeah, if you cut out the Turks an’ go 135 0:00:51.13 0:00:52.18 J’vais leur dire… with someone new? The Turks are gonna find these new people that you 136 0:00:52.79 0:00:55.40 …qu'il faut baisser leurs prix, frérot. got, yeah, fuckin kill them. After they kill them, they’ll come back, kill you, 137 0:00:55.42 0:00:57.45 Moi, j’connais qqn qui a de la came, hein. kill me, an’ kill the rest of the fuckin Fields mandem. 138 0:00:57.53 0:00:59.09 On nous bicrave bcp moins cher que-- – [Jamie] So wha I’m hearin here is, instead of takin a fuckin low price, we 139 0:00:59.16 0:01:00.36 - Boum! \N - Réglé les gars! continue paying the high price. That shit don’t make no fuckin sense. 140 0:01:00.40 0:01:01.41 - Nique les Turcs frère! – [Leyton] I’m gonna talk to the Turks. 141 0:01:01.96 0:01:03.32 Qu'est-ce qui va s’passer, hein, 142 0:01:03.34 0:01:05.91 si on emmerde les Turcs \N et qu'on prend 143 un autre bicrave ? 144 0:01:06.54 0:01:08.85 Les Turcs vont chercher ce nouveau bicrave, 145 hein,

146 0:01:09.22 0:01:14.03 le buter, putain, et après l'avoir buté, \N ils 147 vont revenir t'buter toi, m'buter moi, 148 0:01:14.18 0:01:15.87 et buter le reste de la mifa putain. 149 0:01:16.03 0:01:19.71 Donc au lieu de payer moins cher \N on 150 continue de casquer bordel ? 151 0:01:20.15 0:01:21.91 C’est débile putain. 152 0:01:25.11 0:01:26.75 Je parlerai aux Turcs. 153 SCENE 4 154 4ème SCÈNE 155 – [Lester] Ay, pree chargie! 156 0:00:02.70 0:00:03.97 Sa fè lontan patnè! – [Dushane] Wah gwaan? 157 0:00:04.10 0:00:05.35 Sak pasé ? – [Lester] Yo. Dat chick in there, ready, yuh nuh? Waitin to get plucked, 158 0:00:07.13 0:00:10.74 Yo. Cette ti fi là-dedans, chaude, ou wè ? yuh si mi? 159 0:00:10.88 0:00:12.79 Prête à s'faire tringlé ou konprann ? – [Dushane] Gimme that mon. 160 0:00:14.09 0:00:15.09 File-moi ça frère. – [Lester] A sweet piece ah cookie for yuh. Da post office, up inna hills. Say 161 0:00:18.49 0:00:20.62 Un bèl morso nan gâteau pour toi. pon Friday, tomorrow Friday, loan money ah run thru there. All we haffi 162 0:00:21.19 0:00:22.38 Le bureau de poste do ah walk in, tek out da money, an come out. 163 0:00:22.63 0:00:23.84 nan les collines yo. – [Dushane] Is it actually fuckin real money this time, bro? 164 0:00:24.16 0:00:26.45 Se konsa demain, demain vendredi, – [Lester] Yuh nuh, lick yah finga. Seh lick yah finga. It’s a lick yah finga job, 165 0:00:27.14 0:00:29.00 plen nan argent à s'faire là-bas. bro. Hear mi a seh. I seh tomorrow, me ah go follow up wit yuh. Just make 166 0:00:29.45 0:00:31.62 Suffit d'antré, de pran l'argent,

sure seh yuh ready. Yo! Yuh nah wannah opportunity ah miss yuh. 167 0:00:31.91 0:00:33.11 et de sorti. 168 0:00:34.44 0:00:36.53 C'est du vrai argent cette fois-ci poteau ? 169 0:00:37.09 0:00:38.24 À s'en léché les doigts. 170 0:00:39.56 0:00:40.88 Mwen di léché les doigts. 171 0:00:41.85 0:00:43.34 À s'en léché les doigts patnè. 172 0:00:43.64 0:00:46.65 Koute, demain mwen te fè signe. 173 0:00:46.94 0:00:48.13 Tiens-toi prêt. 174 0:00:51.31 0:00:52.14 Yo! 175 0:00:52.77 0:00:54.34 Manke pas le coche patnè. 176 SCENE 5 177 5ème SCÈNE 178 – [Lester] Yo, look undah de seat. Look undah de seat! Wha, yuh prefferin 179 0:00:04.48 0:00:05.83 Yo. Regarde anba le siège. rentin out cars to da tourists dem? 180 0:00:06.03 0:00:07.01 Anba le siège ! – [Dushane] That’s not even funny, man. 181 0:00:17.94 0:00:19.80 Tu préfères loué machin aux touris yo ? – [Lester] Dis gonna put sum real money innah yah pocket. 182 0:00:19.95 0:00:21.32 C'est même pas drôle mec. – [Dushane] We go in there, we take the money an’ we leave, yeah? No 183 0:00:24.72 0:00:26.39 Ça va ranpli ta pòch d'argent. one has to get hurt. 184 0:00:33.13 0:00:35.39 On entre, on prend l'argent, et on ressort, – [Lester] Well, yuh av di theory, an yuh av di practical. So long as the 185 hein ? practical meets di theory, nuh body no haffi get hurt. 186 0:00:36.19 0:00:37.36 Pas besoin de buter. – [Dushane] Does Sugar know about this? 187 0:00:38.26 0:00:40.49 Eh byen, y a la teyori, et y a la pratik.

– [Lester] Sugar… Sugar nuh know, yuh know. Sugar nuh too like when yuh 188 0:00:41.40 0:00:43.03 Si la pratik respecte la teyori killin dem freelance. Wha yuh really know about Sugar? Sugar a serious 189 0:00:43.07 0:00:44.13 nan bezwen de buté. wicked man, yuh hear? One time mi si Sugar tek a baby, in front of da 190 0:00:46.77 0:00:48.07 Sugar est au courant ? madda, an’ cut out di heart. How it’s sah evil? If Sugar seh people fi de- 191 0:00:48.68 0:00:49.50 Sugar... ad, everybody dead. 192 0:00:51.54 0:00:52.90 Sugar sè pas ou wè ? 193 0:00:53.50 0:00:55.69 Sugar nan aime trop les endependans yo. 194 0:01:01.07 0:01:02.51 Tu sè quoi sou Sugar toi ? 195 0:01:04.23 0:01:06.34 Sugar cè un vrai malad ou wè ? 196 0:01:07.27 0:01:11.07 Une fois mwen le vois pran un bébé, devan la 197 manman, 198 0:01:12.56 0:01:14.23 et kè l'arraché le cœur. 199 0:01:16.42 0:01:17.63 Sa ki le mal. 200 0:01:20.48 0:01:22.00 Si Sugar di que gens fè mouri 201 0:01:22.46 0:01:23.60 tout le gens mouri.

Five: Being the Third Lover, or Translating Private Correspondence ST: Five Love Letters from Jean Cocteau to Jean Marais Language Pairing: from French into English

* * *

Jean Marais, film star, met Jean Cocteau, poet, when he was twenty-four. Jean Cocteau, mentor, met Jean Marais, muse, when he was forty-seven. That was in 1937. In 1987, twenty-four years after Cocteau’s death, an assortment of his letters to Marais were published. Is it wrong of me, therefore, to refer to translating these letters as translating private correspondence? There is, after all, not much corresponding going on here. The book is a one-way record of a two-way conversation. Yet I do not think it is wrong. This is because, as I see it, love letters sent by one man to another man are not the only private correspondence involved. There is also the correspondence established between me, the translator, and my two lovers, as I enter their private space, interpret their words of affection, finish their sentences. A somewhat non-consensual ménage-à-trois which is nevertheless private because for us and us only. And it is this ménage-à- trois, this letterly relationship, as much as the letters themselves, that must be translated. Hence: translating private correspondence. But to say a few things, first, about the former kind of private correspondence. Marais, in his foreword to the letters, says the following: ‘Dans ses lettres, Jean Cocteau ne cherche à aucun instant à écrire une belle phrase. Il n’y a aucune littérature. Il écrit l’essentiel, le cœur’. No frills, no hearts and flowers, with Cocteau. Rather: ‘Dors bien’. Yet, even where his language is more polished, it remains utterly idiosyncratic. What, and where, on earth are the senses of my heart? Idioms like these seem to belong to some sort of loverly idiolect, an idiolect spoken and understood only by them two, a loverlect. As a result, the letters ooze intimacy. Hell, the first three were not even handled by the postman; Cocteau hand-delivered them, slipping them under Marais’ door in the middle of the night. How, then, do I, the third lover, fit into all of this? It is difficult to say. But I do fit in. I must fit in. No doubt there will be those who decry such

polyamory in love-letter translation, who will accuse me of translational necrophilia, who will ask how I could possibly hope to be faithful to my beaux when the relationship was never consensual to begin with. To these people I say: how could I could possibly hope to be faithful to them if I were not in the relationship at all? Idiosyncrasies in language, and ambiguities caused by only having access to one can of the lovers’ telephone, require decision-making. In this sense, the translator cannot help but become the third lover. I am simply embracing this truth, this role, more than most. Fortune favours the brave; love favours the brave; translation favours the brave.

* * *

Student Number 14314123 Text Number 05

Source Text Target Text Title Cinq lettres d’amour de Cocteau à Marais Year Published (Orig. Writ.) 1987 (1938-1939) Title Five Love Letters from Jean Cocteau to Jean Marais Author Jean Cocteau Language French (France) Language English (Global) Word Count 692 Word Count 728

These are five love letters written by a poet to his filmstar protégé-cum-lover. While the last two were posted, because Marais had gone off to fight in WWII, the first three were not. Rather, they were penned and slipped under his door while he slept (Marais 1987: 3). Perhaps as a result, the source text is intensely intimate, in terms of both content and form. Far from being well-crafted, for example, the letters career from one subject or emotional outburst to another (77-85), seem to use language instinctively rather than pensively or literarily (58-60), and are replete with non-sequiturs (25-27), amb- Description of Source Text iguities (40-41), and unusual images and turns of phrase (7-8). These are traits which distinguish the source text from the source literary tradition of belletrist love letters (Marais 1987: 2). Formally, the language of the source text often rese- mbles shorthand (9), while its diction and metaphors sometimes appear to belong to some kind of loverly idiolect (86). The register fluctuates between colloquial (8-10), neutral (20-22), and poetic (86-92), which reinforces the impression of spontaneity, and in turn that of intimacy. The letters become progressively longer from first to last, beginning joyfully (6), and ending in loneliness, longing and defiance (97-99).

The source text has not, as far as I know, been translated into English before. This is perhaps unsurprising, given the translation problems discussed above, and the fact that these are exacerbated by the translator only being privy to one Strategy end of a two-way correspondence. The letters thus require bold decision-making, and a translator willing to project th- emself into the source text, i.e. become the third lover (Outranspo 2016: 986). I will therefore aim to produce a target

text, for non-academic personal-correspondence enthusiasts, which not only reproduces the idiosyncrasies of the source text, but reflects my participation as translator and third lover, too. In practice, this strategy will mean calquing (Vinay & Darbelnet 1958: 48) the unusual images, metaphors and phraseologies found in the source text. I will also recreate its fluctuating register by paying careful attention to target-text diction. On the other hand, I will make daring interpretive choices vis-à-vis semantic ambiguities, thereby embracing my ‘translatorhood’ and ‘inhabit[ing] the liminal spaces between words’ (QTC 2017: 3). For example, I will limentranslate (Outranspo 2017) the word ‘caprices’ [whims/tantrums] (40-41) as ‘flings’. To preserve the non-sequitur logic of the source text, however, I will otherwise refrain from explicitat- ing (Klaudy 1998).

Rendering the changeable register of the source text proved challenging. Often, the direct translation (Vinay & Darbelnet 1958: 48) of a word or phrase had a different sociolinguistic value (Tagliamonte 2012: 190) in the target language-context than that word or phrase did in the source language-context. The phrase ‘du superflu’ (9), for example, might have been directly translated as ‘superfluousness’ or, less directly, ‘superfluous stuff’. Yet the use of the word ‘superfluous’ in English would have meant a shift in register from colloquial to neutral or formal. I thus tautotranslated the phrase as ‘unnecessary Critical Reflection junk’ (10). Where it was impracticable to reproduce the register word-for-word, it was generally possible to compensate (Klaudy 2008: 163) locally, by altering some other part of the target-text diction (e.g. 89-90). I also found contractions useful in this respect, employing them to colloquialise the register (39), avoiding them to poeticise it (57-59). At times, my strategies of calquing and limentranslating were at odds, as there were several images in the source text that were both unusual and ambiguous (e.g. 86). In such cases, I tended to calque (e.g. 29), since recreating the source-text ‘loverlect’ in English was merely another way of leaving my translatorly mark.

Klaudy, Kinga. 1998. ‘Explicitation’, in Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, ed. by Mona Baker and Kirsten Works Cited Malmkjær (London & New York: Routledge), pp. 80-84

—— 2008. ‘Compensation in Translation’, in “…mit den beiden Lungenflügeln atmen”: Zu Ehren von János Kohn, ed. by

Patra Szatmári & Dóra Takács (Munich: Lincom), pp. 163-175

Marais, Jean. 1987. ‘Préface’, in Lettres à Jean Marais, by Jean Cocteau, ed. by Jean Marais (Paris: Albin Michel), pp. 1-3

Outranspo. 2016. ‘Acts de fundación de l’Outranspo’, MLN, 131(4): 985-992

—— 2017. ‘Classification of Translation Constraints & Procedures’, Drunken Boat, 24 [Accessed 23/04/2020]

QTC. 2017. ‘A Manifesto for Queer(ing) Translation’, Queer Translation Collective [Accessed 23/04/2020]

Tagliamonte, Sali A. 2012. Variationist Sociolinguistics: Change, Observation, Interpretation (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell)

Vinay, Jean-Paul and Jean Darbelnet. 1958. Stylistique compare du français et de l’anglais: méthode de traduction (Paris: Didier)

The concept of ‘tautotranslation’ is my own invention. It is an abbreviation of the phrase ‘tautologous translation’. As a translation procedure, it involves breaking source lexical units up into an increased number of target lexical units, but without adding any new semantic information. As in the example above, if you were to intralingually tautotranslate the word ‘superfluousness’, you might come up with ‘unnecessary junk’. Thus, tautotranslation produces a target text which ‘says the same thing’ as its source, but with recourse to more words. It should not be confused with other translation Notes procedures whereby tautologous elements are sometimes introduced into the target text because this is the standard way of expressing something in a given language. Tautotranslation is never obligatory. It is always a stylistic choice on the part of the translator. The effects of tautotranslation have yet to be formally studied. Anecdotally, however, it seems to lower the register of the target text, most likely because verbosity and redundancy have often been recognised as characteristic features of colloquial language, at least in English.

Source Text Target Text

Cinq lettres d’amour de Cocteau à Marais Five Love Letters from Jean Cocteau to Jean Marais 1 19, place de la Madeleine, 1938 2 19 Place de la Madeleine, 1938 3 Mon Jeannot, 4 My Jeannot, 5 C'est Noël, le plus merveilleux Noël de toute ma vie. 6 It’s Christmas, the most wonderful Christmas of my enti- Dans mes souliers il y a ton cœur, ton corps, ton âme, la 7 re life. joie de vivre et de travailler ensemble. Un objet serait « le cadeau 8 Your heart, your body, your soul, the joy of living and wo- utile » que je réprouve. Du superflu. Je ne regarderais que les 9 rking together, are in my shoes. An object would be ‘the practical mains qui le donnent. Mon Jeannot, jamais je ne répéterai assez : 10 gift’ I despise. Unnecessary junk. I’d only have eyes for the hands merci, merci pour ton génie créateur, merci pour notre amour. 11 giving it. Thank you, my Jeannot. I will never be able to say it en- 12 ough. Thank you for your creative genius, thank you for our love. Ton Jean. 13 14 Your Jean. * * * 15 16 * * * 19, place de la Madeleine, 1939 17 18 19 Place de la Madeleine, 1939 Mon Jeannot, 19

Je t’aime. Toutes réactions prouvent de la noblesse d’âme 20 My Jeannot, et de cœur. Je te remercie pour tout le bonheur que tu me don- 21 nes et celui dont tu te prives. 22 I love you. Our reactions reveal the nobility of our hearts Tu es mon ange. Sans toi, je perdrais la tête au milieu de 23 and souls. Thank you for all the happiness you give me and the ces histoires de théâtre et de film. 24 happiness you deprive yourself of. J’aurais tout donné pour que tu sois amoureux de moi ma- 25 You are my angel. Without you I’d go mad surrounded by is puisque le ciel ne l’a pas voulu, garde-moi la place secrète dans 26 all this film and theatre nonsense. ton cœur et dans les sens de ton cœur. 27 I’d have given everything for you to be in love with me. 28 But since the heavens did not wish it so, keep for me the secret Aime-moi. 29 place in your heart and in your heart’s senses. 30 * * * 31 Love me. 32 19, place de la Madeleine, 1939 33 * * * 34 Mon Jeannot, 35 19 Place de la Madeleine, 1939 36 Jeannot, tu vas dire que j’ai la manie des lettres. Mais c’est 37 My Jeannot, si bon, la nuit, de t’écrire et de glisser ma tendresse sous ta porte. 38 Mon Jeannot, tu m’as rendu le bonheur. Tu ne saurais jamais ce 39 Jeannot, you’re going to say I’m obsessed with letters. que j’ai souffert. Et ne t’imagine pas que je te priverai de tes capr- 40 But it’s so sweet writing to you by night and sliding my tende-

ices. Tu me les raconteras et nous nous retrouverons dans l’amo- 41 rness under your door. My Jeannot, you’ve brought happiness ur plus fort que tout. 42 back into my life. You will never know how I’ve suffered. And 43 don’t think I’ll deprive you of your flings. You can tell me about Redonne-la-moi vite. 44 them and we’ll be even more deeply in love than ever. 45 Je t’adore. 46 Write me back quickly. 47 * * * 48 I adore you. 49 19, place de la Madeleine, 1939 50 * * * 51 Mon Jeannot, 52 19 Place de la Madeleine, 1939 53 À cette même table où je t’écrivais des poèmes, cette nuit 54 My Jeannot, je veux glisser sous ta tente une lettre d’espoir. Nous vivrons, no- 55 us revivrons, nous travaillerons, je travaillerai double et triple po- 56 Tonight, at this same table where once I wrote you pour toi et pour ta chance. Soyons braves et sous notre ciel. Atte- 57 ems, I want to slide a letter of hope into your tent. We will live, ndre une catastrophe confuse n’était pas vivre. Tout ce qui arri- 58 we will live again, we will work, and I will work doubly and triply vera vaudra mieux que ce doute. Et de toi ne peut venir que du 59 as hard for you and your opportunity. We must be brave and soleil. Mon Jeannot si bon, si brave, je te bénis et je sais que nous 60 where we ought to be. Waiting around for a vague catastrophe vivrons encore des merveilles côte à côte. Dors bien. 61 wasn’t living. Whatever comes will be better than such doubt.

Je suis toi. 62 And nothing but sunshine can come from you. My Jeannot, so 63 good, so brave, bless you. I know we’ll spend many more won- * * * 64 derful moments by each other’s side. Sleep well. 65 19, place de la Madeleine, 1939 66 I am you. 67 Mon Jeannot, 68 * * * 69 Je sais maintenant le mal dont je souffre et que je traîne : 70 19 Place de la Madeleine, 1939 c’est toi. C’est vivre sans toi. Je te cherche partout comme un pa- 71 uvre chien aveugle et je me couche pour une minute. Je me lève 72 My Jeannot, et je te cherche ailleurs. Vivre sans toi est atroce. Un supplice que 73 je ne mesurais pas avant qu’il se prolonge. Si le bon Dieu ne me 74 I know now what sickness I have and am suffering from. vient pas en aide, j’en mourrai. Prions notre ciel et notre étoile et 75 It’s you. It’s living without you. I go looking everywhere for you, confions-nous à Dieu. 76 like a poor blind dog, then I lie down for a moment. Then I get up Je ne vis plus en pensant à ces avions qui te survolent et à 77 and go looking for you somewhere else. Life without you is drea- ce qu’ils préparent. Je crois, mon ange, que le vrai drame com- 78 dful. A torture whose days I hadn’t been counting until they bec- mence et que nous serons peut-être séparés par le silence. Sache 79 ame so many. I’ll die from it if the good Lord doesn’t come to my que je t’écris chaque soir et que je dépose ma lettre en bas pour 80 aid. We must pray to our star, to our destiny, and entrust our- qu’elle parte le matin. Je n’existe que par toi. J’en arrive à me tro- 81 selves to God. uver seul et à ne plus savoir avec qui parler ou déjeuner ou dîner. 82 I can no longer live, thinking about those planes circling

Sans toi je suis seul au monde. Notre avenir ne doit pas être men- 83 over you and what they’re planning. I fear the real tragedy is only acé. Car il est inscrit dans la légende et la légende est toujours la 84 beginning, my angel, and that we may be separated by silence. plus forte. 85 Know that I write to you every night and that I drop my letter off Mon ange, j’habite ton clocher. Prions, prions, prions et 86 downstairs so that it’s posted the next morning. I exist only thr- aimons. Que cette atroce haine déchainée ne nous atteigne dans 87 ough you. I’m beginning to feel alone and no longer know who aucune de nos fibres et ne ressemblons pas à cette foule d’êtres 88 to talk to or eat lunch or dinner with. Without you I am alone in craintifs et sans espoir. Mon ange du clocher c’est toi qui nous 89 the world. Our destiny shouldn’t be in any danger. It’s written in surveilles. C’est toi qui nous donnes les rayons du soleil de ton 90 legend, and legend always wins out over all else. âme. Mon Jeannot, chaque seconde est à toi – est de toi – est à 91 My angel, I’m nestled under your wing. We must pray, nous. 92 pray, pray and love. We mustn’t let this awful hate that’s been Je m’acharne à peindre le petit appartement et à te pré- 93 unleashed affect any fibre of our being, and we mustn’t be like parer un Éden pour les années dont tu parles et cet avenir que je 94 that crowd of fearful creatures who’ve lost hope. It’s you, my be- m’obstinerai à vouloir digne de notre rencontre. Pauvre bébé pa- 95 ll-tower angel, who’s watching over us. It’s you who gives us the rle, parle, parle pendant que je t’écris et même ses plaintes ne 96 sunshine of your soul. My Jeannot, every second is yours, is for me démoralisent pas. Nos ressources sont si profondes, si légèr- 97 you, is ours. es et si étranges qu’elles demeurent invisibles aux personnes qui 98 I’m painting the little apartment like a madman, getting « savent » et qui, de ce fait, ne savent rien. 99 an Eden ready for you, for all the years you speak of and for the 100 destiny I will not stop believing is ours to fulfil. Poor baby, spe- Je t’adore. 101 aking, speaking, speaking as I write to you, and even her cries 102 don’t demoralise me. Our resources run so deep, are so slight Jean. 103 and strange, that they remain invisible to the people who ‘know’

104 and who, for that reason, don’t know a thing. 105 106 I adore you. 107 108 Jean.

Six: Translational Diplomacy, or Investigating National Affinities ST: First Half of La Cuesta de las Comadres by Juan Rulfo Language Pairing: from Spanish into English

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Domestication has a bad name in translation studies. Especially in translation studies après-postcolonialism. It has become synonymous with linguistic imperialism, or practically any other form of imperialism, including political, and with cultural appropriation, with engineering the Other. And rightly so, if the entangled histories of translation and empire are anything to go by. Foreignisation, meanwhile, – the cool, hip, younger brother –, gets all the girls. Again, rightly so; he is by far the more dashing of the two. Recast as characters in a teen film, domestication is the lily-livered, inward-looking, epistemically-violent, ethno-normative dweeb; foreignisation the brave, extroverted, epistemically-cuddly, ethno-deviant jock. Attitudes, then, would seem to have crystallised around a dichotomy of cavemanesque simplicity, à la Venuti: foreignisation, good; domestication, bad. I want to revisit this prejudice. It is assumed, when a translator domesticates, that she has judged the linguistic or cultural or cognitive chasm between two populations, supposedly homogenous in themselves, to be too vast to bridge. Hence, the translator-cum-prophet must ride into the desert alone, grab the goods, stercoranise them, bring them back so her people can eat. Or else, it is thought, she is lazy, and unwilling to engage with alterity. Or worse still: she has in fact engaged with alterity, liked some of what she found there, but is bigoted, and so decided it would look better in familiar robes. It is my belief that domestication can serve other ends. I reckon you can bend domestication so far back on itself that you can snap its spine, folding it over into a kind of foreignisation, not from the point of view of the target context, but the source one. The short stories in Rulfo’s El llano en llamas have always evoked Ireland for me. Or, at least, what I imagine certain parts of Ireland might once have been like at certain points in time. And the current Mexican Ambassador to Ireland, Miguel Malfavón Andrade, would seem to agree. Speaking at the launch of yet another English

translation of the collection earlier this year, his Excellency remarked upon the socio-political, socio-geographical, cultural and literary affinities between Irish and Mexican history, as well as the strong political and cultural ties that the two countries are continuing to develop in the modern age. In this light, a domesticating translation strategy, or relocating a Mexican short story to Ireland, appears less an act of violence than a gesture of diplomacy. This is because, while foreignisation excels at pointing up differences, domestication might be used to investigate similarities. To what extent, then, can a Rulfian short story be reconstituted, via translation, as an Irish one? It seems reasonable to think that, the greater the extent to which it can be, the more the Ambassador is vindicated in his remarks. Charges will be made that I am changing the source text too much. Nonsense. I am not changing the source text at all. It will still be there, in Spanish, for my source as well as target readers to peruse at their leisure, even after I perform my translation. Because mine is not your average Venutian domesticating strategy. In no way is this translation aimed at readers who would otherwise have no access to the source text, or the linguistic, cultural and socio-political worlds it emerged from, which some appear to believe is the sole raison d’être of domestication. There are already any number of renderings serving this purpose out there. I offer my target text, rather, to anglo-hispanophone bilinguals, at home in both source and target contexts, who wish to experience an experiment in translational diplomacy, and whose task it will be to measure the success of that experiment. Domestication can stage just as much of a trial of the foreign as foreignisation can. Only, while the latter renders the target text alien to itself, via the source text, the former makes the source text a stranger in its own home, via the target text. And whereas the space prised open, in the first case, allows for an examination of differences, in the second it provides for an exploration of affinities. Should we not find many affinities, well then, at least we know there are mostly differences. Jalisco Abú.

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Student Number 14314123 Text Number 06

Source Text Target Text Title La Cuesta de las Comadres Year Published 1953 Title Slieve Gaoithe Author Juan Rulfo Language Spanish (Mexico) Language English (Ireland) Word Count 1592 Word Count 1820

This is the first half of a short story from the collection El llano en llamas (1953). It centres on a mountainside hamlet in Jalisco, west-central Mexico, which, despite land reforms brought about by the Revolution (1910-1920) and Cristero War (1926-1929), has come under the de facto rule of two tyrannical brothers. The source text thus echoes literary forebears, like Azuela’s Los de abajo (1916), by creating a ‘fictional painting on a canvas of historical and socio-political realism’ (Go- rdon 1976: 96). Narrated by a local campesino in the first person, the story explores themes of poverty (47-48), normalised Description of Source Text violence (124-125) and fatalism (24-26), and features many elements particular to its setting, e.g. topography (65-67), climate (49-51), flora (58) and fauna (51). Similarly, the language is peppered with regionalisms (20) and Nahuatl-derived vocabulary (27). On the level of form, the source text employs a neutral register, using largely standard diction, grammar and syntax. However, sentences often run on for several lines (9-15), or are tautologous (37), such that the narrator appears to be conversing casually with the reader. The tone set by this formal dynamic is one of unwavering apathy – even where the narrator describes crime or murder (113).

Scholars have long observed socio-political, socio-geographic, cultural and literary affinities between Irish and Mexican history (e.g. Coogan 2000: 608). I will aim to test such observations, via translation, by linguistically and culturally dome- Strategy sticating (Paloposki 2011) the source text. I adopt domestication, strategy-wise, as per Paloposki and Oittinen’s argument (2000) that it can serve purposes other than those criticised by Venuti (1995). Its purpose here will be to facilitate an

exploration of the prenominate national affinities. Thus, my target reader is academic anglo-hispanophone bilinguals, familiar with both source and target contexts. In practice, my strategy will entail adapting the nomenclature, topology, climate, flora and fauna of the source text to their new historico-geographical setting: early-twentieth-century rural Ireland. The characters, for example, will farm potatoes and wool, not corn and sugarcane. Similarly, I will render Jaliscan Spanish into Hiberno-English, with reference to the DCM (1954) and DHE (1999), respectively. I will not, however, adapt the plot, themes or social issues, as these constitute supposed affinities. Because a neutral register in Hiberno-English typically co- nnotes reserve (Kallen 1996: 117), I will lower the register, to preserve the conversational tone of the source text. To the same end, lengthy, tautologous sentences will be also reproduced.

One of my sample readers provided the following feedback: ‘[The target text] reads like a Rulfian short story, but one dressed in John-B.-Keanean garb’. As such, it would appear to substantiate the scholarly observations cited above. While the specifically Mexican details of the source text, e.g. toponyms or agricultural produce, have been domesticated (29- 32), its bones – i.e. its plot, its themes, the socio-political and -geographic reality it depicts – remain plausible within their new Irish historico-geographical context (49-57). Whereas a foreignising or middle-of-the-road strategy might have high- lighted their differences, my domesticating strategy has revealed the similarities between rural Mexico and rural Ireland Critical Reflection in the early twentieth century, at least insofar as each is exemplified by its respective literary portrayal. At times, to main- tain the tête-à-tête atmosphere of the source text, I lowered the register substantially (e.g. 48). Unfortunately, one of my sample readers perceived this as ‘reinforc[ing] the rustic simpleton stereotype’. However, as my aim was not to dec- onstruct stereotypes, I was content to make this trade-off for the sake of tone. The target text also differs from the source text in being more verbose (e.g. 129). This, too, is an effect of attempting to preserve the narratorly tone in Hiberno- English.

Works Cited A Dictionary of Hiberno-English: The Irish Use of English. 1999. Ed. by Terrence P. Dolan (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan)

Azuela, Mariano. 1916. Los de abajo (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica)

Coogan, Tim Pat. 2000. Wherever Green is Worn: The Story of the Irish Diaspora (London: Hutchinson)

Diccionario Completo de Mejicanismos. 1954. Ed. by Francisco J. Santamaría (Mexico City: México)

Gordon, Donald K. 1976. Los cuentos de Juan Rulfo (Madrid: Playor)

Kallen, Jeffrey L. 1996. ‘Entering Lexical Fields in Irish English’, in Speech Past and Present: Studies in English Dialectology in Memory of Ossi Ihalainen, ed. by Juhani Klemola, Merja Kytö and Matti Rissanen (Frankfurt & Munich: Peter Lang), pp. 101-129

Paloposki, Outi. 2011. ‘Domestication and Foreignization’, in Handbook of Translation Studies, ed. by Yves Gambier and Luc van Doorslaer, 4 vols (Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins), ii, pp. 40-42

Paloposki, Outi and Riitta Oittinen. 2000. ‘The Domesticated Foreign’, in Translation in Context: Select Contributions from the EST Congress, Granada 1998, ed. by Andrew Chesterman, Natividad Gallardo San Salvador and Yves Gambier (Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins), pp. 373-390

Rulfo, Juan. 1953. El llano en llamas (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica)

Venuti, Lawrence. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility (New York: Routledge)

Source Text Target Text

La Cuesta de las Comadres (Primera Parte) Slieve Gaoithe (First Half) Los difuntos Torricos siempre fueron buenos amigos míos. Tal vez 1 The late Tierneys were always good friends of mine. They weren’t en Zapotlán no los quisieran pero, lo que es de mí, siempre fueron buenos 2 wanted in Ballyclare, fair enough, but if you ask me they were always go- amigos, hasta tantito antes de morirse. Ahora eso de que no los quisieran 3 od friends, up until just before they died. Not that this thing about them en Zapotlán no tenía ninguna importancia, porque tampoco a mí me que- 4 not being wanted in Ballyclare said much, anyway, because I wasn’t wan- rían allí, y tengo entendido que a nadie de los que vivíamos en la Cuesta 5 ted there either, and as far as I can make out the folks down in Ballyclare de las Comadres nos pudieron ver con buenos ojos los de Zapotlán. Esto 6 had never looked too kindly on those of us who lived up on Slieve Gaoithe. era desde viejos tiempos. 7 That’d always been the way. Por otra parte, en la Cuesta de las Comadres, los Torricos no la 8 Then again, the Tierneys didn’t exactly get on with everyone up on llevaban bien con todo mundo. Seguido había desavenencias. Y si no es 9 Slieve Gaoithe, either. There weren’t many days went by where they mucho decir, ellos eran allí los dueños de la tierra y de las casas que 10 weren’t falling out with someone or other. And, if it isn’t too much of a estaban encima de la tierra, con todo y que, cuando el reparto, la mayor 11 stretch to say so, they owned the land up there, as well as the houses that parte de la Cuesta de las Comadres nos había tocado por igual a los ses- 12 were on the land, no matter whether, after the land reforms, most of enta que allí vivíamos, y a ellos, a los Torricos, nada más un pedazo de 13 Slieve Gaoithe had been divided up evenly between the sixty of us living monte, con una mezcalera nada más, pero donde estaban desperdigadas 14 there and they, the Tierneys, had got nothing more than a patch of hillside casi todas las casas. A pesar de eso, la Cuesta de las Comadres era de los 15 with hardly enough space for a few dozen stooks of barley, the only thing Torricos. El coamil que yo trabajaba era también de ellos: de Odilón y 16 being that nearly all the houses happened to be scattered across this Remigio Torrico, y la docena y media de lomas verdes que se veían allá 17 patch. And so Slieve Gaoithe belonged to the Tierneys. The plot I worked abajo eran juntamente de ellos. No había por qué averiguar nada. Todo 18 also belonged to them, to Oisin and Ruairi Tierney, and the twenty or so mundo sabía que así era. 19 green slopes down below, they were theirs as well. No one asked que-

Sin embargo, de aquellos días a esta parte, la Cuesta de las 20 stions. Everyone knew that was just the way things were. Comadres se había ido deshabitando. De tiempo en tiempo, alguien se 21 Still, from that time on, Slieve Gaoithe grew more and more des- iba; atravesaba el guardaganado donde está el palo alto, y desaparecía 22 erted. Every so often someone would leave. They’d cross over the cattle entre los encinos y no volvía a aparecer ya nunca. Se iban, eso era todo. 23 grid next to the big ash tree, then disappear into the spruces, never to be Y yo también hubiera ido de buena gana a asomarme a ver qué 24 seen again. Off they’d go and that would be that. había tan atrás del monte que no dejaba volver a nadie; pero me gustaba 25 And I wouldn’t’ve minded leaving, either, to go and see for myself el terrenito de la Cuesta, y además era buen amigo de los Torricos. 26 what was on the other side of the hill that kept everyone from coming El coamil donde yo sembraba todos los años un tantito de maíz 27 back. But I liked my wee bit of land up on the Slieve. And besides, I was para tener elotes, y otro tantito de frijol, quedaba por el lado de arriba, 28 good friends with the Tierneys. allí donde la ladera baja hasta esa barranca que le dicen Cabeza del Toro. 29 My plot, where every year I sowed a handful of oats for making El lugar no era feo; pero la tierra se hacía pegajosa desde que 30 oatcakes and planted a few hundred pounds of potatoes, was on the up- comenzaba a llover, y luego había un desparramadero de piedras duras y 31 per part of the hill, up near where the hillside drops down into that gu- filosas como troncones que parecían crecer con el tiempo. Sin embargo, 32 lly they call Glentairbh. el maíz se pegaba bien y los elotes que allí se daban eran muy dulces. Los 33 It wasn’t the worst of places, but once it began to rain there’d be Torricos, que para todo lo que se comían necesitaban la sal de tequ- 34 muck and shite everywhere, and then this scatter of hard sharp rocks wo- esquite, para mis elotes no; nunca buscaron ni hablaron de echarle tequ- 35 uld appear, big tree-stump-looking things, and all of them seeming to gr- esquite a mis elotes, que eran de los que se daban en Cabeza del Toro. 36 ow over time. Even so, my oats took well and the oatcakes made from th- Y con todo y eso, y con todo y que las lomas verdes de allá abajo 37 em were fairly decent. The Tierneys, who lashed butter onto everything eran mejores, la gente se fue acabando. No se iban para el lado de Zap- 38 they ate, never put butter on my oatcakes. No, they never talked or even otlán, sino por este otro rumbo, por donde llega a cada rato ese viento 39 thought about putting butter on my oatcakes, the ones made from the lleno del olor de los encinos y del ruido del monte. Se iban callados la bo- 40 oats grown up near Glentairbh.

ca, sin decir nada ni pelearse con nadie. Es seguro que les sobraban ganas 41 Yet, for all that, and for all the better, greener slopes down below, de pelearse con los Torricos para desquitarse de todo el mal que les ha- 42 folks just kept on leaving. They didn’t head for Ballyclare, sure enough, bían hecho; pero no tuvieron ánimos. 43 but went in the other direction, where that breeze that carries the smell Seguro eso pasó. 44 of spruces and the sound of the hills always comes from. They left tight- La cosa es que todavía después de que murieron los Torricos nadie 45 lipped, keeping their wisht, not scrapping with anyone. No doubt they volvió más por aquí. Yo estuve esperando. Pero nadie regresó. Primero 46 would’ve loved an auld scrap with the Tierneys, a bit of payback for all the les cuidé sus casas; remendé los techos y les puse ramas a los agujeros de 47 misery the brothers had caused them, but they hadn’t the balls. sus paredes; pero viendo que tardaban en regresar, las dejé por la paz. 48 They hadn’t the balls at all. Los únicos que no dejaron nunca de venir fueron los aguaceros de med- 49 The thing is, though, even after the Tierneys died, no one came iados de año, y esos ventarrones que soplan en febrero y que le vuelan a 50 back. I was waiting for them and all. But no one came back. At first I loo- uno la cobija a cada rato. De vez en cuando, también, venían los cuervos 51 ked after their houses for them, mended their thatches and stuffed str- volando muy bajito y graznando fuerte como si creyeran estar en algún 52 aw into any holes in the walls, but once I saw there was no sign of them lugar deshabitado. 53 hurrying back, I left their homes to fend for themselves. All that ever did Así siguieron las cosas todavía después de que se murieron los 54 come back were the winter sleet showers and those spring gales that blast Torricos. 55 the sheets off the bed and you adin in it. Now and then the crows would Antes, desde aquí, sentado donde ahora estoy, se veía claramente 56 come, too, flying low to the ground and cawing like mad things, as if they Zapotlán. En cualquier hora del día y de la noche podía verse la manchita 57 thought they were in some abandoned place. blanca de Zapotlán allá lejos. Pero ahora las jarillas han crecido muy tup- 58 Things went on that way even after the Tierneys died. ido y, por más que el aire las mueve de un lado para otro, no dejan ver 59 Back in the day, when you’d sit in the spot I’m sitting in here now, nada de nada. 60 you could see Ballyclare no bother. No matter what time of the day or Me acuerdo de antes, cuando los Torricos venían a sentarse aquí 61 night it was you could always see the wee smoky blot that was Ballyclare

también y se estaban acuclillados horas y horas hasta el oscurecer, mira- 62 away down in the boglands. Now there’s that much gorse in the way that, ndo para allá sin cansarse, como si el lugar este les sacudiera sus pensa- 63 even when it’s swaying about in the wind, you can’t see a bloody thing. mientos o el mitote de ir a pasearse a Zapotlán. Sólo después supe que 64 I remember the days when the Tierneys would come and sit here no pensaban en eso. Únicamente se ponían a ver el camino: aquel ancho 65 as well. They’d sit here on their hunkers for hours and hours, until dusk callejón arenoso que se podía seguir con la mirada desde el comienzo has- 66 most days, staring out into the distance and never getting tired of it, as if ta que se perdía entre los ocotes del cerro de la Media Luna. 67 the place was giving them something to mull over or notions about hea- Yo nunca conocí a nadie que tuviera un alcance de vista como el 68 ding down to Ballyclare. It was only after I realised that’s not what they de Remigio Torrico. Era tuerto. Pero el ojo negro y medio cerrado que le 69 were up to at all. They were only there to watch the road: that wide str- quedaba parecía acercar tanto las cosas, que casi las traía junto a sus 70 etch of mucky causeway you could follow with your eyes from the top of manos. Y de allí a saber que bultos se movían por el camino no había 71 it until it disappeared in under the oaks up on Rosmoon Hill. ninguna diferencia. Así, cuando su ojo se sentía a gusto teniendo en quién 72 I never met anyone with a pair of eyes on them like Ruairi Tierney. recargar la mirada, los dos se levantaban de su divisadero y desaparecían 73 He was blind in one of them, mind you, but the black, half-shut one he de la Cuesta de las Comadres por algún tiempo. 74 had left seemed to draw things so close that he could almost reach out Eran los días en que todo se ponía de otro modo aquí entre nos- 75 and lay a hand on them, and between that and knowing what loads were otros. La gente sacaba de las cuevas del monte sus animalitos y los traía a 76 passing along the road there wasn’t a whole lot of difference. And so, amarrar en sus corrales. Entonces se sabía que había borregos y gua- 77 whenever something had caught his eye and taken its fancy, the two of jolotes. Y era fácil ver cuántos montones de maíz y de calabazas amarillas 78 them would come down off their perch and vanish from Slieve Gaoithe amanecían asoleándose en los patios. El viento que atravesaba los cerros 79 for a while. era más frío que otras veces; pero, no se sabía por qué, todos allí decían 80 When that happened everything would change up on Slieve que hacía muy buen tiempo. Y uno oía en la madrugada que cantaban los 81 Gaoithe. Folks would go and fetch their little animals from the caves and gallos como en cualquier lugar tranquilo, y aquello parecía como si siem- 82 let them tether-graze out on the hillside. It was only then you found out

pre hubiera habido paz en la Cuesta de las Comadres. 83 there were lambs and chickens about. And it was only then as well that Luego volvían los Torricos. Avisaban que venían desde antes que 84 you saw heaps of potatoes and turnips out curing in the earth pits. The llegaran, porque sus perros salían a la carrera y no paraban de ladrar hasta 85 wind could be blowing across the hills colder than ever but, for some re- encontrarlos. Y nada más por los ladridos todos calculaban la distancia y 86 ason, everyone would just keep saying what grand days we were getting. el rumbo por donde irían a llegar. Entonces la gente se apuraba a escon- 87 First thing in the morning you’d hear the cocks crowing, as they would in der otra vez sus cosas. 88 any quiet place, and you’d nearly have thought things were always this Siempre fue así el miedo que traían los difuntos Torricos cada vez 89 peaceful up on Slieve Gaoithe. que regresaban a la Cuesta de las Comadres. 90 Then the Tierneys would come back. You’d know they were com- Pero yo nunca llegué a tenerles miedo. Era buen amigo de los dos 91 ing even before they came because their dogs would race out onto the y a veces hubiera querido ser un poco menos viejo para meterme en los 92 fire road and wouldn’t stop barking until they’d found them. Just by list- trabajos en que ellos andaban. Sin embargo, ya no servía yo para mucho. 93 ening to the barks we could work out how far away they were and what Me di cuenta aquella noche en que les ayudé a robar a un arriero. En- 94 way they were coming from. Then there’d be this mad rush while eve- tonces me di cuenta de que me faltaba algo. Como que la vida que yo 95 ryone hid their things away again. tenía estaba ya muy desperdiciada y no aguantaba más estirones. De eso 96 That was the fear they always brought with them, the late Tie- me di cuenta. 97 rneys, whenever they came back up to Slieve Gaoithe. Fue como a mediados de las aguas cuando los Torricos me co- 98 I never ended up afraid of them but. I was good friends with the nvidaron para que les ayudara a traer unos tercios de azúcar. Yo iba un 99 pair of them and, at times, I wouldn’t even’ve minded being young eno- poco asustado. Primero, porque estaba cayendo una tormenta de esas en 100 ugh to do a few jobs for them, because by that stage I was in no state for que el agua parece escarbarle a uno por debajo de los pies. Después, 101 that sort of thing. I found that out the night I helped them rob a sheep fa- porque no sabía adónde iba. De cualquier modo, allí vi yo la señal de 102 rmer. That’s when I found out that I was missing something. As if most of que no estaba hecho ya para andar en andanzas. 103 the life I once had in me had already been spent and whatever was left

Los Torricos me dijeron que no estaba lejos el lugar adonde íb- 104 couldn’t hack any more hassle. I found that out alright. amos. «En cosa de un cuarto de hora estamos allá», me dijeron. Pero 105 It was a miserable auld day the day the Tierneys came looking for cuando alcanzamos el camino de la Media Luna comenzó a oscurecer y 106 help lifting some wool bales. I said no bother, but I wasn’t too pushed on cuando llegamos a donde estaba el arriero era ya alta la noche. 107 the whole thing, first of all because it was lashing outside and it was the El arriero no se paró a ver quién venía. Seguramente estaba 108 sort of rain that takes the clod right out from under your boot, and also esperando a los Torricos y por eso no le llamó la atención vernos llegar. 109 then because I hadn’t a clue where I was going. In any case, that was the Eso pensé. Pero todo el rato que trajinamos de aquí para allá con los 110 day I found out I was in no state for that sort of thing. tercios de azúcar, el arriero se estuvo quieto, agazapado entre el zacatal. 111 The Tierneys told me the place we were headed wasn’t too far Entonces les dije eso a los Torricos. Les dije: 112 away. — Ese que está allí tirado parece estar muerto o algo por el estilo. 113 ‘A quarter of an hour or so and we’ll be there,’ they told me. — No, nada más ha de estar dormido —me dijeron ellos—. Lo de- 114 But, by the time we reached the bog road, it was already starting jamos aquí cuidando, pero se ha de haber cansado de esperar y se durmió. 115 to get dark, and by the time we reached the sheep farmer, it was already Yo fui y le di una patada en las costillas para que despertara; pero 116 late at night. el hombre siguió igual de tirante. 117 The sheep farmer didn’t get up to see who was coming. In fairness, — Está bien muerto — les volví a decir. 118 I thought, he was probably expecting the Tierneys, and so why would it — No, no te creas, nomás está tantito atarantado porque Odilón 119 be anything strange that here they were coming. So I thought anyway. le dio con un leño en la cabeza, pero después se levantará. Ya verás que 120 But the whole time we were there, lumping the wool bales about the pla- en cuanto salga el sol y sienta el calorcito, se levantará muy aprisa y se 121 ce, the sheep farmer just lay there, half-hidden adin in the heather. And irá en seguida para su casa. ¡Agárrate ese tercio de allí y vámonos! — fue 122 so I said this to the Tierneys. I said to them: todo lo que me dijeron. 123 ‘Your man lying over there looks fairly dead.’ Ya por último le di una última patada al muertito y sonó igual que 124 ‘Not at all,’ they told me. ‘Only sleeping, so he is. We left him here

si se la hubiera dado a un tronco seco. Luego me eché la carga al hombro 125 to keep an eye on the bales, but he must’ve got fed up waiting and fell y me vine por delante. Los Torricos me venían siguiendo. Los oí que can- 126 asleep.’ taban durante largo rato, hasta que amaneció. Cuando amaneció dejé de 127 I went over and gave him a boot in the ribs to wake him up, but he oírlos. Ese aire que sopla tantito antes de la madrugada se llevó los gritos 128 just kept on lying there, like a sack of spuds. de su canción y ya no pude saber si me seguían, hasta que oí pasar por 129 ‘One hundred percent, lads, this chap’s dead,’ I said. todos lados los ladridos encarrerados de sus perros. 130 ‘Would you get away out of that! Not at all. I’d say he just has a De ese modo fue como supe qué cosas iban a espiar todas las tar- 131 bit of a head on him because Oisin gave him a belt of the hurl earlier on. des los Torricos, sentados junto a mi casa de la Cuesta de las Comadres. 132 He’ll come to soon enough. You’ll see, once the sun comes up and he gets 133 a bit of daylight into him, he’ll be up like a shot and away on home. Now 134 grab that bale and let’s get a move-on!’ 135 That was all they said. 136 I gave your man, the dead fella, one last boot as we were leaving, 137 and you’d think by the sound of it that I was after kicking a rotten tree 138 trunk. Then I threw the bale up onto my shoulders and walked on ahead. 139 The Tierneys followed behind me. I could hear them singing for a good 140 long while, until the sun began to rise, but once the sun began to rise I 141 couldn’t hear them anymore because that stiff breeze that picks up just 142 before dawn carried their howling away with it. And so I wasn’t sure whe- 143 ther they were still following me or not until I heard their dogs racing to- 144 ward us and their barks coming from every which way. 145 That’s how I found out what the Tierneys were spying on as they

146 sat, every afternoon, hunkered down next to my house up on Slieve Gao- 147 ithe.

Seven: Transdaptation, or Translating for the Modern Theatre ST: Selected Excerpts from Le Neveu de Rameau by Denis Diderot Language Pairing: from French into English

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Hannah Gadsby’s experimental stand-up special, Nanette (2018), did many things to me and for me. One of the things it did for me was to shine new light on an old text. I wrote my undergraduate dissertation on Denis Diderot, re-interpreting his use of the philosophical dialogue genre, in his literary output, within the context of his dialogic philosophy, as expressed in his extra-literary output. One of the primary texts for this piece of research was Le Neveu de Rameau. A sprightly, sprawling philosophical dialogue between a philosopher and a rogue, drawing on Platonic and Early Modern models as much as it upends them, and touching on everything from music to materialism to morality, one of its principle themes is that of genius. Specifically, it asks whether creating sublime works of art is enough to excuse artistic geniuses from being decent human beings, as well as how we should engage with the art of douchebag artists. These are questions which have begun to resurface in the wake of the #MeToo Movement, or #BalanceTonPorc, if you happen to be French. Re-enter Hannah Gadsby. In her show, Gadsby, an art history major, sets about dismantling the genius-mythologies surrounding figures such as Van Gogh and Picasso. Her insights helped bring the abstract musings found in Le Neveu down to earth, toward the here, the now. Moreover, she has given me something of an idea as to how such questions might more fruitfully be explored in a performative, as against textual, environment. After seeing Meadbh McHugh and Annabelle Comyn’s theatrical adaptation of Louise O’Neill’s novel, Asking for It (2015), in the Abbey in November 2018, I was sold. Theatre was a fine space in which to expose older, more conservative audiences to hot takes on thorny social issues. A transdaptational idea was born.

* * *

Student Number 14314123 Text Number 07

Source Text Target Text Title Le Neveu de Rameau Year Published (Orig. Writ.) 1821 (c. 1760-1775) Title The Professor and Paul Author Denis Diderot Language French (France) Language English (Ireland & UK) Word Count 1978 Word Count 4185

This is a philosophical dialogue between two characters, one the rogue nephew of a famous musician, the other a philosopher. It has much in common with other Enlightenment dialogues as well as with their Platonic predecessors. Thus, the characters embody opposing views on issues like the value of creative genius (173-271), or how best to spend money (305-338), and employ the Socratic method to settle their disagreements. Yet the source text also deviates from this tradition. Firstly, by casting a rogue as an interlocutor, rather than another philosopher or a patrician (Blondell 2002: 58). And secondly, by its more lively approach to philosophical enquiry: the characters frequently change tack mid-way throu- Description of Source Text gh an argument (454-455), freely contradict themselves (107-114), interrupt one another (324), become emotional (294- 297) and play-act (459-502). By introducing such dynamism, humour and theatricality into the genre, the source text enriched the modus operandi of the philosophical dialogue within the source context (Duflo 2013: 55). Such liveliness, moreover, is also established on the level of form. For example, because the source text fluctuates between prolonged speeches and snappy back-and-forths, its rhythms are fluid and changeable (e.g. 151-265). Nevertheless, the language remains self-consciously literary, as does the register (e.g. 315-423).

In the wake of the #MeToo movement, questions regarding the value of creative genius have begun to resurface, e.g. Strategy Aristarkhova (2018). I will therefore aim to explore, via translation, the source-text theme of creative genius, but through this modern lens, and for a modern audience. Because philosophical dialogues are no longer popular (Hösle 2012: xiv), I

will adapt the source text for the theatre in the form of a production script, thereby capitalising on the theatrical traits it already possesses. The production will tour the UK and Ireland, and the target audience is anglophones aged forty-five and over, since this demographic is less likely to have encountered fourth-wave feminist ideas (Rivers 2017: 113) but constitutes the majority of theatre-goers (Heim 2016: 164). Specifically, my strategy will entail adapting the setting, ch- aracterisation and cultural references to modern times. For example, vis-à-vis the debate on creative genius, I will substitute the figure of Racine with Picasso. I will break lengthy speeches up into faster-paced exchanges, to cater to modern theatre conventions (Dorney 2009: 31), and will make the language more colloquial, so that characters and their ideas become less abstract. Finally, I will create detailed stage directions, primarily for blocking and gesture.

Alain Badiou, in La République de Platon (2012), adapts Plato’s Republic to modern France, elaborates and investigates the implications of its ideas in this new context, and injects it with drama and humour to bring the dialogue to life. He has referred to this work as a ‘hypertranslation’ (Badiou 2010: 189). The target text my strategy has produced follows in this vein. It, too, fleshes out questions raised by its source text, and explores them in greater depth against a different cultural backdrop (e.g. 392-412). This is one of the reasons why, besides the creation of stage directions, the target text has ended Critical Reflection up two times longer than the source text. Not that this is a bad thing. In fact, because their viewpoints (e.g. 369-377) and paraverbal behaviours (e.g. 274-278) have become fleshed-out, the characters themselves have also become fleshed out. That is, they are less vessels for ideas, and more people with ideas. The use of a colloquial register (e.g. 32-48) has likew- ise humanised the interlocutors, as has my related attempt to translate into a ‘performable’ – i.e. conversational – idiom, which even those who argue against its conceptual utility recognise as an important feature of theatrical language (Basnett 1991: 110-111).

Aristarkhova, Irina. 2018. ‘#MeToo in the Art World: Genius Should Not Excuse Sexual Harassment’, The Conversation, 3 Works Cited May [Acc-

essed 21/04/2020]

Badiou, Alain. 2012. La République de Platon (Paris: Fayard)

—— 2010. The Communist Hypothesis, trans. by David Macey and Steve Corcoran (London & New York: Verso)

Bassnett, Susan. 1991. ‘Translating for the Theatre: The Case Against Performability’, Languages and Cultures in Translation Theories, 4(1): 99-111

Blondell, Ruby. 2002. The Play of Character in Plato’s Dialogues (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

Dorney, Kate. 2009. The Changing Language of Modern English Drama: 1945-2005 (London: Palgrave Macmillan)

Duflo, Colas. 2013. Diderot philosophe (Paris: Honoré Champion)

Heim, Caroline. 2016. Audience as Performer: the Changing Role of Theatre Audiences in the Twenty-First Century (London and New York: Routledge)

Hösle, Vittorio. 2012. The Philosophical Dialogue: A Poetics and a Hermeneutics, trans. by Steven Rendall (Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press)

Rivers, Nicola. 2017. Postfeminism(s) and the Arrival of the Fourth Wave: Turning Tides (London: Palgrave Macmillan)

Source Text Target Text

Le Neveu de Rameau (morceaux choisis) The Professor and Paul (Excerpt from Act One) 1 [Curtain. Lights.] 2 3 [Enter the Professor. One would place him squarely at sixty. He is dressed 4 in Oxfords, beige chinos, shirt-sweater combo, and tweed blazer. He wears 5 rectangular-framed designer glasses. His hair only half retains its natural 6 dark colour; the other half is greying or greyed. He sports a fashionable 7 amount of facial hair – somewhere between stubble and a fully-fledged 8 beard. It, too, is greying. He walks as if ambling outdoors.] 9 Qu’il fasse beau, qu’il fasse laid, c’est mon habitude d’aller sur les cinq 10 THE PROFESSOR: No matter what it’s giving, rain or shine, at five o’clock heures du soir me promener au Palais-Royal. C’est moi qu’on voit, tou- 11 in the afternoon I normally go for a walk in the park. It’s me you’ll often jours seul, rêvant sur le banc d’Argenson. 12 see, sitting alone on a bench down by the lake, thinking. 13 14 [He sits on said bench. He crosses one leg over the other at the knee. He 15 stretches his arms out either side of him and rests them on the backrest. 16 He looks into the distance.] 17 Je m’entretiens avec moi-même de politique, d’amour, de goût ou de 18 THE PROFESSOR: I sit and think about politics, love, art, philosophy… philosophie. […] 19

20 [He rises from the bench and ambles away.] 21 Si le temps est trop froid, ou trop pluvieux, je me réfugie au café de la 22 THE PROFESSOR: But, if the weather’s too cold, or too rainy, I go to the Régence ; là je m’amuse à voir jouer aux échecs. […] 23 Regent Bar. 24 25 [He enters the bar. He orders a drink and sits in an empty booth.] 26 27 THE PROFESSOR: I enjoy coming here to watch the lads playing pool. 28 29 [Pause. He watches the lads playing pool. He thinks to himself for a mom- 30 ent.] 31 Un après-dîner, j’étais là, regardant beaucoup, parlant peu, et écoutant le 32 THE PROFESSOR: I was here one afternoon, watching the lads playing moins que je pouvais ; lorsque je fus abordé par un des plus bizarres 33 pool, trying to block out all the working-class tripe they were blathering personnages de ce pays où Dieu n’en a pas laissé manquer. C’est un com- 34 on about, when I was approached by one of the strangest characters I’ve posé de hauteur et de bassesse, de bon sens et de déraison. […] Rien ne 35 ever met. He’s equal parts Einstein and Kardashian. As if Mother Teresa dissemble plus de lui que lui-même. Quelquefois, il est maigre et hâve, 36 had had a baby with Hitler. No one is more unlike him than he himself. comme un malade au dernier degré de la consomption ; on compterait 37 One month, he could be thin and gaunt, as if in the final throes of a cancer, ses dents à travers ses joues. On dirait qu’il a passé plusieurs jours sans 38 and you could count his teeth through his cheeks. He’d look as if he’d manger, ou qu’il sort de la Trappe. Le mois suivant, il est gras et replet, 39 gone several days without eating, or had recently been released from a comme s’il n’avait pas quitté la table d’un financier, ou qu’il eût été 40 stint in a nursing home. The next month, he’d be paunchy and plump, as

renfermé dans un couvent de Bernardins. Aujourd’hui, en linge sale, en 41 if he’d hardly left a councillor’s dinner table, or had been locked up in culotte déchirée, couvert de lambeaux, presque sans souliers, il va la tête 42 prison. One day, he could be in filthy clothes, his trousers in tatters, his basse, il se dérobe, on serait tenté de l’appeler, pour lui donner l’aumône. 43 shoes worn almost to flipflops, trudging about with his head hanging low, Demain, poudré, chaussé, frisé, bien vêtu, il marche la tête haute, il se 44 his eyes glued to the ground… You’d be tempted to call him over and offer montre et vous le prendriez au peu près pour un honnête homme. 45 him some spare change in an empty coffee cup. The next day, he’d be 46 dressed to the nines, in shiny new shoes, clean-shaven, hair slicked back, 47 strutting around with his head held high, proud as a peacock, and you’d 48 almost take him for a decent fella. 49 50 [Pause. He watches the lads playing pool. He thinks to himself for a 51 moment.] 52 Il vit au jour la journée. Triste ou gai, selon les circonstances. Son premier 53 THE PROFESSOR: He lives from day to day, in a fair mood or a foul one, soin, le matin, quand il est levé, est de savoir où il dînera ; après dîner, il 54 depending on the circumstances. When he wakes up in the morning, his pense où il ira souper. La nuit […] il a recours soit à un fiacre de ses amis, 55 first order to business is to figure out where he’ll eat lunch. Once lunch is soit au cocher d’un grand seigneur qui lui donne un lit sur de la paille, à 56 over, it’s time to start thinking about where he’ll eat dinner. At night, he côté de ses chevaux. Le matin, il a encore une partie de son matelas dans 57 heads out to the suburbs, where he sometimes sleeps in unlocked cars, ses cheveux. Si la saison est douce, il arpente toute la nuit, le Cours ou les 58 and other times sleeps on a bed of straw in some farm shed, among the Champs-Élysées. 59 animals. He’ll often appear the next morning with a souvenir from his 60 mattress still stuck in his hair. In the summertime, when the nights are 61 warmer, he still heads out to the suburbs, but instead of sleeping wanders

Il reparaît avec le jour, à la ville, habillé de la veille pour le lendemain, et 62 about industrial and housing estates until sunrise. He shows up in the city du lendemain quelquefois pour le reste de la semaine. 63 centre the next day, wearing the same clothes today as yesterday, and 64 sometimes the same clothes today as for the rest of the week. 65 66 [Pause. He watches the lads playing pool. He thinks to himself for a 67 moment.] 68 Je n’estime pas ces originaux-là. D’autres en font leurs connaissances 69 THE PROFESSOR: I don’t have much time for characters like that. Other familières, même leurs… […] 70 people, well, they do, and some of them even go so far as to make fri- 71 ends— 72 Il m’aborde… 73 [The door swings open. Enter a man, dressed in what must previously have 74 been nice clothes but are now full of rips, patches, stains, and so on. He 75 wears scuffed trainers. He has three days’ worth of stubble on his face. His 76 hair is combed over to one side, but untidily so, and has a singular piece 77 of straw stuck in it, near to the crown. One would place him at about forty. 78 He looks timidly around the bar before spotting the Professor.] 79 80 THE PROFESSOR: Ah! Paul! What a pleasant surprise! How are you, my 81 old friend…? 82

Ah, ah, vous voilà, monsieur le philosophe ; et que faîtes-vous ici parmi ce 83 PAUL: Ah, there you are, Professor! What’re you doing here with all these tas de fainéants ? Est-ce que vous perdez aussi votre temps à pousser le 84 good-for-nothings? Don’t tell me you waste your time chalking cues, too, bois ? […] 85 do you? 86 87 [He sits into the booth without ordering a drink.] 88 MOI. – Non ; mais quand je n’ai rien de mieux à faire, je m’amuse 89 THE PROFESSOR: No. But, when I’ve nothing better to do, I enjoy watch- à regarder un instant, ceux qui le poussent bien. 90 ing those who chalk them well. 91 92 [Paul scoffs.] 93 LUI. – En ce cas, vous vous amusez rarement ; excepté Légal et 94 PAUL: You don’t enjoy yourself very often in that case. Apart from Len- Philidor, le reste n’y entend rien. 95 non and Phillips, the rest haven’t a decent elbow between them. 96 MOI. – Et monsieur de Bissy donc ? 97 THE PROFESSOR: What about Bennett? 98 LUI. – Celui-là est en joueur d’échecs, ce que mademoiselle Clair- 99 PAUL: Bennett is to the pool table what Bullock is to the big screen. All on est en acteur. Ils savent de ces jeux, l’un et l’autre, tout ce qu’on peut 100 the work ethic, all the passion, all the knowledge and experience in the apprendre. 101 world… 102 103 [He raises a hand, brings his thumb and index finger very close together,

104 so that they are almost but not quite touching, and squints at the Prof- 105 essor through the gap.] 106 MOI. – Vous êtes difficile, et je vois que vous ne faites grâce qu’aux 107 THE PROFESSOR: I see you’re difficult man to please. And what, you only hommes sublimes. 108 give praise to the best of the best, do you? 109 110 [Paul shrugs.] 111 LUI. – Oui, aux échecs, aux dames, en poésie, en éloquence, en 112 PAUL: I suppose. Well, when it comes to pool, anyway. Or music, or poet- musique, en d’autres fadaises comme cela. À quoi bon la médiocrité dans 113 ry, or love, or politics, or any other little game like that, really. What good ces genres. 114 is it being average in those departments? 115 MOI. – À peu de chose, j’en conviens. […] Mais laissons cela. Il y a 116 THE PROFESSOR: Not much, I agree. But enough of all that. It’s been an une éternité que je ne vous ai vu. Je ne pense guère à vous, quand je ne 117 eternity since I saw you last. I often forget about you when you’re not vous vois pas. Mais vous plaisez toujours à revoir. Qu’avez-vous fait ? 118 around, but it’s always a pleasure to see you again. What have you been 119 up to? 120 LUI. — Ce que vous, moi et tous les autres font ; du bien, du mal 121 PAUL: What you, me and everyone else gets up to: good things, bad et rien. Et puis j’ai eu faim, et j’ai mangé, quand l’occasion s’en est prés- 122 things, and nothing at all. At one stage I got hungry, and so I ate, when I entée ; après avoir mangé, j’ai eu soif, et j’ai bu quelquefois. Cependant 123 had the chance. After I ate, I got thirsty, and so I drank for a while. It was la barbe me venait ; et quand elle a été venue, je l’ai fait raser. 124 at that point I noticed I had a bit of a beard coming on, and so I shaved.

MOI. — Vous avez mal fait. C’est la seule chose qui vous manque, 125 THE PROFESSOR: Ah! A terrible mistake! A beard is all you needed to pour être un sage. 126 finish off the look of a sage you have about you… 127 LUI. — Oui-da. J’ai le front grand et ridé ; l’œil ardent ; le nez sail- 128 PAUL: Ha! You said it! With my large wrinkly forehead, my lively eyes, my lant ; les joues larges ; le sourcil noir et fourni ; la bouche bien fendue ; la 129 Roman nose, my dinner-plate cheeks, my thick black brows, my wide mo- lèvre rebordée ; et la face carrée. 130 uth, my full lips, my square jaw… 131 132 [As he lists each of these features, he stands and gestures toward it, runs 133 his fingers across it or around it, as if on the catwalk, or staring into an im- 134 aginary camera for a television advertisement. Then, he raises his fist to 135 the underside of his chin and gently taps it three times with his knuckles.] 136 Si ce vaste menton était couvert d’une longue barbe ; savez-vous que cela 137 PAUL: You know, if this big ol’ chin of mine had a long beard on it, it’d look figurerait très bien en bronze ou en marbre. 138 shocking well in bronze or marble. 139 MOI. — À côté d’un César, d’un Marc-Aurèle, d’un Socrate. 140 THE PROFESSOR: Alongside an Aurelius, a Cesar, a Socrates… 141 142 [Paul waves the suggestion away.] 143 LUI. — Non, je serais mieux entre Diogène et Phryné. Je suis eff- 144 PAUL: Not at all. I’d be in better company alongside a Diogenes or a Mari- ronté comme l’un, et je fréquente volontiers chez les autres. 145 lyn Monroe. I’ve no shame, like the first, and don’t mind sleeping in other

146 people’s houses, like the second. 147 148 [Pause. The Professor is visibly unsure how to respond. He shifts in his se- 149 at. He coughs.] 150 MOI. — Vous portez-vous toujours bien ? 151 THE PROFESSOR: And are you getting on alright otherwise? 152 LUI. — Oui, ordinairement ; mais pas merveilleusement aujour- 153 PAUL: Usually, but not today. d’hui. 154 MOI. – Comment ? Vous voilà avec un ventre de Silène ; et un vis- 155 THE PROFESSOR: Oh? And how’s that? Here you are with a belly like Sil- age… 156 enus and a face… 157 LUI. – Un visage qu’on prendrait pour son antagoniste. C’est que 158 PAUL: …a face you’d take for his opposite. Apparently, bad moods suck l’humeur qui fait sécher mon cher oncle engraisse apparemment son cher 159 the warmth out of uncle dearest, but they don’t suck the fat out of his neveu. 160 dear nephew… 161 162 [He says the second sentence almost to himself. The Professor hears him 163 anyway.] 164 MOI. – À propos de cet oncle, le voyez-vous quelquefois ? 165 THE PROFESSOR: Ah, yes! Your uncle. The musician. Do you ever see him? 166

LUI. – Oui, passer dans la rue. 167 PAUL: I see him passing in the street sometimes. 168 MOI. – Est-ce qu’il ne vous fait aucun bien ? 169 THE PROFESSOR: And he doesn’t help you out at all? 170 171 [Paul scoffs.] 172 LUI. – S’il en fait à quelqu’un, c’est sans s’en douter. C’est un ph- 173 PAUL: If that man helps anyone out, it’s without him knowing about it. ilosophe dans son espèce. Il ne pense qu’à lui ; le reste de l’univers lui est 174 He’s a genius through and through. He only thinks about himself. The rest comme d’un clou à soufflet. Sa fille et sa femme n’ont qu’à mourir, qu- 175 of us, we’re like a piece of gum on the bottom of his shoe, as far as he’s and elles voudront ; pourvu que les cloches de la paroisse, qu’on sonne- 176 concerned. His wife and daughter could drop dead tomorrow; so long as ra pour elles, continuent de résonner la douzième et le dix-septième, tout 177 the funeral bells ring out a nice melody, he wouldn’t mind. sera bien. […] 178 179 THE PROFESSOR: But what about his music? His beautiful music? Do you 180 not think— 190 191 [Paul raises a flat palm to cut the Professor off.] 192 Il faut des hommes ; mais pour des hommes de génie ; point. 193 PAUL: We need beautiful music. I’m not saying that. Of course we need 194 beautiful music. And we need beautiful musicians too. But not geniuses. 195 We don’t need geniuses. 196

197 [He shakes his head vigorously and closes his eyes until he has finished 198 shaking.] 199 Non, ma foi, il n’en faut point. […] Ils ne sont bons qu’à une seule chose. 200 PAUL: No, no, no, no, no, no. We don’t need them. We don’t need them! Passé cela, rien. Ils ne savent ce que c’est d’être citoyens, pères, mères, 201 They’re good for one thing and one thing only. Apart from that, nothing. frères, parents, amis. […] 202 They don’t know what it is to be a good citizen, a father, a mother, a bro- 203 ther, a sister, an aunt, an uncle, a friend… 204 205 PROFESSOR: But what about all of the— 206 207 [Paul throws his hands on the table and leans across it. He suddenly has a 208 wilder, more haggard look in his eye. He turns his cheek ever so slightly.] 209 Si je savais l’histoire, je vous montrerais que le mal est toujours venu ici- 210 PAUL: If I knew anything about history I’d prove to you how any evil that’s bas, par quelque homme de génie. 211 ever come down to earth has always come down here because of some 212 genius! 213 214 [Pause. He relaxes back into his seat and takes his hands off the table. He 215 sighs.] 216 Mais je ne sais pas l’histoire, parce que je ne sais rien. 217 PAUL: But I don’t know anything about history, because I don’t know an-

218 ything about anything. 219 220 [Pause. The Professor visibly relaxes after the moment of tension. Sudd- 221 enly Paul throws his hands on the table and leans across it once more. He 223 raises a closed fist, shakes it in the air momentarily, then slams it onto the 224 table.] 225 Le diable m’emporte, si j’ai jamais rien appris ; et si pour n’avoir rien 226 PAUL: And may the devil take me if ever I’ve learned something, or if for appris, je m’en trouve plus mal. 227 not having learned anything I’m any the worse off! 228 229 [Pause. He relaxes back into his seat and takes his hands off the table. The 230 lads playing pool pause to see what’s going on but soon lose interest and 231 resume their game. There is now a lengthy silence of at least ten seconds.] 232 233 THE PROFESSOR: And do you not think— 234 235 [Paul raises a hand and points at the Professor. He is calmer than before, 236 but still visibly irritated, worked-up, seething.] 237 J’étais un jour à la table d’un ministre du roi de France qui a de l’esprit 238 PAUL: I was eating at a councillor’s dinner table not so long ago… comme quatre […]. 239

240 [The Professor glances knowingly in the direction of the audience and taps 241 his nose with his index finger. Then, for fear of being caught, quickly retu- 242 rns his attention to Paul.] 243 Je ne me rappelle pas bien ses preuves ; mais il s’ensuivait évidemment 244 PAUL: …the smarts of four men, this councillor, and now I don’t reme- que les gens de génie sont détestables, et que si un enfant apportait en 245 mber the evidence for his argument exactly, but the conclusion was cle- naissant, sur son front, la caractéristique de ce dangereux présent de la 246 arly that all geniuses are despicable, and that if a baby was born with the nature, il faudrait ou l’étouffer, ou le jeter au cagnard. […] 247 sign of this dangerous gift from Mother Nature on its forehead, its parents 248 would do well either to smother it, or drown it, or throw it off a cliff. 249 250 [The Professor recoils. Yet it is difficult to tell whether he does so sincerely 251 or in jest.] 252 MOI. – Vous conçûtes donc là, une terrible haine contre le génie. 253 THE PROFESSOR: What a terrible hatred of genius… 254 LUI. – À n’en jamais revenir. […] 255 PAUL: …and I’ll never recover from it. 256 257 [Paul leans back into his seat, smiles, and folds his arms.] 258 MOI. – Mais Racine ? Celui-là certes avait du génie, et ne passait 259 THE PROFESSOR: Well, what about Picasso? Now there’s a genius if ever pas pour un trop bon homme. 260 there was one, no doubt about it, even if he wasn’t exactly what you mi-

261 ght call a ‘good citizen’… 262 263 [Paul raises a hand and points at the Professor.] 264 LUI. – Ne me pressez pas ; car je suis conséquent. 265 PAUL: Don’t press me. I know what I’m saying. 266 MOI. – Lequel des deux préféreriez-vous ? ou qu’il eût été un bon 267 THE PROFESSOR: Well, which would you rather? That he’d been a good homme, […] faisant régulièrement tous les ans un enfant légitime à sa 268 man, a faithful husband, a loving father, a kind neighbour, an honest bus- femme, bon mari ; bon père, bon oncle, bon voisin, honnête commerçant, 269 inessman, but nothing more? Or that he’d been misogynist, racist, homo- mais rien de plus ; ou qu’il eût été fourbe, traître, ambitieux, envieux, 270 phobic, appropriative, narcissistic, adulterous, manipulative, abusive, but méchant, ; mais auteur d’Andromaque, de Britannicus, de Phèdre ? 271 painter of The Weeping Woman, of Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, of Gue- 272 rnica?! 273 274 [He does not seem to recognise the irony in his long list of negative att- 275 ributes. He emphasises the ‘but’ at the end of the list. He makes a point of 276 pronouncing the French title hyper-correctly. After he has presented these 277 two alternatives, he raises his eyebrows and hmms, as if he has just pre- 278 sented a self-evidently irrefutable argument.] 279 LUI. – Pour lui, ma foi, peut-être que de ces deux hommes, il eût 280 PAUL: For his own sake, even, never mind anyone else’s, he’d have been mieux valu qu’il eût été le premier. 281 better off as the first man.

282 [The Professor leans back into his seat. His eyes cloud over as he looks into 283 the distance and sighs thoughtfully.] 284 MOI. – Cela est même infiniment plus vrai que vous ne le sentez. 285 THE PROFESSOR: That is even more true than you know. 286 287 [Paul slams a fist on the table. As he responds, he gesticulates wildly, and 288 alternates between pointing at the Professor, himself, and in any which 289 other direction. The Professor does not even flinch. He calmly looks at Paul 290 as the latter shouts and gesticulates. At this stage, the pool players are no 291 longer interrupting their game, at each fist slam, to keep track of the ar- 292 gument; they simply ignore our two protagonists.] 293 LUI. – Oh ! vous voilà, vous autres ! Si nous disons quelque chose 294 PAUL: Ah! There you go again! You’re all the same, you people, you know de bien, c’est comme des fous, ou des inspirés ; par hasard. Il n’y a que 295 that? If my sort say anything useful, anything insightful, it’s always as fo- vous autres qui vous entendiez. Oui, monsieur le philosophe. Je m’en- 296 ols, inspired fools, by accident. It’s only you people who really get things. tends ; et je m’entends ainsi que vous vous entendiez. 297 Isn’t that what you all think? Well, Professor, I get what I’m saying, and I 298 get what I’m saying just as well as you do. 299 MOI. – Voyons ; et bien, pourquoi pour lui ? 300 THE PROFESSOR: Alright then. Let’s see. Why for his sake? 301 302 [Paul calms. He rolls his shoulders, fixes his hair and clothing, and coughs,

303 as if getting ready to serve in a tennis match.] 304 LUI. – C’est que toutes ces belles choses-là qu’il a faites ne lui ont 305 PAUL: Well, for starters, all of those beautiful paintings he made, they pas rendu vingt mille francs ; et que s’il eût été un bon marchand en soie 306 made him a lot of money, sure, but not one honest dollar, and surely he de la rue Saint-Denis ou Saint-Honoré, un bon épicier en gros, un apo- 307 was left with a guilty— thicaire achalandé, il eût amassé une fortune immense, et qu’en l’amas- 308 sant, il n’y aurait eu sorte de plaisirs dont il n’eût joui ; […] nous aurions 309 [The Professor sighs. He raises a hand to his temple, then tilts his head in fait d’excellents repas chez lui, joué gros jeu ; bu d’excellents vins, d’ex- 310 the direction of this hand, in a gesture equal parts impatient and condes- cellents liqueurs, d’excellent cafés, faits des parties de campagne ; et vous 311 cending. Paul scowls and starts over.] voyez que je m’entendais. 312 313 PAUL: If he’d been a respectable silk trader, a decent wholesale grocer, a 314 well-reputed pharmacist, he could’ve amassed roughly the same size for- 315 tune, but in honest money, and, this time with a clear conscience, he co- 316 uld’ve enjoyed all of the same pleasures in life. He and everyone else co- 317 uld’ve had the same excellent dinners at his home, gambled the same 318 exorbitant amounts of money, drank the same excellent wines, the same 319 excellent liquors, the same excellent coffee, gone on the same jaunts out 320 into the countryside… And so you see I actually do get what I’m say— 321 322 [The Professor snorts.] 323

Vous riez. Mais laissez-moi dire. Il eût été mieux pour ses entours. 324 PAUL: Alright, laugh then. But let me finish. His family, his friends, his mi- 325 stresses, and everyone else around him, would’ve been better off, too. 326 MOI. – Sans contredit ; pourvu qu’il n’eût pas employé d’une façon 327 THE PROFESSOR: I don’t doubt it for a second. But let me ask you this: if déshonnête l’opulence qu’il aurait acquise par un commerce légitime […]. 328 your honest Picasso had made such an honest fortune, by such an honest 329 business, why have him spend it so dishonestly? 330 331 [Paul is incensed. He throws his hands up into the air in frustration.] 332 LUI. – Et à quoi diable, voulez-vous donc qu’on emploie son argent, 334 PAUL: And what the bloody hell would you have someone spend their si ce n’est à avoir bonne table, bonne compagnie, bons vins, belles fem- 335 fortune on, if not to have a full table, good company, good wine, delights mes, plaisirs de toutes les couleurs, amusements de toutes les espèces. 336 of all kinds and colour, entertainment galore? I’d rather be a beggar than J’aimerais autant être gueux que de posséder une grande fortune, sans 337 have so much money and not be allowed spend it on any of those thin- aucune de ses jouissances. 338 gs. 339 340 [The Professor shrugs.] 341 342 THE PROFESSOR: Well, you might put it toward your children’s education, 343 or donate it to charity, or any of the countless other moral ways— 344 345 [Paul raises a hand and wags a finger. He then goes on to speak as if

346 inspired. He becomes progressively more enraged. He begins gesticulating 347 wildly. Toward the end of this short monologue, he begins to make slow, 348 wide, sweeping movements with his arms. He finishes by sending a quick, 349 sharp, sweeping movement of one arm across the front of his chest.] 350 351 PAUL: It’s not so easy to hear Ms Morality calling, Professor, when your Mais revenons à Racine. Cet homme n’a été bon que pour des inconnus, 352 stomach is screaming at you… But back to Picasso. He was only a good et que pour le temps où il n’était plus. 353 man for those who didn’t know him, or for those not in his family, or for 354 those who never loved him, or for those born after he died. He left a trail 355 of destruction behind him wherever he went. He betrayed his friends; he 356 neglected his family; he abused his mistresses; he bled his muses dry and 357 then threw them away like used tissues. Do you know how many suicides 358 he left in his wake? Those paintings, those magnificent paintings, you talk 359 about, they were made with the tears, the blood, the lives, of everyone 360 around him. 361 362 [The Professor raises both his hands and makes a calming gesture with 363 them.] 364 MOI. – D’accord. Mais pesez le mal et le bien. 365 THE PROFESSOR: Okay. Okay. But you have to consider the pros and the 366 cons—

367 PAUL: I don’t need to consider any bloody— 368 Dans mille ans d’ici, il fera verser des larmes ; il sera l’admiration des hom- 369 THE PROFESSOR: Just listen! In a thousand years from now, his paintings mes. Dans toutes les contrées de la terre il inspirera l’humanité, la com- 370 will continue to mark the watershed, not only in painting, but in all art, in misération, la tendresse ; on demandera qui il était, de quel pays, et on 371 life itself, when the tyrannical Western aesthetic of naturalism was disru- l’enviera à la France. 372 pted and deconstructed once and for all. All over the world, his paintings 373 will continue to inspire awe, and people will ask who it was that freed us 374 from the slavery of having to reproduce multi-dimensional reality on a 375 two-dimensional surface, and when that person lived, and it’ll be said that 376 it was Picasso, and that he lived at this approximate moment in history. 377 Cubism, Paul, Cubism! 378 379 [As he says this last sentence, he raises both his hands to about shoulder 380 height, palms facing inward, and shakes his hands, as if shaking sense into 381 an imaginary head, or as if he were holding the concept of Cubism right 382 there in this invisible box. He beams a proud smile, as if the fate of huma- 383 nity hung in the balance and Cubism were its saviour. Paul remains visibly 384 unimpressed. There is now a pause of about five seconds.] 385 386 PAUL: And the people…? 387

388 [The Professor throws his hands toward the sky in frustration. Then he br- 389 ings them back down and into a prayer pose, and shakes them, as if ple- 390 ading with Paul to see sense.] 391 392 THE PROFESSOR: You’re making a schoolboy error, Paul! You must learn 393 to separate the art from the artist; the thoughts from the thinker; the 394 philosophy from the— 395 396 PAUL: What about his nudes of that Walter girl? Or his portraits of that 397 Dora Maar, the weeping woman, the suffering machine? Difficult to sep- 398 arate art from artist there, I reckon… 399 400 [The Professor looks slightly aghast that Paul would broach such a taboo 401 subject. He looks upward, to the heavens, and then around the bar, as if 402 searching for for some sliver of inspiration. It is not forthcoming.] 403 404 THE PROFESSOR: The Walter girl was in her prime, Paul! And the Maar 405 portraits had nothing to do with their relationship! He said so himself. He 406 was simply obeying his vision. Look, he was no angel, I’ll admit that, but Il a fait souffrir quelques êtres qui ne sont plus ; auxquels nous ne prenons 407 who is? He hurt a few people who are now dead and who no one would aucun intérêt ; nous n’avons rien à redouter ni de ses vices ni de ses déf- 408 even care about had it not been for him. We ourselves have nothing to

auts. […] 409 fear from his flaws and failings. And it’s not as if he got off lightly, either, 410 you know. He was a tortured soul… 411 412 PAUL: …who tortured many other souls! 413 Songeons au bien de notre espèce. 414 THE PROFESSOR: Consider the good of the species, Paul! 415 416 [Paul throws up an arm and kisses his teeth in exasperation. The Professor 417 ignores him.] 418 Si nous ne sommes pas assez généreux ; pardonnons au moins à la nature 419 THE PROFESSOR: And if you can’t think at such a level of abstraction, at d’avoir été plus sage que nous. Si vous jetez de l’eau froide sur la tête de 420 least excuse Mother Nature for being wiser than we are. Imagine if Car- Greuze, vous éteindrez peut-être son talent avec sa vanité. Si vous rendez 421 avaggio had never set foot in the shadowy underworld of Rome: the world de Voltaire moins sensible à la critique, il ne saura plus descendre dans 422 might never have been blessed with chiaroscuro! And what if you threw l’âme de Mérope. […] 423 a bucket of cold water over the head of Morrissey? You might wash away 424 his rich baritone and lyrical melancholy along with his sharp tongue! 425 LUI. – Mais si la nature était aussi puissante que sage ; pourquoi 426 PAUL: And if Mother Nature is as powerful as she is wise, why can’t she ne les a-t-elle pas faits aussi bons qu’elle les a faits grands ? 427 make people as virtuous as they are genius? 428 429 [The Professor shakes his head slowly.]

MOI. – Mais ne voyez-vous pas qu’avec un tel raisonnement vous 430 THE PROFESSOR: Don’t you see that, by that logic, you’d upset the natural renversez l’ordre général, et que si tout ici-bas était excellent, il n’y aurait 431 order of things? I mean, if everything were excellent in every respect, th- rien d’excellent. […] 432 en nothing would be excellent in any respect… 433 LUI. – Il est vrai. 434 PAUL: I suppose that makes sense… 435 436 [Paul seems to have woken from his inspired spell. The Professor, encou- 437 raged, clasps his hands together.] 438 MOI. – Acceptons donc les choses comme elles sont. Voyons ce 439 THE PROFESSOR: You see? We just have to accept things the way they qu’elles nous coûtent et ce qu’elles nous rendent ; et laissons là le tout 440 are. We can consider the pros and the cons, fine, but it’s not our business que nous ne connaissons pas assez pour le louer ou le blâmer ; et qui n’est 441 to blame or praise what we know nothing about. At the end of the day, peut-être ni bien ni mal ; s’il est nécessaire […]. 442 nothing can be either good or bad, if it is necessary. 443 444 [Paul, weary, places his hand under his chin, and rests his head in his 445 palm.] 446 LUI. – Je n’entends pas grand-chose à tout ce que vous me débitez 447 PAUL: To be honest, Professor, I don’t understand much of what you’re là. C’est apparemment de la philosophie ; je vous préviens que je ne m’en 448 blathering on about at this stage. It sounds suspiciously like philosophy mêle pas. 449 to me. And I have to tell you: I don’t involve myself in all that philosophy 450 carry-on.

451 [Pause. The Professor looks blankly at Paul. Paul thinks to himself for a 452 moment. He sighs.] 453 Tout ce que je sais, c’est que je voudrais bien être un autre, au hasard 454 PAUL: All I know is, I’d love to be someone else, even at the risk of ending d’être un homme de génie, un grand homme. 455 up a genius or famous. 456 457 [He suddenly seems to find some energy again. He sits upright.] 458 Oui, il faut que j’en convienne, il y a là quelque chose qui me le dit. […] Le 459 PAUL: Ah, yes, I can’t lie, there is some part of me that would like to be quelque chose qui est là et qui me parle, me dit : Rameau, […] tu aurais 460 famous. A voice inside my head saying: ‘Just imagine, Paul, you could have une bonne maison, et il en mesurait l’étendue avec ses bras, 461 a great big house…’ 462 463 [He stands up. He approximates the span of the house using his arms.] 464 un bon lit, et il s’y étendait nonchalamment, 465 PAUL: ‘…a comfy bed…’ 466 467 [He hops onto a nearby table and lies on his back. He places both hands 468 behind his head. He crosses one leg over the other at the knee.] 469 de bons vins, qu’il goûtait en faisant claquer sa langue contre son palais, 470 PAUL: ‘…the best wines…’ 471

472 [He springs back to his feet. He takes an imaginary wine glass from the 473 bar. He swills its contents, lowers his nose to the glass and inhales, drains 474 it in one long gulp, then sets the glass back on the bar and clacks his to- 475 ngue against the roof of his mouth.] 476 un bon équipage, et il levait le pied pour y montait, 477 PAUL: ‘…a nice car…’ 478 479 [He sits on a nearby stool. He extends his hands as if to grasp the steering 480 wheel. He turns the wheel sharply and haphazardly. He takes one hand 481 from the wheel and uses it to adjust the rear-view mirror. He checks hi- 482 mself in it, pouts his lips, licks his finger and slicks a stray strand of hair 483 back into place. He notices the piece of straw. He removes it, places it in 484 his mouth for a moment, puffs, then flicks it out the window as one would 485 a cigarette.] 486 de jolies femmes, à qui il prenait déjà la gorge et qu’il regardait voluptu- 487 PAUL: ‘…a beautiful wife…’ eusement, 488 489 [He looks toward his imaginary wife in the passenger seat. With his free 490 hand he reaches over and places it around her shoulder. He gazes at her 491 seductively. No regard for the road whatsoever. Suddenly, he darts back 492 over to the booth, and returns to his original seat.]

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et c’est ainsi qu’on te dirait le matin que tu es un grand homme ; tu lirais 493 PAUL: ‘…and then every morning you’d have people telling you that dans l’histoire des Trois Siècles que tu es un grand homme ; tu serais 494 you’re famous, every afternoon you’d read in all the media that you’re fa- convaincu le soir que tu es un grand homme ; et le grand homme, Rameau 495 mous, every evening you’d be convinced that you’re famous, and the fa- le neveu s’endormirait au doux murmure de l’éloge qui retentirait dans 496 mous Paul would fall asleep to the sweet sound of praise in his famous son oreille ; il ronflerait, comme un grand homme ; et en parlant ainsi ; il 497 ear, and he’d snore peacefully, like only famous men do…’ se lassait aller mollement sur une banquette ; il fermait les yeux, et il im- 498 itait le sommeil heureux qu’il imaginait. Après avoir goûté quelques in- 499 [He slowly slides, his eyes closed, a serene smile on his lips, from his seat stants la douceur de ce repos, il se réveillait, étendait ses bras, bâillait, se 500 and onto the floor. He curls up into a position approaching the foetal one. frottait les yeux, et cherchait encore autour de lui des adulateurs 501 He doesn’t quite snore, but breathes deeply and audibly through his nose. insipides. […] 502 After about ten seconds of this, the Professor, unsure what to do, looks ar- 503 ound the bar awkwardly, as if in some waiting room. Then he looks in the 504 direction of the audience. As he does so, he wears an expression – similar 505 to the one Jim from ‘The Office US’ wears when he looks directly into the 506 camera after something awkward has happened – that says: ‘I would ra- 507 ther not be here right now’. The Professor then looks back to Paul. After 508 about five seconds of this, Paul stirs, slowly opens his eyes, stretches, ya- 509 wns, and rubs his eyes. He props himself up on his elbows and looks ar- 510 ound him, quickly turning his head every which way, as if in disbelief that 511 his admirers have vanished. He slowly stands up, dusts himself down, and 512 returns to his seat in the booth. There is now a lengthy pause of at least 513 fifteen seconds. Both the Professor and Paul look around the bar. The only

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514 sound is that coming from the pool table.] 515 MOI. – Mais j’ai peur que vous ne deveniez jamais riche. 516 THE PROFESSOR: I fear you may never become famous. 517 518 [Paul sighs. He seems deflated once more.] 519 LUI. – Moi, j’en ai le soupçon. 520 PAUL: I fear you may be right.

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Eight: Reshaping Language with Music, or Translating Folk Song ST: Zamba de los Humildes & Zamba de Balderrama by Mercedes Sosa Language Pairing: from Spanish into English

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Reggaeton, which has its roots in Puerto Rico but subsequently became infused with Latin rap and hip-hop, is cleaning up in the international pop music charts. A look at the Global Top 50 on Spotify, this first week in April, reveals no fewer than eleven reggaeton tracks. Bad Bunny, Daddy Yankee, Nicky Jam, Maluma, Ozuna… All names relatively unfamiliar to older generations, granted, but even veterans of the industry, like Shakira and J. Lo, have had their hands in this honeypot as of late. When I walked the Camino Primitivo, last summer, I was amazed to hear the similarities between the traditional music of Galicia, in the northwest of Spain, and the traditional Irish music on which I was raised. It got me to thinking: what might happen if styles from more southernly parts of the country, like flamenco, or from Latin America, like salsa, or even reggaeton, were combined with Celtic ones? Others were already way ahead of me. Salsa Celtica, for example, a group of jazz and folk musicians based in Edinburgh, has been experimenting with fiddles, bagpipes, congas and the rhythms of Cuban Salsa for over twenty-five years now. Baile an Salsa is a collective doing much the same thing out of Galway. Zooming out from the British Isles, for a moment, you can find comparable projects the world over. Africando, for instance, where Latin meets Wolof and Yoruba. All is well, then, on the folk music front. Not so, however, on the folk song side of things. Which is to say, amidst the ascendancy of reggaeton, and for all the prenominate confluence of musical genres, the folk song styles of Spain and Latin America appear to have been left behind. Rarely if ever will you find a hispanophone folk song, as against the music accompanying it, translated into another language, or even adapted to one. And I am here to tell you that this is a real shame. Firstly, because the songs themselves are wonderful, expressive, poignant. And secondly, because they differ so markedly from our own, and may thus have something worthwhile to teach us about the potential of folk song in general.

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Student Number 14314123 Text Number 08

Source Text Target Text Title Zamba de los Humildes & Zamba de Balderrama Year Released 1965 & 1972 Title Zamba for the Humble & Zamba Balderrama Performer Mercedes Sosa Language Spanish (Rioplatense) Language English (Global) Word Count 319 Word Count 420

These are folk songs in the style known as ‘zamba’ in the source context. The first laments the plight of the peasantry, but proffers zamba, and possibly revolution (24-25), as paths to salvation. The second eulogises a bar in Salta, north Argentina, and its nightly singsongs, which give people the strength to go on living (72-73). Both therefore typify zamba, which is traditionally accompanied by the guitar and bombo legüero, paints images of hardship and political unrest, expresses sorrow and defiance, and is performed as much by wailing as by singing (Caicedo 2018: 53). Both songs also epitomise zamba Description of Source Text on the level of form. Each consists of thirty-six lines, arranged in quatrains, with the second couplet being repeated after each quatrain (4-10). One variation on this structure, in the first song, is the sestet bridge, which appears half-way through and then again at the end (20-25). Both songs largely follow an ‘XAXA’ rhyme scheme, where ‘A’ is the open-vowel sound [a], to facilitate the expression of grief (27-30). As they are sung according to the 6/8 time signature of the accompanying music, the lines tend not to be isosyllabic, though their syllable count generally ranges between seven and ten (43-48).

Neither of these songs has, as far as I know, been translated into English before. This is perhaps due to the general disregard for Latin American folk song in the anglophone world (Garcia 2019: 155). I will therefore aim to introduce zamba, via Strategy translation, into anglophone music culture. Targeting folk-song performers and enthusiasts, who have thus far been unable to fully engage with this style because of language and availability barriers, I intend to produce a target text that can be sung to the source music, and which preserves the source-text imagery (24-25), metaphors (56-57), rhythms (14-15) and

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modulations (70). In practice, this primarily aesthetically-oriented, as opposed ethically-oriented (Venuti 1995), foreignising strategy will mean reproducing source-text syntax, wherever practicable, and not translating onomatopoeic terms (e.g. 63). Because word-final open vowels are less common in English than Spanish (Whitley 2002: 148), and so replicating them would limit my ability to preserve source-text imagery, I will substitute open-vowel end rhyme with open-vowel assonance. Finally, since the target text will depend on foreign, source-language modulations to be performed, I will create an annotated version of it, indicating the timing and nature of these modulations for the performer.

As my performance of the target text demonstrates, my foreignising strategy has resulted in an English inflected by the rhythms of zamba, and by the Rioplatense Spanish in which zamba is traditionally sung. To perform the target text, one must prolong sounds that are normally clipped (70), stress typically unstressed syllables (27), change key in unusual places (64), and otherwise reshape the target language to meet source-music demands (12-15). I thus believe the target text constitutes a successful debut for zamba on anglophone soil. For not only is zamba now partly accessible to the target Critical Reflection reader, but, moreover, zamba has in turn brought with it tools to broaden and enrich the repertoire of anglophone folk song. For example, though the target-text syntax is sometimes disjointed (e.g. 4-5), the cracks provide glimpses of how lyrics could potentially be structured to bring about certain effects (20-25). Finally, although it was challenging to create assonance whilst also preserving semantic content, I am satisfied that my use of transposition (Vinay & Darbelnet 1958: 50) and microtranslation (Outranspo 2017) successfully solved this problem (35-36). It is largely due to these expansionary procedures, however, that my translation ended up thirty-three percent longer than its source text.

Caicedo, Patricia. 2018. The Latin American Art Song: Sounds of Imagined Nations (Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield)

Garcia, Tânia da Costa. 2019. The Latin American Songbook in the Twentieth Century: From Folklore to Militancy Works Cited (Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield)

Outranspo. 2017. ‘Classification of Translation Constraints & Procedures’, Drunken Boat, 24

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[Accessed 12/04/2020]

Venuti, Lawrence. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility (New York: Routledge)

Vinay, Jean-Paul and Jean Darbelnet. 1958. Stylistique compare du français et de l’anglais: méthode de traduction (Paris: Didier)

Whitley, Melvin Stanley. Spanish/English Contrasts: A Course in Spanish Linguistics (Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press)

a) Sosa’s performance of the source text can be found on YouTube using the following links: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cP0XzwzIDHc ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8rAYZZMbOMg Notes b) My annotated version of the target text can be found in Appendix Four.

c) My performance of the target text can be found using the Google Drive link provided in Appendix Five.

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Source Text Target Text

Zamba de los Humildes & Zamba de Balderrama Zamba for the Humble & Zamba Balderrama 1 Zamba de los Humildes 2 Zamba for the Humble 3 Zambita para que canten 4 A zamba for them to sing Los humildes de mis pagos 5 The humble of my homelands Si hay que esperar la esperanza 6 If we have to wait for hope Mas vale esperar cantando 7 Better to wait while singing 8 Si hay que esperar la esperanza 9 If we have to wait for hope Mas vale esperar cantando 10 Better to wait while singing 11 Nacida de los boliches 12 Daughter of the boliche bar Donde el grito alza su llama 13 Where fiery cries ignite the air Su canción de largas lunas 14 Their song of the long moon Sabe la siembra y el agua 15 It knows the soil and water 16 Su canción de largas lunas 17 Their song of the long moon Sabe la siembra y el agua 18 It knows the soil and water 19

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Como un canto de la tierra 20 Like a song belonging to the earth Hay que cantar esta zamba 21 We must sing this zamba Hermana de los humildes 22 Anthem of the humble Sembradores de esperanza 23 Sowers of the seeds of hope Alzada raíz de sangre 24 Bloodied root that rises up Del fondo de la guitarra 25 From the depths of the guitarra 26 Mi pueblo la canta siempre 27 My people are always singing it Como si fuera una ausencia 28 As if it were a kind of need La cara hundida en el pecho 29 Their faces buried in their chests Hasta mirarse la pena 30 So deep they see their own sorrow 31 La cara hundida en el pecho 32 Their faces buried in their chests Hasta mirarse la pena 33 So deep they see their own sorrow 34 Un corazón de camino 35 A lost and a wandering soul Desde su canto regresa 36 Hearing this song returns home A despertar el destino 37 So as to rouse the destiny Que el pueblo en su pecho lleva 38 That the people carry in their hearts 39 A despertar el destino 40 So as to rouse the destiny

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Que el pueblo en su pecho lleva 41 That the people carry in their hearts 42 Como un canto de la tierra 43 Like a song belonging to the earth Hay que cantar esta zamba 44 We must sing this zamba Hermana de los humildes 45 Anthem of the humble Sembradores de esperanza 46 Sowers of the seeds of hope Alzada raíz de sangre 47 Bloodied root that rises up Del fondo de la guitarra 48 From the depths of the guitarra 49 * * * 50 * * * 51 Zamba de Balderrama 52 Zamba Balderrama 53 A orillitas del canal 54 Along the banks of the canal Cuando llega la mañana 55 As the morning light draws near Sale cantando la noche 56 Night rises and departs singing Desde lo de Balderrama 57 Through the doors of the Balderrama 58 Sale cantando la noche 59 Night rises and departs singing Desde lo de Balderrama 60 Through the doors of the Balderrama 61

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Adentro puro temblor 62 Inside the walls tremble and shake El bombo con la baguala 63 Beats of bombos and bagualas Y se alborota quemando 64 And in the air fiery excitement Dele chispear la guitarra 65 As sparks fly from the guitarra 66 Y se alborota quemando 67 And in the air fiery excitement Dele chispear la guitarra 68 As sparks fly from the guitarra 69 Lucero solito 70 Solitary starlight Brote del alba 71 Shining bud of dawn Donde iremos a parar 72 What in the world will become of us Si se apaga Balderrama 73 If they shut the Balderrama 74 Donde iremos a parar 75 What in the world will become of us Si se apaga Balderrama 76 If they shut the Balderrama 77 Si uno se pone a cantar 78 If someone breaks out into song Un cochero lo acompaña 79 A coachman grabs his guitarra Y en cada vaso de vino 80 And in every glassful of red wine Tiembla el lucero del alba 81 The morning star is seen twinkling 82

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Y en cada vaso de vino 83 And in every glassful of red wine Tiembla el lucero del alba 84 The morning star is seen twinkling 85 Zamba del amanecer 86 Zamba of the rising sun Arrullo de Balderrama 87 Soothing song of Balderrama Canta por la medianoche 88 Singing our hearts out at midnight Llora por la madrugada 89 Crying our eyes out at break of day 90 Canta por la medianoche 91 Singing our hearts out at midnight Llora por la madrugada 92 Crying our eyes out at break of day 93 Lucero solito 94 Solitary starlight Brote del alba 95 Shining bud of dawn Donde iremos a parar 96 What in the world will become of us Si se apaga Balderrama 97 If they shut the Balderrama 98 Donde iremos a parar 99 What in the world will become of us Si se apaga Balderrama 100 If they shut the Balderrama

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Nine: Reviving Renaissance Rap Battles, or Translating Flyting Sonnets ST: Sonnets LXV & LXIX from Les Regrets by Joachim Du Bellay Language Pairing: from French into English

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Nothing seems more risible to modern sensibilities than dissing your enemies through the medium of poetry. Dissing is the domain of rap battles. Dissing is what rap battles were made for. Yet rap battles have only been around, apparently, since Eminem invented them ad hoc on the set of 8 Mile. You know, palms sweaty, mom’s spaghetti. All that. Before then, we had to make do with what we had, which for members of the literati meant composing poetry. Even back in the Renaissance, or the Early Modern Period, though, slagging via sonnet was unusual behaviour. Sonnets were, à la Petrarch, the most perfectly transcendental of poetic forms, fit only for the most perfectly transcendental of themes – life, death, time, love, poetry itself… Not some trashy water bomb to fill full of hate-spittle and toss at foes. Shakespeare, for his part, had the sense to save his best burns for the stage: ‘Villain, I have done thy mother’ (Titus Andronicus, Act IV, Scene 2). That being said, flyting, or the stylised exchange of insults in verse, was a thing, and had been a thing since at least the Vikings. Perhaps the East Coast did not pioneer the rap battle after all. Compared to its modern counterpart, however, the disses varied not a lot: everyone was either a coward, an atheist or a sexual pervert. Yet even in flyting the sonnet form was never used. God no. What was he playing at, then, this Du Bellay fellow? I do not know, to be honest, and I would be lying if I told you I knew. It might have been an effort to expand the expressive capabilities of the little song. Or it might simply have been irreverence and an utter disregard for its sanctity. All I know is, the tradition of wrenching poetry from its elitist pedestal and using it to wax vulgar is alive and well. The poetry slam, conceived by Marc Smith, was born in Chicago in 1984.

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Student Number 14314123 Text Number 09

Source Text Target Text Title Les Regrets : Sonnets LXV & LXIX Year Published 1558 Title Regrets: Sonnets LXV & LXIX Author Joachim Du Bellay Language French (France) Language English (Global) Word Count 252 Word Count 263

These are two sonnets in which the poet trash-talks an anonymous rival. They thus form part of the poetic tradition known as flyting. This practice, which was popular in Europe from the Early Middle Ages to the Early Modern Period, involved the stylised exchange of insults in verse (Hughes 2006: 173). What makes the source text innovative within the context of flyting, however, is its use of the sonnet. In the late Renaissance, the sonnet was still considered a sacred poetic form, fit only for the noblest of themes and the most sublime use of language (Bates 2011: 105). Yet here the sonnet is deployed Description of Source Text as an instrument of war, and is filled with vulgar insults (7), obscene accusations (18) and death threats (38-40). This tension between reverence and irreverence is also present in the formal features of the source text. For example, though both poems largely adhere to the classical French sonnet structure, in that they employ an alexandrine metre and the Pet- rarchan rhyme scheme ABBA-ABBA-CCD-EED, they also undermine this structure, by ignoring the volta (14) and sometimes beginning a new sentence in the middle of a verse (30). Consequently, the tone is prosaic, as opposed lyrical (14-16).

Marc Smith, founder of the poetry slam, is compiling an anthology of ‘slam poems’ (Glazner 2000). As part of this pub- lication, he intends to showcase historical predecessors to slam poetry, and so has commissioned a translation of the Strategy source text into English. Since the anthology aims to get ‘poetry-phobes aged fifteen to thirty-five’ interested in ‘less elitist’ styles of poetry (Smith 2009: 3), I will produce a target text, for this target reader, which privileges the comic function performed by the source text in its modern source context (Borel 1967: 12). Because this function partly relies on the

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juxtaposition of base content and quaint language, I will substitute the Middle French of Du Bellay with Elizabethan English, with reference to Nicot’s Thresor (1606) and the Crystals’ Glossary (2004), respectively. Although I will render the sonnets in free verse, so as to have the lexical freedom to effectively recreate their humour (Lowell 1961), I will reproduce their rhythm and rhyme scheme, since the comic function also relies on the mismatch between their unpoetic subject matter and their poetic form. Finally, I will translate some culturally-specific insults, e.g. ‘mâtin’ [mastiff] (7), using functional equivalents (de Waard & Nida 1986) in Elizabethan English.

While my strategy has produced a target text that is formally similar to the source text, the demands of stanzaic structure, rhythm and rhyme have led me to rearrange the semantic and syntactic composition of several verses (e.g. 18-20). This emphasis on macrolevel formal features has also resulted in some microlevel formal features being lost. Thus, in lines 29- 32, maintaining the rhythm and rhyme scheme of the quatrain as a whole was prioritised over reproducing the caesural sentence break in the second verse. Nevertheless, it was often possible to compensate (Klaudy 2008: 163) for such losses, Critical Reflection e.g. by creating caesural or even non-caesural sentence breaks elsewhere (20). Alternatively, my form-oriented strategy sometimes caused me, not to discard words, but to add ones. For instance, to preserve the source-text rhythm and rhyme in line 7, I expanded ‘dent envenimée’ [envenomed tooth] to ‘cursed teeth of ill will’. Sample readers, meanwhile, have reacted positively to the comic use of Elizabethan English. However, given the overlapping developmental histories of French and English (Salkoff 1999: xiii), what I find most fascinating about this translation, linguistically, is the dialogue between the languages, as each seeks to convey the same vitriol by differing expressive means.

Bates, Catherine. 2011. ‘Desire, Discontent, Parody: the Love Sonnet in Early Modern England’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Sonnet, ed. by A.D. Cousins and Peter Howarth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 105-124 Works Cited Borel, Jacques. 1967. ‘Préface’, in Les Regrets, Les Antiquités de Rome, La Défense et Illustration de la Langue française, by Joachim Du Bellay, ed. by Samuel Silvestre de Sacy (Paris : Gallimard), pp. 7-23

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Crystal, Ben and David Crystal. 2004. Shakespeare’s Words: A Glossary and Language Companion (London: Penguin)

Glazner, Gary Mex. 2000. ‘Poetry Slam: An Introduction’, in Poetry Slam: the Competitive Art of Performance Poetry, ed. by Gary Mex Glazner (San Francisco: Manic D Press), pp. 1-2.

Hughes, Geoffrey. 2006. An Encyclopedia of Swearing: the Social History of Oaths, Profanity, Foul Language and Ethnic Slurs in the English-Speaking World (London & New York: Routledge)

Klaudy, Kinga. 2008. ‘Compensation in Translation’, in “…mit den beiden Lungenflügeln atmen”: Zu Ehren von János Kohn, ed. by Patra Szatmári & Dóra Takács (Munich: Lincom), pp. 163-175

Lowell, Robert. 1961. ‘Introduction’, in Imitations (New York: Noonday), pp. 1-13

Nicot, Jean. 1606. Thresor de la Langue Francoyse, tant Ancienne que Moderne (Paris: David Douceur)

Salkoff, Morris. 1999. A French-English Grammar: A Contrastive Grammar on Translational Principles (Amsterdam: John Benjamins)

Smith, Marc. 2009. Take the Mic: the Art of Performance Poetry, Slam, and the Spoken Word (Illinois: Sourcebooks MediaFusion)

Waard, Jan de and Eugene Nida. 1986. From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating (Tennessee: Thomas Nelson)

Notes My performance of the target text can be found using the Google Drive link provided in Appendix Five.

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Source Text Target Text

Les Regrets : Sonnets LXV & LXIX Regrets: Sonnets LXV & LXIX 1 LXV 2 LXV 3 Tu ne crains la fureur de ma plume animee, 4 Thou fearest not the fury of my fervent quill, Penſant que ie n’ay rien à dire contre toy, 5 And thinkest I have naught to say against thee, Sinon ce que ta rage a uomy contre moy, 6 Save for what thy rage hath spewed upon me, Grinſſant comme un maﬅin la dent enuenimee. 7 Grinding like a hog thy cursed teeth of ill will. 8 Tu crois que ie n’en ſçay que par la renommee, 9 Besides rumour thou thinkest I know of thee nil, Et que quand i’auray dict que tu n’as point de foy, 10 That once I am come to style thee these three, Que tu es affronteur, que tu es traiﬅre au Roy, 11 – Unbeliever, dissembler, & traitor to Henri –, Que i’auray contre toy ma force conſommee. 12 All my force shall be spent and then I remain still. 13 Tu penſes que ie n’ay rien de quoy me uenger, 14 Thou thinkest I have not wherewith to take wreak, Sinon que tu n’es fait que pour boire & manger : 15 Save that thy mouth be fit to eat but ne’er to speak: Mais i’ay bien quelque choſe encores plus mordante. 16 Yet forsooth have I something fouler for thee now. 17 Et quoy ? l’amour d’Orphee ? & que tu ne ſceus oncq 18 What then? That tender & Orphean be thy love? Que c’eﬅ de croire en Dieu ? non. quel uice eﬆ-ce doncq ? 19 That God knoweth thee not in his kingdom above? C’eﬆ, pour le faire court, que tu es un pedante. 20 Nay. Nay. Rather ‘tis this: a true pedant art thou. 21

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LXIX 22 LXIX 23 Pourquoy me grondes-tu, uieux maﬅin affamé, 24 Why gnarlest thou at me, thou old famished swine, Comme ſi Dubellay n’auoit point de defenſe ? 25 As though Du Bellay had neither arm nor defence? Pourquoy m’offenſes-tu, qui ne t’ay fait offenſe, 26 Why offendest thou me, who did thee no offense, Sinon de t’auoir trop quelquefois eﬅimé ? 27 Save once to have held thee too nearly the divine? 28 Qui t’a, chien enuieux, ſur moy tant animé, 29 What hath, carping mongrel, given thee the design, Sur moy, qui ſuis abſent ? crois-tu que me uengeance 30 Upon me, who am gone, such abuse to commence? Ne puiße bien d’icy darder iuſques en France 31 Believest thou not that my revenge to France hence, Vn traict, plus que le tien, de rage enuenimé ? 32 Could propel an arrow more venomous than thine? 33 Ie pardonne à ton nom, pour ne ſouiller mon liure 34 I shall except thy name, so as not to soil my tome, D’un nom, qui par mes uers n’a merité de uiure : 35 Thy name deserving not by my verse to be known: Tu n’auras, malheureux, tant de faueur de moy. 36 Thou shalt not receive, wretch, such favour from me. 37 Mais ſi plus longuement ta fureur perſeuere, 38 Yet shouldst in thy furies thou persist longer still, Ie t’enuoyray d’icy un fouet, une Megere, 39 I shall send thee hence a lash, Megaera’s ill will, Vn ſerpent, un cordeau, pour me uevnger de toy. 40 A serpent, & a noose, to take vengeance on thee.

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Ten: Translational Activism, or (Con)Textualising Performance ST: The World is Waking Up by Greta Thunberg Language Pairing: from English into French

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Nothing beats being there. It goes for the All Ireland Finals, according to the GAA, but it also goes for speeches. When I visited Washington D.C. and stood in the exact spot, in front of the Lincoln Memorial, from which Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous speech at the Great March on Washington, boy did I wish I had been there. Another one of those moments was when Greta Thunberg, the then sixteen-year-old climate activist from Sweden, took the stage at the UN Climate Action Summit in September 2019, in front of the whole world, and told the powers that be where they could shove their fairy tales of eternal economic growth. Simultaneously embodied in her gestures, etched across her face and resonant in her voice was the anger, the hurt, the disbelief, but also the zeal, of an entire generation. Videos of the speech duly went viral. Other speeches of hers, delivered, for example, before the World Economic Forum, the European Parliament or US Congress, have recently been collated, transcribed and published by Penguin. No doubt this book will soon be translated into most world languages. But what will the readers of this volume, or these translations, be getting? A paltry substitute, in my opinion, for being there. And fair enough, the only reason the thing was produced was to cater to people, like me, who were not there. Or to the hearing impaired. Or to those who prefer reading to watching videos. Yet are mere textual transcriptions the best way to satisfy these demands? As textualised by Penguin, all the elements which made the speech before the UN, for instance, so rousing – the context, bodily gestures, facial expressions, vocal modulations – are lost. So, no, not the best way. But there are other ways. Because the problem, chez Penguin, and chez the media outlets that have provided either transcripts or translated transcripts of the speech, is not the textualisation of performance in and of itself, but rather the failure

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to exploit the full range of textual possibilities vis-à-vis performance. Clive Scott, for example, has shown that textual means can be creatively employed to approximate any number of paraverbal features. Font type, style, size and colour; letter case and spacing; paginal layout – all can be used to recreate tone, strength, pitch, rhythm, silence, etc. Similarly, text can remain text, but be paired with other mediums, like photography, so as to provide the textual event with context and added rhetorical punch. The resulting translation will demand more from its reader, sure, but it will also offer more in return. Besides, if the world is indeed waking up, as Thunberg suggests, then part of that revolution ought to involve our approaches to textualising and translating activist performance.

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Student Number 14314123 Text Number 10

Source Text Target Text Title The World is Waking Up Year Published 2019 Title Le monde se réveille Author Greta Thunberg Language English (Global) Language French (France) Word Count 494 Word Count 894

This is the transcript of a speech delivered at the UN Climate Action Summit in September 2019. Its author first came to prominence in 2018 when, at the age of fifteen, she founded School Strike for Climate. The movement, which called on young people to skip school and protest political inaction on climate change, quickly gathered momentum (D’Amico 20- 19). The same week that Thunberg delivered the source text, the movement culminated in the Global Climate Strike, which saw approximately six million people, many of them schoolchildren, participate in worldwide demonstrations (Taylor 2019). In the speech, Thunberg blames political leaders for the worsening climate crisis, berates them for their cowardice, Description of Source Text and warns they will no longer get away with token policies and buzzwords. Formal features, like her use of direct address and exclamation, reinforce her accusations of moral negligence and financial greed (203-204). Repetition of the pronouns ‘you’ and ‘we’, moreover, establishes an antithesis between an irresponsible older generation and a climate-conscious younger one (237-238), while repetition of key phrases in ‘plain language’ (Cutts 2013: 118) serves to engage the spectat- or (142). Finally, various paraverbal elements of the speech delivery, like facial expression, gesticulation and inflection, lend her message rhetorical power.

The source text has already been translated into French in both transcript (France Inter 2019) and subtitle (Le Monde Strategy 2019) form. However, in the first case, the contextual and paraverbal aspects that made the speech so compelling are absent, while, in the second, its textual force and nuance are lost because of the subtitle constraint. I will therefore aim

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to produce a target text, in transcript form, which is infused with performative elements from the source-text delivery. The translation is intended for francophones aged sixteen to thirty-four, or those most ready to effect socio-political change (Furlong & Cartmel 2007: 121), who cannot currently access the textual and performative dimensions of the source text simultaneously. In practice, my strategy will entail exploiting typographical features – e.g. mise-en-page, character spacing or font stylisation – to recreate intonation, cadence, silence, etc. Similarly, I will employ collage, whether pho- tographic or textual, to reproduce facial expression and gesticulation, and imbue the target text with context (Scott 20- 12: 13). Finally, since this is an activist translation (Tymoczko 2010), I will also use typography and collage to amplify the rhetoric of the source text. For example, I will reinforce the ‘you’/‘we’ distinction by stylising the words in opposing co- lours.

Insofar as the target text recreates performative elements from the source-text delivery (e.g. 72-77), while not only preserving its textual integrity, but developing it (e.g. 105), my strategy can be considered successful. Nevertheless, it produced other effects, too. For instance, the extent to which the target text is saturated with media, be they textual or vi- sual, and the concrete-poetry-like nature of some of its passages, encourage the reader to chart their own course through its constituent parts (e.g. 125-134). Similarly, as their meaning is not universal, the typographical features of the target Critical Reflection text can be interpreted differently by different readers. Whereas one sample reader, for example, took italics to signal derision, another simply saw them as denoting emphasis (e.g. 198-200). As such, the target text is less linear, less dete- rministic, than the source text, and so provides more of an opportunity for the reader to have a personal experience with the speech (Scott 2014: 88-120). Thus, if the target text loses Thunberg’s voice, it gains that of the individual target reader. This ‘readerly’ (Barthes 1970: 10) approach, insofar as it allows readers to digest new ideas on their own terms, may prove a fruitful strategy for activist translations more generally.

Works Cited Barthes, Roland. 1970. S/Z (Paris: Éditions du Seuil)

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Cutts, Martin. 2013. Oxford Guide to Plain English, 4th edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press)

D’Amico, Fortunato. 2019. ‘Clima, non solo Greta: un’altra attivista tedesca incontra 9 capi di governo e li esorta ad agire’, MeteoWeb, 9 May [Accessed 17/04/2020]

France Inter. 2019. ‘« Comment osez-vous! » Voici la traduction in extenso de ce qu’a dit Greta Thunberg à l’ONU’, France Inter, 24 September [Accessed 17/04/2020]

Furlong, Andy and Fred Cartmel. 2007. Young People and Social Change, 2nd edn (New York: Open University Press)

Le Monde. 2019. ‘Le discours plein de rage de Greta Thunberg à l’ONU’, Le Monde, 23 September [Accessed 17/04/2020]

Scott, Clive. 2012. Literary Translation and the Rediscovery of Reading (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

—— 2014. Translating Apollinaire (Exeter: University of Exeter Press)

Taylor, Matthew. 2019. ‘Climate Crisis: 6 Million People Join Latest Wave of Global Protests’, The Guardian, 27 September [Accessed 17/04/2020]

Tymoczko, Maria. 2010. Translation, Resistance, Activism (Amherst & Boston: University of Massachusetts Press)

a) Thunberg’s performance of the source text can be found on YouTube using the following link: Notes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMrtLsQbaok&t=184s

b) My performance of the target text can be found using the Google Drive link provided in Appendix Five.

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Source Text The World is Waking Up 1 2 3 4 5 6 This is all wrong. I shouldn’t be up here. I should be back in school on the other side of the 7 ocean. Yet you all come to us young people for hope. How dare you! 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

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Target Text

Le monde se réveille 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ceLa n’Est pAs nOrMal. 8 Je ne devrais pas être ici. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Je devrais être à l’école de l’autre côté de l’océan. 17 18 * ET POURTANT * 19 VOUS venez tous NOUS demander 20 à NOUS 21 LES JEUNES 22 DE L’ESPOIR 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 COMMENT OSEZ-VOUS ! 30 31 32

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You have stolen my dreams and my childhood with your empty words. And yet I’m one of 33 the lucky ones. People are suffering. People are dying. Entire ecosystems are collapsing. We are in 34 the beginning of a mass extinction. And all you can talk about is money and fairy tales of eternal 35 economic growth. How dare you! 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66

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33 VOUS avez volé 34 mes RÊVES et 35 mon ENFANCE 36 avec VOS paroles creuses 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 * ET POURTANT * 44 je fais partie des chanceux. 45 46 47 48 Des gens souffrent. Des gens meurent.

49 Des écosystèmes entiers s’écroulent.s’é c r o u l e n t 50 Nous sommes au début d’une extinction de masse. 51 52 53 54 55 Et tout ce que VOUS racontez 56 c’est de l’argent 57 et le conte de fées d’une 58 59 60 61 62 63 COMMENT OSEZ-VOUS ! 64 65 66 126

For more than thirty years the science has been crystal clear. How dare you continue to lo- 67 ok away and come here saying that you’re doing enough when the politics and solutions needed 68 are still nowhere in sight. 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 You say you hear us and that you understand the urgency. But, no matter how sad and an- 85 gry I am, I do not want to believe that. Because if you really understood the situation, and still kept 86 on failing to act, then you would be evil. And that I refuse to believe. 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

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67 Depuis plus de 68 TRENTE ANS 69 la science est 70 PARFAITEMENT CLAIRE 71 72 73 COMMENT OSEZ-VOUS 74 continuer à regarder ailleurs 75 et venir NOUS dire que VOUS ‘agissez’ assez 76 alors que les politiques et les solutions nécessaires 77 ne sont toujours pas au rendez-vous. 78 79

85 VOUS dites que VOUS NOUS ‘entendez’ 86 et que VOUS ‘comprenez’ l’urgence. 87

92 Mais, aussi triste ou en colère que je sois, je ne veux pas VOUS croire. 93

94 Car si VOUS compreniez vraiment la situation 95 tout en continuant de ne pas agir 96 alors VOUS seriez malveillants. 97

98 Et je refuse de le croire. 99

100

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101 The popular idea of cutting our emissions in half in ten years only gives us a 50% chance of 102 staying below 1.5°C and the risk of setting off irreversible chain reactions beyond human control. 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 Fifty percent may be acceptable to you. But those numbers do not include tipping points, 121 most feedback loops, additional warming hidden by toxic air pollution or the aspects of equity and 122 climate justice. 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134

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101 102 L’idée répandue qui consiste à 103 réduire nos émissions RÉDUIRE NOS ÉMISSIONS 104 de moi|tié en dix ans ne nous donne que 105 UNE CHANCE // SUR DEUX

106 de rester sous 1,5 °C de réchauffement et 107 108 109 110 111 112 d’éviter le déclenchement de 113 réactions >>> en >>> chaîne 114 irréversibles | 115 et hors du contrôle humain. 116 117 118 119 120 121 UNE CHANCE // SUR DEUX 122 est peut-être ‘acceptable’ pour VOUS 123 124 125 Mais ce chiffre ne comprend 126 b ni les points de a ni le réchauffement 127 s supplémentaire caché 128 par la c

pollution u 129 l 130 toxique e

de 131 aspects atmosphérique m ni les e 132 justice n ou de 133 équité climatique t 134 130

They also rely on my generation sucking hundreds of billions of tons of your CO2 out of the air with 135 technologies that barely exist. 136 137 138 139 140 141 So a 50% risk is simply not acceptable to us – we who have to live with the consequences. 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 To have a 67% chance of staying below a 1.5°C global temperature rise – the best odds gi- 158

st ven by the IPCC – the world had 420 gigatons of CO2 left to emit back on January 1 , 2018. Today 159 that figure is already down to less than 350 gigatons. 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168

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135 Ce chiffre compte aussi sur ma génération pour extraire 136 des centaines de milliards de tonnes

137 de VOTRE CO2 138 de l’atmosphère 139 au moyen de technologies encore 140 b a L b u T i A n t E S 141 142 UNE CHANCE // SUR DEUX 143 n’est donc pas 144 – tout simplement – 145 ‘acceptable’ pour NOUS 146 147 148 149 150 151 NOUS qui devrons vivre 152 avec les conséquences 153 154 155 156 157 158 Pour avoir 159 DEUX CHANCES // SUR TROIS

160 de rester sous 1,5 °C d’augmentation 161 de la température mondiale 162 – les meilleures prévisions du GIEC –

163 il nous restait 420 gigatonnes de CO2 tre 164 à émmettreet le 1er janvier 2018. 165 166 Aujourd’hui ce chiffre 167 a déjà diminuédi à moins de 350 gigatonnes. minué 168 132

169 170 How dare you pretend that this can be solved with just ‘business as usual’ and some tech- 171 nical solutions. With today’s emissions levels that remaining CO2 budget will be entirely gone wit- 172 hin less than eight and a half years. 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 There will not be any solutions or plans presented in line with these figures here today. Bec- 186 ause these numbers are too uncomfortable. And you are still not mature enough to tell it like it is. 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202

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169 170 171 COMMENT OSEZ-VOUS 172 faire comme si tout cela pouvait se résoudre 173 en maintenant le statu quo et en introduisant 174 quelques sOluTioNs tEchNiQueS 175 176 Avec les niveaux d’émissions actuels

177 le reste de ce budget carbone 178 aura entièrement DISPARU 179 d’ici huit ans et demi 180

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182

183

184 « l’ONU 185 annonce allons Nous une « » 186 accélérer… VOUS ne présenterez nouvelle initiative… » 187 aujourd’hui « Il faut une 188 juste aucune solution transiti on… » 189 aucun plan 190 qui répond à ces chiffres. 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 Car ils VOUS mettent trop mal à l’aise. 199 Et VOUS n’êtes toujours pas assez matures 200 pour dire les choses comme elles sont. 201

202 134

You are failing us. But young people are starting to understand your betrayal. The eyes of 203 all future generations are upon you. And, if you choose to fail us, I say: we will never forgive you. 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234

235 236 135

203 VOUS NOUS 204 T 205 O 206 M 207 B 208 E 209 R

210 211 212 213 214 215 Mais 216 NOUS 217 LES JEUNES 218 NOUS commençons à 219 comprendre VOTRE 220 T R A H I S O N 221 222 Les yeux de toutes 223 les générations futures 224 sont rivés sur VOUS 225 226 Et si VOUS choisissez 227 de NOUS laisser tomber 228 je VOUS le dis : 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 136

We will not let you get away with this. Right here, right now, is where we draw the line. The 237 world is waking up. And change is coming – whether you like it or not. 238 239

240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254

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237 NOUS ne VOUS laisserons pas VOUS en tirer. 238 239 C’est 240 ICI 241 et 242 MAINTENANT 243 que NOUS fixons la limite. 244 245 Le monde se réveille. 246 247 Et le CHANGEMENT arrive. 248 249 Que cela VOUS plaise ou non 250 251

252 253 254

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Appendix One

Source Text Illustrations for La belle lisse poire du prince de Motordu by Pierre Élie Ferrier

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Appendix Two

Netflix Timed Text Style Guide: General Requirements

Any timed text created specifically for Netflix – Originals or non-Originals – should follow the Netflix Timed Text Style Guide, unless otherwise advised.

1. Duration

Minimum duration: 5/6 (five-sixths) of a second per subtitle event (e.g. 20 frames for 24fps). Maximum duration: 7 seconds per subtitle event.

2. File Format

Subtitle and SDH files for all languages must be delivered in a TTML (.dfxp or .xml) format, except for Japanese, which must be delivered in Videotron Lambda Cap format.

3. Frame Gap

2 frames minimum (regardless of frame rate).

4. Glyph List

Only text/characters included in the NETFLIX Glyph List can be used.

5. Line Treatment

2 lines maximum.

Text should usually be kept to one line, unless it exceeds the character limitation. Follow these basic principles when the text has to be broken into 2 lines:

The line should be broken: o after punctuation marks; o before conjunctions; o before prepositions.

The line break should not separate: o a noun from an article; o a noun from an adjective; o a first name from a last name; o a verb from a subject pronoun; o a prepositional verb from its preposition; o a verb from an auxiliary, reflexive pronoun or negation.

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6. Positioning

All subtitles should be centre-justified and placed at either the top or bottom of the screen, except for Japanese, where vertical positioning is allowed (see Japanese Timed Text Style Guide for details).

Please ensure subtitles are positioned accordingly to avoid overlap with onscreen text. In cases where overlap is impossible to avoid (text at the top and bottom of the screen), the subtitle should be placed where easier to read.

7. Timing

Timing to Audio: Subtitles should be timed to the audio or, if necessary, within 3 frames of the audio. If more time is required for better reading speed, the out-time can be extended up to 12 frames past the timecode at which the audio ends.

Timing to Shot Changes: It is good practice to avoid subtitles that cross the shot changes whenever possible, as this is disruptive to the viewing experience.

Dialogue that crosses shot changes: when dialogue crosses the shot change the timecodes should be adjusted to either be at the shot change or at least 12 frames from it.

• If dialogue starts between 8-11 frames (green zone) before the shot change, the in- time should be moved up to 12 frames before the shot change. • If dialogue starts 7 frames or less (red zone) before the shot change, the in-time should be moved to the shot change. • If dialogue ends between 8-11 frames (green zone) after the shot change, the out- time should be moved out to 12 frames after the shot change. • If dialogue ends 7 frames or less (red zone) after the shot change, time code out should be moved to the shot change, respecting the two-frame gap.

If there is one subtitle before and one after the shot change, the second one should start on the shot change, and the first should end two frames before.

8. Consistency

KNPs/formality tables must be created and used for translation to ensure consistency across episodes and seasons. Please discuss with your Netflix contact the most suitable KNP workflow for your project.

9. Netflix Credit Translations

Translations for Netflix Originals title cards must be included in full and forced subtitle streams. Please refer to the Originals Credit Translation document.

The subtitle should be timed to match the exact duration of the on-screen Original credit if possible.

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10. Title Cards/Dedications

Subtitle all plot pertinent and otherwise relevant on-screen text that is not covered in dialogue and/or redundant in the target language such as: “Based on True Events”, “In Loving Memory of Jane”, etc.

11. Currency

Currency should not be converted in the subtitle files. Any mention of money amounts in dialogue should remain in the original currency.

12. Brand Names Treatment

Treatment can be handled in one of the following ways:

• Use the English-language brand name if it is widely known and used in that territory. • Use the name by which that brand is known in that territory. • Use a generic term for the product.

Do not swap one brand for another company's trademarked item.

13. Quotations

It is best practice to originate new translations for any quoted texts, as this allows for a translation free of rights issues. In cases of a compelling artistic or cultural reason to use an existing translation, they may be used only if:

• the translation is in the public domain (if unsure, 100 years is a good rule of thumb); • or, documented permission has been granted and payment received by the rights- holder.

14. Translator Credits

Please include the translator credit as the last event of the subtitle file, using the approved translation provided in the Original Credits Translation Document.

Only one individual translator should be credited per asset; no company credits may be included.

The translator credit should occur after the end of the main program during the copyright disclaimer card.

The translator credit should be entirely in the target language of the timed-text file. The credit should be appropriately timed for reading speed, with duration between 1 and 5 seconds.

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For SDH files, include translator credits only if translating from the original language. If transcribing the original or dubbed audio, do not include translator credits.

Forced Narrative files should credit the subtitle translator, as long as there are translations in the file other than Netflix provided translations for episode titles and the approved Netflix Original credits translations.

Translator credits may be omitted only if the translator has submitted a formal waiver of rights to be credited.

The translator credit should not be on-screen at the same time as the Netflix Ident.

When translating from multiple source languages, more than one translator can be mentioned in the same credit, as follows:

• Subtitle translation by: Luke Cage, Jessica Jones

15. Technical Aspects

All TTML files created for subtitles or SDH must adhere to the following technical specifications:

• Only use percentage values. Do not use pixel values. • Use tts:textAlign and tts:displayAlign for positioning along with static values for tts:extent and tts:origin. • tts:fontSize shall be defined as 100%. Do not use pixel values. • Sample TTML snippet for Subtitle and SDH can be found here.

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Appendix Three

Netflix Timed Text Style Guide: French Language Requirements

This document covers the language specific requirements for French. Please make sure to also review the General Requirements Section for comprehensive guidelines surrounding Timed Text deliveries to Netflix.

1. Abbreviations

• Monsieur: M. (with period); • Madame: Mme (no period); • Mademoiselle: Mlle (no period); • Maître: Me (no period); • Professeur: Pr (no period); • Docteur: Dr (no period); • minute: min (not mn).

Terms of address and titles should not be abbreviated when used to address somebody directly in dialogue, unless the lack of space imposes it. Neither terms of address nor unabbreviated titles take an initial cap in French:

• Bonjour, monsieur le directeur; • C'est entendu, madame la maire.

Incorrect: Merci, M. le Gouverneur. Correct: Merci, monsieur le gouverneur. Correct if not enough space: Merci, M. le gouverneur.

2. Acronyms

Acronyms should be written without periods between letters: BBC, CIA, USA.

3. Brand Names

[This does not apply to Canadian French]

Only use brand names (e.g., BMW, Facebook) when they are directly relevant to the plot.

In all other cases, replace the brand name with a generic term (e.g., fancy car, social network).

4. Character Limitation

42 characters per line.

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5. Character Names

Do not translate proper names (e.g., Peter, Suzanne), unless Netflix provides approved translations.

Nicknames should only be translated if they convey a specific meaning.

Use language-specific translations for historical/mythical characters (e.g., Santa Claus).

6. Continuity

Do not use ellipses or dashes when an ongoing sentence is split between two or more continuous subtitles.

• Subtitle 1 Je me disais bien • Subtitle 2 que tu finirais par comprendre !

Use an ellipsis to indicate a pause or an abrupt interruption. In the case of a pause, if the sentence continues in the next subtitle, do not use an ellipsis at the beginning of the second subtitle.

• Subtitle 1 Si j’avais su... • Subtitle 2 je ne t’aurais pas appelé. • Subtitle 1 - Mais j’allais te dire... • Subtitle 2 - Je ne veux pas le savoir !

Use an ellipsis without a space to indicate that a subtitle is starting mid-sentence.

• ...ont signé un accord.

7. Documentary/Unscripted

Speaker’s title: only translate the title. Do not include the speaker’s name, company name or character name as these are redundant.

Only translate a speaker’s title once, the first time the speaker appears.

When ongoing dialogue is interrupted by a speaker’s title, use ellipses at the end of the sentence in the subtitle that precedes it and at the beginning of the sentence in the subtitle that follows it.

• Subtitle 1 J’ai travaillé sur ce film… • Subtitle 2 (FN) RÉALISATEUR • Subtitle 3 …pendant six mois.

Dialogue in TV/Movie clips should only be subtitled if plot-pertinent and if the rights have been granted.

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News tickers/banners from archive clips do not require subtitles unless plot-pertinent.

Avoid going back and forth between italicized and non-italicized subtitles when the speaker is on and off screen. If the speaker is on-camera for at least part of the scene, do not italicize. Leave italics for off-screen narrators.

8. Dual Speakers

Use a hyphen followed by a space to indicate two speakers in one subtitle, with a maximum of one speaker per line.

• - Tu viens ? • - J’arrive. Donne-moi une minute.

9. Font Information

Font style: Arial as a generic placeholder for proportionalSansSerif

Font size: relative to video resolution and ability to fit 42 characters across the screen

Font colour: White

10. On-screen Text

Forced narrative titles for on-screen text should only be included if plot-pertinent.

When on-screen text and dialogue overlap, precedence should be given to the most plot- pertinent message. Avoid over truncating or severely reducing reading speed in order to include both dialogue and on-screen text.

The duration of the FN subtitle should as much as possible mimic the duration of the on- screen text, except for cases where reading speed and/or surrounding dialogue takes precedence.

Forced narratives that are redundant (e.g., identical to onscreen text or covered in the dialogue) must be deleted.

Forced narratives for on-screen text should be in ALL CAPS, except for long passages of on screen text (e.g. prologue or epilogue), which should use sentence case to improve readability.

Never combine a forced narrative with dialogue in the same subtitle.

When a forced narrative interrupts dialogue, use an ellipsis at the end of the sentence in the subtitle that precedes it and at the beginning of the sentence in the subtitle that follows it.

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• Subtitle 1 Je crois qu’on devrait… • Subtitle 2 (FN) ACCÈS INTERDIT • Subtitle 3 …rebrousser chemin.

11. Foreign Dialogue

Foreign dialogue should only be translated if the viewer was meant to understand it (i.e., if it was subtitled in the original version).

When using foreign words, always verify spelling, accents and punctuation, if applicable.

Foreign words should be italicized, unless they have become part of regular usage (e.g., in English, the following no longer need to be italicized: bon appétit, rendezvous, doppelgänger, zeitgeist, persona non grata) and unless they are proper names (e.g., a company name).

12. Italics

Italicize the following: o Album, book, film and program titles (use quotes for song titles); o Foreign words (unless they are part of regular usage); o Dialogue that is heard through electronic media, such as a phone, TV, or PC; o Only use italics when the speaker is not in the scene(s), not merely off screen; o Song lyrics (if rights have been granted); o Voice-overs; o Music notes.

Do not use italics to indicate emphasis on specific words.

13. Line Treatment

Maximum two lines.

14. Numbers

From 1 to 10, numbers should be written out: un, deux, trois, etc.

Above 10, numbers should be written numerically: 11, 12, 13, etc.

When a number begins a sentence, it should always be spelled out.

Note that the above rules may be broken due to space limitations or reading speed concerns, as well as for consistency when listing multiple quantities, for example.

Indicate time on a 24-hour basis, using spacing as follows:

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• Il est 14 h [space] • Il est 14h10 [no space]

A four-digit number should have a space, unless it is a year.

• Il y avait 1 900 soldats en 1940.

Measurements should be converted to the metric system, unless the original unit of measurement is plot-relevant.

15. Punctuation

Parisian French: • There should be a space before interrogation and exclamation marks. • For semicolons and colons, there should be a space before and after the punctuation mark. • Use a space before % and currency signs: 2 % and 5 $

Canadian French: • There should be no space before interrogation and exclamation marks or semicolons. • For colons, there should be a space before and after the punctuation mark. • Use a space before % and currency signs: 2 % and 5 $

16. Quotes

Quotes should be used at the start and end of a line of applicable dialogue and not at the start of every subtitle.

• Subtitle 1 "Je suis hypocondriaque, • Subtitle 2 j'ai tout le temps peur de mourir ou de ne plus pouvoir m'exprimer. • Subtitle 3 Je n'arrive pas à me projeter dans le futur."

Use double quotation marks (" ") without spaces for regular quotations:

• Il m’a dit : "Reviens demain."

Use single quotation marks (' ') for quotes within quotes:

• "Il a dit : 'Tout va bien.'"

Punctuation should be included within the quotation marks if the quote is an independent clause and outside if it’s not. See the following examples:

• Il dit souvent : "Je m’en occuperai un jour." • Elle aime lire des "romans à suspense".

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• "Le cœur a ses raisons que la raison ignore."

Song titles should be in quotes.

17. Reading Speed

Adult programs: 17 characters per second.

Children’s programs: 13 characters per second.

18. Repetitions

Do not translate words or phrases repeated more than once by the same speaker.

If the repeated word or phrase is said twice in a row, time subtitle to the audio but translate only once.

When two characters repeat the same thing simultaneously, time the subtitle to the audio, and just translate the term/phrase once without a hyphen.

19. Songs

Only subtitle plot-pertinent songs if the rights have been granted.

Opening and ending theme songs should only be subtitled if clearly plot-pertinent (e.g. for children’s content when the lyrics tell a story) or if instructed by Netflix. Normally, adult programs should not have the opening songs subtitled, except for SDH.

Italicize lyrics.

Use an uppercase letter at the beginning of each line.

Use ellipses when a song continues in the background but is no longer subtitled to give precedence to dialogue.

Punctuation: only question marks and exclamation marks should be used at the end of a line – no commas or periods. Commas can be used within the lyric line, if necessary.

Album titles should be in italics.

Song titles should be in quotes.

20. Titles

Main titles: do not subtitle the on-screen main title card.

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Episode titles: do not subtitle episode titles if they do not appear on screen/are not voiced- over. If on-screen (either as part of the principal photography or burned into video) or voiced-over, please reference the KNP tool for approved translations.

Titles of published works, existing movies and TV shows: use official or well-known translations. If none are available, leave titles in the original language.

21. Special Instructions

Always use accents on capital letters, whether the sentence is in all caps or in mixed case.

Dialogue must never be censored. Expletives should be rendered as faithfully as possible. To give viewers a truly immersive experience, subtitles should render the vernacular and reflect the original creative intent.

Plot-pertinent dialogue always takes precedence over background dialogue.

Deliberate misspellings and mispronunciations should not be reproduced in the translation unless plot-pertinent.

A capital letter is only necessary when designating a person by their nation, e.g. un Français, their continent, e.g. une Européene, or their city, les Parisiens. When using substantives that denote race, e.g. "noir", using lower case is recommended.

22. Subtitles for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (SDH) Guidelines

Include as much of the original content as possible.

Do not simplify or water down the original dialogue.

Reading speed can be increased to:

• Adult programs: 20 characters per second • Children’s programs: 17 characters per second

Truncating the original dialogue should be limited to instances where reading speed and synchronicity to the audio are an issue.

For TV/Movie clips, all audible lines should be transcribed, if possible. If the audio interferes with dialogue, please give precedence to most plot-pertinent content.

All same-language audible songs that do not interfere with dialogue should be titled, if the rights have been granted.

Use song title identifiers when applicable - song titles should be in quotes: ["Forever Your Girl" playing]

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Song lyrics should be enclosed with a music note (♪) at the beginning and the end of each subtitle.

Use brackets [ ] to enclose speaker IDs or sound effects.

Identifiers/sound effects should be all lowercase, except for proper nouns.

Only use speaker IDs or sound effects when they cannot be visually identified.

When a speaker ID is required for a character who has yet to be identified by name, use [man] or [woman], or [male voice] or [female voice], so as not to provide information that is not yet present in the narrative.

Use a generic ID to indicate and describe ambient music (e.g., rock music playing over a stereo).

Sound effects should be plot-pertinent.

Sound effects that interrupt dialogue should be treated as follows:

• Subtitle 1: However, lately, I've been... [coughs, sniffs] • Subtitle 2: . ..seeing a lot more of this.

Never italicize speaker IDs or sound effects, even when the spoken information is italicized, such as in a voice-over:

• [narrator] Once upon a time, there was…

In instances of foreign dialogue being spoken:

• If foreign dialogue is translated, use [in language], for example [in Spanish]. • If foreign dialogue is not meant to be understood, use [speaking language], for example [speaking Spanish]. • Always research the language being spoken – [speaking foreign language] should never be used.

23. Reference

For all language-related issues not covered in this document, please refer to:

• "TLFI" (Trésor de la langue française informatisé): http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/ • Les règles de la nouvelle orthographe: http://www.orthographe-recommandee.info/

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Appendix Five

Google Drive Link to Performances of Translations Four, Eight, Nine, Ten

Google Drive Link

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1nTv6LwNw-DKExmepppHVTytZbWM9bHj0

Instructions

In order to view the subtitled scenes from translation four, you must download the video file (.mp4), as well as the subtitle file (.ass), for each individual scene. You must save the video and subtitle files for each scene in the same folder, but each pair of files must be saved in separate folders, such as I have done on the Google Drive. You must not change the names of any of the files. Then, simply open the video file for the scene you wish to view, using VLC Media Player or some other compatible media player, and the subtitles will automatically appear on-screen. (Note: the default media player on Apple operating systems, QuickTime Media Player, does not work for this).

All of the other performances are audio files (.m4a), and so you can either play them directly on the Google Drive, or download them and listen to them offline.

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