Indo-Fijian Students' Reluctance to Study History

INDO-FIJIAN STUDENTS’ RELUCTANCE TO STUDY HISTORY: PERCEPTIONS AND INFLUENCES AFFECTING STUDENT CHOICE IN SIX NAUSORI HIGH SCHOOLS

Dinesh Kumar Naidu

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

School of Social Sciences Faculty of Arts, Law and Education The University of the South Pacific

2017

Acknowledgements I would like to thank the following people who have guided me in completing this research: 1. My Thesis supervisors, Dr. Ryota Nishino and Dr. Max Quanchi 2. The Ministry of Education for approval to do the research in the six schools 3. The Divisional Educational Officer of Nausori 4. The Principals of the six schools for allowing the research to be conducted in their schools 5. The Social Science HODs and the History teachers of the six schools for helping in conducting the survey and data collection 6. All the students, teachers and parents for their time and support in answering the questionnaires and for participating in this survey

Abstract In my past 14 years as a secondary school History teacher in Fiji I have observed that History has not been a popular academic subject choice among Indo- Fijian students though it fares a little better among their iTaukei counterparts. In this thesis, I make inquiries to analyze the underlying reasons behind the number of Indo- Fijian students taking History in six secondary schools in Nausori in 2013. This thesis argues the reasons rooted in decades of neglect for History as an academic subject despite of successive governments’ expression of desire to use History to foster nationhood amongst students. A mixed method design was used which comprised of qualitative and quantitative study of survey using questionnaires and talanoa sessions with parents and teachers as the main research tools for data collection. A total of 527 Indo-Fijian students who were not taking History at Forms 5 to 7 in the year 2013 at the six schools during the survey, as well as 180 parents and 84 teachers (75 teachers who were not teaching History and nine who were teaching History) of the six schools. Since the names of the schools were to be kept confidential, they are labeled as Schools 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 throughout this thesis. Key factors that influenced Indo-Fijian students’ choices included the influence of parents, peers and the teachers; the current History curriculum; career paths for History graduates; and subject viability for the future. The major findings were that parents, siblings, peers and the teachers really influence Indo-Fijian student low preference for History at six secondary schools in Nausori. The recommendations will be beneficial to stakeholders in schools in Fiji where this problem exists. This research will also be of significance to the Ministry of Education when it examines factors that influence the choice of History at secondary schools.

Abbreviations and Terminology CDU – Curriculum Development Unit. FNCF – Fiji National Curriculum, Framework. FSFE – Fiji Seventh Form Examination. FSLCE – Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination. FY12CE – Fiji Year 12 Certificate Examination. FY13CE – Fiji Year 13 Certificate Examination. History – with the initial ‘H’ in capital refers to the academic subject that is offered in schools. History as an academic subject is the main element of this research. The subject is one of the academic subjects that are offered at secondary schools in Fiji at Form 5 level. history – with the initial ‘h’ in lower case refers to the study of past or an event that has happened in the past. Indo-Fijians are Fijians of Indian descent. They are the descendants of the indentured laborers brought by the British government between 1879 and 1916 to work in the sugar cane farms. Included in this list are the descendants of the minority groups such the Punjabi and Gujarati who came willing to settle in Fiji. Muslims who do not prefer to be called Indians are also included in this category. These are Muslims who are calling Fiji their home but are not from India. In this thesis they are referred as Indo-Fijians. iTaukei are Fijians of iTaukei descent. The iTaukei are the indigenous people of Fiji. MOE – Ministry of Education. NZSC – New Zealand School Certificate. NZUE – New Zealand University Entrance.

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Table of Contents Contents Acknowledgements ...... i Abstract ...... ii Abbreviations and Terminology ...... iii List of Tables ...... vii List of Figures ...... viii

CHAPTER ONE DEFINING THE TOPIC ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1.1 My Personal Experience and Reflection ...... 2 1.1.2 Earlier Fiji Studies ...... 3 1.2 The ‘Popularity’ of an Academic Subject ...... 4 1.3 Rationale for Investigation ...... 5 1.3.1 Hints from Overseas Studies ...... 5 1.3.2 Situation in Fiji ...... 6 1.4 The Thesis ...... 12 1.4.1 Aims and Objectives ...... 12 1.4.2 Guiding Research Question ...... 13 1.4.3 Outline of the Chapters ...... 13

CHAPTER TWO INTRODUCTION OF CASE STUDY AREA ...... 16 2.1 Introduction ...... 16 2.2 A Brief History of Fiji ...... 17 2.3 The Case Study Area – Nausori and Its Importance to Indo-Fijians...... 19 2.3.1 Schools and Schooling in Nausori ...... 26

CHAPTER THREE FIJI’S EDUCATION SYSTEM AND HISTORY CURRICULUM ...... 29 3.1 Introduction ...... 29 3.2 Current Structure of Schools in Fiji ...... 30 3.3 Pre-Colonial Education in Fiji ...... 33 3.4 Colonial Education System in Fiji ...... 33 3.5 Post-Independence Education System in Fiji ...... 35 3.6 Fiji’s Education System in the New Millennium ...... 37 3.7 Rationale for Changes in the Curriculum ...... 40 3.8 Responsibility for Changes in the History Curriculum ...... 43 3.8.1 History Curriculum in Fiji ...... 44 3.8.2 Evolution of History Curriculum in Fiji ...... 45

CHAPTER FOUR HISTORICAL AND EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE REVIEW...... 57 4.1 Introduction ...... 57 4.2 Historical Review of Indo–Fijians in Fiji’s Education System ...... 58 4.2.1 Indo-Fijian Participation in Education in the Colonial Era ...... 59 4.2.2 Indo-Fijian Participation in Education in Post-Independence Era...... 64 4.2.3 Indo-Fijian Participation in Education in the 21st Century Era .. 67

4.3 History Curriculum Changes and Revision in Britain, the United States of America (USA), Australia and New Zealand ...... 68 4.3.1. History Curriculum and Its Revision in Britain ...... 69 4.3.2 History Curriculum and Its Revision in United States of America (USA) ...... 71 4.3.3 History Curriculum and Its Revision in Australia ...... 73 4.3.4 History Curriculum and Its Revision in New Zealand ...... 77 4.3.5 What the Comparison can tell us: Lessons for Fiji? ...... 79 4.4 Selected Theoretical Views on the Importance of the History Curriculum in Schools and its Contribution to Society ...... 80 4.5 Conceptualizing the Theoretical Ideas for Fiji ...... 87

CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN ...... 89 5.1 Introduction ...... 89 5.2 Justification for the Research Methodology Used ...... 89 5.3 Preparative Stages ...... 91 5.3.1 Ethical Considerations ...... 91 5.3.1.1 Anonymity and Confidentially of the Participants ...... 91 5.3.2 Fieldwork and the Rationale for Choosing the Schools ...... 92 5.4 Data Collection Techniques and Procedures ...... 97 5.4.1 The Survey ...... 97 5.4.1.1 The Survey Composition ...... 98 5.4.1.2 The Survey Settings ...... 98 5.4.2 Interviews ...... 98 5.4.3 Written and Policy Documents ...... 99 5.4.4 Talanoa Sessions ...... 99 5.4.5 Observation ...... 100 5.5 Data Analysis ...... 101

DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA: PREAMBLE ...... 103

CHAPTER SIX PARENTAL INFLUENCE AND OPINION ABOUT HISTORY HISTORY ...... 104 6.1 Introduction ...... 104 6.2 Local and Overseas Case Studies in Influence of Parents...... 104 6.3 Data Discussion ...... 108

CHAPTER SEVEN STUDENTS’ AND PEERS’ INFLUENCE AND OPINIONS ABOUT HISTORY ...... 121 7.1 Introduction ...... 121 7.2 Theoretical Literature on Influence of Peers and Siblings on Students’ Choice of Subject…………...... …………………………………………………....122 7.2.1 Influence of Peers and Siblings ...... 122 7.2.2 Influence of Curriculum and Content ...... 123 7.2.3 School Policy and Classroom Environment ...... 124 7.2.4 Availability of Textbooks and Resources ...... 125 7.2.5 Subject Viability and Career Path ...... 127 7.2.6 Postulating the Literatures to Fiji’s Situation ...... 129 7.3 Data Discussion on Peers’ and Siblings’ Influence on Students’ Choice of History………………………………………………………………………130 v

CHAPTER EIGHT ROLE OF TEACHERS IN STUDENT CHOICE FOR HISTORY ...... 141 8.1 Introduction ...... 141 8.2 Theoretical Literature on Teachers’ influence on Indo-Fijian students’ choice for History ...... 141 8.2.1 Relevance of Theoretical Literature to Fiji ...... 144 8.3 Data Discussion on Teachers’ Influence on Students’ Choice of History ……………………………………………………………………….148

CHAPTER NINE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 156

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 161 Policy Sources: Policy and Curriculum Documents in Fiji ...... 161 Curriculum and Policy Documents: Other Countries ...... 161 Secondary Sources ...... 162 Interviews……………………………………………………………… ...... 168

APPENDCIES APPENDIX 1 Survey Questionnaire for Students not studying History…. . 171 APPENDIX 2 Survey Questionnaire for Students studying History…………. .... 175 APPENDIX 3 Survey Questionnaire for Teachers Teaching History……. .. 179 APPENDIX 4 Survey Questionnaire for teachers not teaching History……182 APPENDIX 5 Letter of Request for Exaternal Examination Data ...... 185 APPENDIX 6 Letter of Request to Ministry of Education to Conduct the Survey...... 186 APPENDIX 7 Letter of Request to Ministry of Education for School Visits and Interviews ...... 187 APPENDIX 8 Letter of Request to Principals for School Visits and Interviews ...... 188 APPENDIX 9 Letter of Consent for Interviews ...... 189 APPENDIX 10 Talanoa Session Guide ...... 190 APPENDIX 11 Observation Guide…………………………………………… ...... 191 APPENDIX 12 Prescription for History in Forms 5 and 6, 1987 ...... 192 APPENDIX 13 History Syllabi for Years 11 and 12 (2014)………………… . 205 APPENDIX 14 History Prescription for Form 7, 1991 ...... 214 APPENDIX 15 History Prescription for Form 7, 2011 ...... 219

List of Tables Table 1.1 Students Taking and Not Taking History (In Forms 5, 6 and 7) in 2013…. ……………………………………………………………………...... 9 Table 1.2 Ethnic Distributions of Students Studying FSLC (Year 12) History from 2008 to 2012……………………………………………………………10 Table 1.3 Ethnic Distributions of Students Taking FSFE (Year 13) History from 2008 to 2012……………………………………………………..……..11 Table 2.1 Population of Towns and Peri-Urban Areas by Ethnic Origin and Sex as of 16 September 2007……………...…………………………………...... 25 Table 2.2 Population of Nausori by Ethnicity, 1996 and 2007…………………...26 Table 3.1 Forms Five And Six History Topics As Per The 1987 FSLCE Prescription………………………………………………………………………..50 Table 3.2 Form Seven History Topics As Per The 1991 FSFCE Prescription…....51 Table 3.3 Years 11 and 12 (Forms Five and Six) History Content As Per 2014 Prescription ……………………………………………………..…...... 52 Table 3.4 Numbers of Students Sitting the Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination, from 2007 to 2012 ……………………………………...53 Table 3.5 Number of Students Sitting the Fiji Seventh Form Certificate Examination from 2007 to 2012 ……...…………………………………………..…54 Table 5.1 Proposed Sites of Research : School Roll In 2013…………………….94 Table 5.2 Composition of Parents………………………………………………...95 Table 5.3 Composition of Teachers………………………………………………96 Table 6.1 Parental influence on Choice of History at the six schools ………….110 Table 6.2 Parents’ opinions on History to the question ‘what do you think about History as an academic subject on the following bases’? …………...111 Table 7.1 Peer influence on Choice of History at the six schools ……………...132 Table 7.2 Indo-Fijian students’ opinions on History. What do students think about History as an academic subject on the following bases?...... 133 Table 8.1 Teacher Influence on Choice of History at the six school.…...…...…150 Table 8.2 Teachers opinions on History. What do the teachers think about History as an academic subject on the following bases?...... 151

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List of Figures Figure 2.1 Map of Fiji...... 16 Figure 2.2 Map of Nausori and location of the Case Study Schools ...... 21 Figure 2.3 The old Nausori sugar mill which is currently used by Good man Fiedler Fiji Ltd. For processing chicken feeds...... 23 Figure 2.4 Old CSR Quarters in Vunivivi Hill ...... 23 Figure 2.5 Baker Hall in Davuilevu ...... 24 Figure 2.6 St. Lawrence Anglican Church in Main St, Nausori ...... 24 Figure 3.1 History in Schools in Fiji ...... 46

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CHAPTER ONE

DEFINING THE TOPIC

1.1 Introduction Throughout my 14 years of teaching History at various secondary schools in Fiji, I have observed that very few Indo-Fijian students opt for History as an academic subject at secondary level.1 Even during my postgraduate studies, while working on an assignment on ‘Indo-Fijian students’ performance in History’, I noticed that the subject is selected by iTaukei students more than by Indo-Fijian students.2 As a concerned History teacher and an Indo-Fijian, I wanted to investigate why History had become an unpopular subject amongst Indo-Fijian students at secondary school. The various historical events that Indo-Fijians were part of prompted me to carry out a survey of this nature. After collecting and analyzing the data, I feel that today’s generation simply does not feel comfortable studying their past. As a result, I decided to investigate the reasons behind the negative attitude of Indo-Fijian students towards History at six secondary schools in Nausori. Over the years, I have noticed that under the present Fiji History Prescription for Forms 5, 6 and 7, teachers and students were finding many difficulties. Firstly, in the History syllabi, the case study countries are mostly foreign to Fiji, either European or in the Middle East. During workshops organized by the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) at the Ministry of Education, teachers complained that they and students struggle to obtain the data and resources for the topics and themes of the History syllabi and teachers feel frustrated. Teachers requested CDU officers during such workshops to provide schools with a set of notes and resources so teachers could have common material throughout the country while students reap the benefits equally. I have puzzled over the problem at the heart of this thesis for the past 14 years, both as a secondary school teacher and as a tertiary student studying

1 Indian laborers were brought by the British from India in 1879 to work in the sugar cane farms during the colonial period. These include the descendants of the indentured laborers who were indentured by the British government between 1879 and 1916 to work in the sugar cane farms. Included in this list are the descendants of the minority groups such the Punjabi and Gujarati who came willing to settle in Fiji. Muslims who do not prefer to be called Indians are also included in this category. These are Muslims who are calling Fiji their home but are not from India. The term Indo- Fijian is use throughout this research paper to refer to this group of people. Another term that is used to identify them is Fiji Indians or Indians. But under the 2013 Constitution they are referred to as Fijians of Indian descent. 2 iTaukei descents are the indigenous people of Fiji. Under the 2013 Constitution they are referred to as Fijians of iTaukei descent. Throughout this thesis they are referred as iTaukei. 1

History. Being part of a group responsible for revising the current Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination (FSLC) History curriculum at secondary schools in Fiji (2010–2013), motivated me to find the answers to the question. I also believe that the answers will contribute to changing the perceptions Indo-Fijian students have of History as a subject. The Indo-Fijians in Fiji have their own history of which they should be proud because it is the tale of building new home in a contest not their ancestral home. By knowing more of their own history, the Indo-Fijian students can appreciate many aspects of life and the situation in contemporary Fiji. Here I have provided a summary of my personal experience as to why this problem needs to be investigated and also a general reason for the investigation of a nation’s investigation into its own history. This chapter sets out the aims and the guiding research questions as well as the outline of chapters. This chapter is important since it outlines the reasons for investigation reporting the conduct, findings and recommendations of the enquiry.

1.1.1 My Personal Experience and Reflection I am a Fijian of Indian descent. I grew up in Labasa in the late 1990s and early 2000s before moving to Suva in mid-2007. I have seen the four coups that have happened in Fiji since 1987. I graduated in 2002 with a Bachelor of Education degree from the University of the South Pacific majoring in Education and Geography and started work as a secondary school teacher. At this point, I would like to mention that I had never done History in secondary school. During my early teaching days, I was asked by the Principal at my first school to teach History since there was no History teacher. While teaching the subject for which I had very little knowledge, I had to do much research and note making myself to be prepared for lessons every day. I developed an interest in and liking for the subject itself, and I ended up completing a Bachelor of Arts majoring in History in 2011 and a Postgraduate Diploma in Arts (History) in 2013, both from the University of the South Pacific. The major assignments for my Postgraduate units in Education (ED 455 and ED 459), were based on the poor performance of iTaukei students in History at Form 6 level in the six Nausori schools. An analysis of the data for non-performance and looking at the reasons for the poor performance in the two external examinations (Fiji School Leaving Certificate and Fiji Seventh Form Examination) revealed that History was not a popular subject choice with Indo-Fijians. In fact, while many

2 iTaukei students enrolled for History their performance was poor. At the same time, few Indo-Fijian students opted for History and their performance is likewise poor. History teaching is in crisis in the six schools as well as in Fiji as a whole. This was evident from data as few Indo-Fijian students were taking History compared to the iTaukei students. The analyzes on my ED 459 and ED 455 assignments comparing students’ performance in History at the six schools indicated several factors as causes of underperformance of Indo-Fijian students in History. As these assignments formed the basis for the preference of Indo-Fijian students towards selecting History as an area of study, this became the baseline for this research.

1.1.2 Earlier Fiji Studies Mesake Dakuidreketi (in 1994 and 2004), Salanieta Bakalevu (in 1998) and Setsuo Otsuka (in 2006) while conducting their respective studies, outlined some of the reasons for students’ performance in certain subjects in Fiji but not for History.3 Dakuidreketi, in 1994 and 2004, focused on students’ performance in Science, while Bakalevu in 1998 another Fijian educationalists, studied iTaukei students’ performance in Mathematics. These two research projects provided me with ideas on the factors that influence the iTaukei students’ performance and also their preference for certain subjects. This gave me some ideas to consider and opened an opportunity to apply data to Indo-Fijian students as well. Otsuka, a Japanese born educationalist, in 2002, looked at cultural influences on academic achievement in Fiji in a study based in Nadroga–Navosa province. His research opened scope for investigating how parents can affect students’ preference for subjects. His findings form the basis for this project on how Indo-Fijian parents see History. His findings will be discussed and compared in more detail later in this project. These three researchers did not investigate the factors affecting students’ performance nor has any other researcher conducted any investigation on factors affecting students’ preference for a subject in Fiji.

3 Mesake Dakuidreketi undertook two studies. One for his Masters (1995) and another for his Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) (2004) studies by looking at iTaukeis’ preference and performance in Science subjects respectively. Salanieta Bakalevu in 1998 conducted her studies on iTaukei students’ performance in Mathematics in Fiji. Setsuo Otsuka conducted his research in 2006 on Indo-Fijian parents’ influence on academic performance of their children. 3

1.2 The ‘Popularity’ of an Academic Subject The twelfth edition of the Concise Oxford English Dictionary defines popularity as the quality of being liked or admired by many people or by a specific group.4 Since the main issue of this research is ‘why History as an academic subject is not popular with the Indo-Fijian students, the definition fits in well when one is looking at the popularity of a subject in schools as well. Subject popularity in schools means students’ preference for a subject. That is, if a chosen subject apart from the compulsory English and Mathematics attracts a high number of enrollments, then it shows that the subject is highly preferred by the students or popular with them. The subject popularity is influenced by many factors present inside and outside of the school. Some of the common factors include: the influence of parents, peers and the teachers the current History curriculum in Fiji and overseas the pedagogies used by the teachers in History classrooms the career path the subject may open subject viability for future national needs. The interplay of these factors strongly influences subject choice where students are allowed a choice. In Fiji at Form 5 level where two subjects are compulsory, there is a strong degree of election in lining up a further three subjects, the role of such factors is pivotal. For teachers too, subject popularity is important because it determines their position and employment in a school. In 2006, the Ministry of Education’s Term 1 Gazette pointed out that subjects that had fewer than ten students in the class should not be offered at that particular school and students would have to find another school in order to study the desired subject.5 School administrators were asked to seek help from other schools to accept students so that the subjects could be offered meaning that teachers were expected to act as ‘sales personnel’ at the beginning of the year to attract the greatest possible number of students for their subject.6 They were required to promote their subjects to students early in the year so the classes have more than the required number and their status in the school was maintained. Already in the pre-coup years (before 1987) parents were

4 Angus Stevenson, and Maurice Waite, ed., The Concise Oxford Dictionary English (12th Ed.). Oxford University Press. Oxford. 2011. 5 Ministry of Education (Fiji), Term One Gazette, Ministry of Education (Fiji). Suva. 2006. 6 Personal Communication in a conversation between the researcher and an Indo-Fijian teacher of Commercial subjects (Accounting and Economics) at School 1, 24th January 2013. 4 advising their children to focus on subjects that would lead to secure white–collar employment. In recent years, parental influence still leans towards high demand job opportunities for their children after their tertiary education.

1.3 Rationale for Investigation This section describes the some of my reasons for carrying out this research. This investigation is motivated by my academic interest and professional involvement as a History teacher.

1.3.1 Hints from Overseas Studies In 2008, Yilmaz Kaya, a senior lecturer in education at Marmara University in Turkey, conducted a research project in South Africa, a country that still struggles to overcome apartheid policies and to build a common nationhood. Kaya highlighted that History (a strand of Social Science), as a school subject aims to promote social understanding and civic efficacy on the part of students who are going to take their place as adult citizens.7 Kaya’s survey on the importance of studying History with high school students concluded that History needed to be studied as it provides students with a sense of belonging and patriotism towards their country. In Fiji this is also important since Indo-Fijians are not only the migrant population, but also part of the national government and governance and have become an integral part of the society, economy and polity. By understanding each other and with continual participation in decision making, the Indo-Fijians have played a significant role in bridging the gap between the different ethnic groups in Fiji. The National Centre for Social Studies in America (NCSSA) which is responsible for setting, reviewing and revising the Social Studies curriculum including History in American Schools, indicated that the fundamental goal of teaching Social Studies in secondary schools is to help students become “responsible, critical, receptive and active citizens who can make informed and reasoned decisions about the societal issues confronting the local state and goal community respectively”.8 The importance of teaching History and advocating History education is the major focus of the NCSSA.

7 Yilmaz Kaya, Social Studies Teachers’ Conceptions of History: Calling a Historiography. The Journal of Education Research. 101. 3. 2008. pp. 158–176. 8 National Council for the Social Studies, “About National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS)”, http://www.socialstudies.org/about, n.d., accessed on 19 June, 2013. 5

A third study, by the Schools Council Inquiry in Norwich, England, found that in a survey of 15-year-old pupils, only 29 percent thought History was a useful subject to study and only 41 percent of boys and 40 percent of girls thought the subject was interesting.9 In the same survey, only 29 percent of the boys’ parents and only 29 percent of the girls’ parents thought that History was a very important subject for the child to learn in schools.10 This was further supported by a survey in England, in 2008 of 2151 Year Eight pupils across 103 secondary schools, revealed that only 3 percent of the pupils cited History as their favorite subject.11 The study concluded that at “grass root” level (at a preliminary stage) History is not given the due recognition.12 These three studies reflect the importance of age, maturity and experience as contributing significantly to thinking appreciatively and critically about the processes of social and historical change. For instance, when History is taught to young pupils it focuses on more interesting and exciting stories which include names of people to be considered important and colorful in the system with events and dates. As these students become older and more mature, the attention shifts to things like relationships, power, social processes, causes and effects making them think more critically. As a result by the end of secondary schooling, only a small proportion of students are actually beginning to think like historians.

1.3.2 Situation in Fiji This lag in developing critical thinking is prevalent in Fiji as well. Students take Social Studies and Social Science at lower secondary schools with more interest but as they move to upper secondary school level, their dislike for the two strands of Social Science (Geography and History) starts to rise and becomes quite problematic. Indo-Fijian students’ reluctance to choose History at high school has important implications not only for the continuation of the subject but also for the historical literacy of future generations. This research is also conducted to generate empirical findings that can inform discussions about how best to improve the History curriculum and enhance the Indo-Fijian students’ interest in History in ways that: respect cultural diversity and gender equity

9 Terry Haydn, Pupil Perception of History at Key Stage 3- Final Report. University of East Anglia. Norwich, England. 2005. p. 18. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. 6

promote personal and social relevance empower the learner for democratic participation and citizenship.13 The data in Table 1.1 show that as an academic subject, History was mainly preferred by iTaukei students in the six schools in the case study area for this research in 2013. It also shows that Indo-Fijian students were not choosing History as an academic subject: 527 (95 percent) of Indo-Fijian students from the six schools at Forms 6 and 7 were not enrolled in History. For instance, at School 5, of the 27 Indo-Fijian students in Forms 6 and 7, none had chosen History as a subject. In School 6, which is a predominantly Hindu school, out of the 268 Indo-Fijian students in Forms 6 and 7, only four have chosen to take History. Only 30 (5 percent) of Indo- Fijian students were taking History in the six schools in total. Indo-Fijian and iTaukei students who preferred not to take History, did either Commerce (Accounting and Economics), or Science (Biology, Chemistry and Physics), or Technical subjects (Technical Drawing and Design, Applied Technology, Agriculture, Computer). In a majority of the schools surveyed, History is an option in a group of subjects selected by the Principal of the school. For example, students take one of: History, Accounting, Technical Drawing or Biology; or History, Accounting, Applied Technology or Biology. So across the spectrum, the school actually offers the students very little choice. A student selecting History is not able to take the other subjects from the group in which History is an option. Table 1.2 compares Indo-Fijian students who have sat for external examinations in History over the last five years in the six schools. It also shows the number of iTaukei students who have taken History and of Indo-Fijian students who did not take History. Table 1.2 is based on the students (iTaukei and Indo-Fijian) in the six schools who had undertaken History at Form 6 level and have sat for the Fiji School Leaving Certificate over the five years from 2008 and 2012. In the pre-dominantly Hindu schools, such as Schools 6, 3, 1 and 4, History has been more popular with iTaukei students than with the Indo-Fijian students. Some schools, such as Schools 3, 4 and 6, had fewer than five students sitting for the Fiji School Leaving Certificate History examination over this period. It

13 Azizollah Arbabi Sarjou, “A Study of Iranian Students’ Attitudes towards Science and Technology, School Science and Environment: Based on the ROSE project”. Journal of Studies in Education. University of Medical Sciences. Zahedan, Iran. 2. 1. 2012. pp. 90–103. 7 is another indication that History has not been popular with most of the Indo-Fijian students. Some schools in the five year period had no enrollment of Indo-Fijian students in History. At Schools 5 and 6, of the two teachers who teach History in Forms 5–7, only one is a History graduate from the University of the South Pacific, while at School 2 both teachers are History graduates. On the other hand, at School 1, School 4 and School 3 the teachers teaching History were not History graduates, but they had completed a minor of four units in History while studying their undergraduate course in either Geography or Language and Literature. Table 1.3 displays the ethnic distribution of students appearing for the Form 7 examination over the past five years. The Form 7 trend is similar to that in Form 6. Three of the schools, Schools 4, 5 and 3, started Form 7 later than the other three schools, and their enrollments of Indo-Fijian students for History were low. The other three schools that had Form 7 earlier still had fewer Indo-Fijian students opting History compared to iTaukei students. Some of the predominantly Indo-Fijian schools like Schools 4, 6, 3 and 1 did not have Indo-Fijian students sitting for the examination.14 Consequently, School 2, a predominantly iTaukei school, had some Indo-Fijian students but only 13 percent of them preferred to take History. Dakuidreketi, a Fijian educationalist and a senior lecturer at the University of the South Pacific, noted; “Small nations like Fiji need intellectual leaders who can assess the pressures of globalization and as necessary give voice to concerns about the potential for exploitation”.15 The performance by students in studying ‘World History’ must be seen as a national concern because this will determine the effectiveness and understanding of each other in Fiji’s multicultural society.16 No less important is an understanding of the global community of which we are a part.

14 Before 2013, some schools were known by their ethnicity and religious community. This has been the trend since the colonial days as not all schools were aided by the government. So it was left to the different religious organizations to finance their schools. For instance South Indians started to fund the affairs of the Sangam Schools. In 2013 the government decreed that schools should no longer be having racial and religious names. For example the Indian College had to change their name to Jai Narayan College. 15 Mesake Dakuidreketi. Contexts of Science Teaching and Learning in Fiji Primary Schools: A Comparative Study of Ethnic Fijian and Indo-Fijian Communities. Ph.D. Thesis. The University of Canterbury. Christchurch. New Zealand. 2004. p. 10. 16 Ibid. 8

Table 1.1 Students Taking and Not Taking History (In Forms 5, 6 and 7) in 2013

STUDENT DISTRIBUTION INDO-FIJIANSTUDENTS TAKING HISTORY ITAUKEI STUDENTS TAKING INDO-FIJIAN STUDENTS NOT HISTORY TAKING HISTORY FORMS FORMS FORMS SCHOOLS 5 6 7 Total 5 6 7 Total 5 6 7 Total School 1 7 3 5 15 10 20 10 40 48 46 40 134 School 2 2 2 2 6 89 66 29 184 8 12 4 24 School 3 0 3 0 3 13 21 11 45 11 7 7 25 School 4 1 1 0 2 23 9 7 39 27 15 11 53 School 5 0 0 0 0 29 36 12 77 13 10 4 27 School 6 0 3 1 4 30 20 7 57 104 114 46 264 TOTAL 30 442 527 Source: Form lists from the schools and Social Science Department rolls in 2013

- Indo-Fijian students who were the main participants of this study.

Table 1.2 Ethnic Distributions of Students Studying FSLC (Year 12) History from 2008 to 2012 Years and the enrollment numbers No. of teachers Teacher Qualification SCHOOLS teaching History in 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2011 and 2012 Indo-Fijian students took History 3 0 4 4 5 1 1 – Bachelor of Education

School 1 iTaukei Students took History 13 20 7 11 19 - History minor (GEO/Ed) Indo-Fijian students did not take History 46 59 75 50 65 Indo-Fijian students took History 1 2 0 0 0 2 2 – Bachelor of Education School 2 iTaukei Students took History 55 38 57 47 57 - Both History (GEO/HIST) Indo-Fijian students did not take History 20 13 11 7 9 graduates Indo-Fijian students took History 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 – Bachelor of Education School 3 iTaukei Students took History 12 8 11 15 23 - History minor (GEO/Ed) Indo-Fijian students did not take History 5 5 18 10 12 Indo-Fijian students took History 2 0 1 3 1 1 1 – Bachelor of Education School 4 iTaukei Students took History 4 3 9 7 8 - History minor (GEO/Ed) Indo-Fijian students did not take History 41 46 40 43 34 School 5 Indo-Fijian students took History 2 0 1 2 0 2 1 – Bachelor of Education iTaukei Students took History 15 28 26 30 26 - only 1 History (GEO/Ed) Indo-Fijian students did not take History 7 3 11 13 7 graduate 1 – Bachelor of Arts (GEO/HIST) Indo-Fijian students took History 2 0 0 9 3 2 1 – Bachelor of Education School 6 iTaukei Students took History 10 16 15 11 25 - only 1 History (GEO/Ed) Indo-Fijian students did not take History 95 117 118 140 124 graduate 1 – Bachelor of Education (GEO/HIST) Source: Ministry of Education, Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination, Examiners Report for History from 2008 to 2012.

Table 1.3 Ethnic Distributions of Students Taking FSFE (Year 13) History from 2008 to 2012 YEARS SCHOOLS 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Indo-Fijian students did 0 2 0 2 6 School 1 History iTaukei Students did History 1 0 4 7 6 Indo-Fijian students did not 24 21 27 33 32 take History Indo-Fijian students did 1 0 1 1 1 History School 2 iTaukei Students did History 21 21 14 26 22 Indo-Fijian students did not 9 2 7 5 4 take History Indo-Fijian students did NA NA NA 0 0 History School 3 iTaukei Students did History NA NA NA 8 2 Indo-Fijian students did not NA NA NA 4 6 take History Indo-Fijian students did NA NA 0 0 0 History School 4 iTaukei Students did History NA NA 0 0 1 Indo-Fijian students did not NA NA 4 7 8 take History Indo-Fijian students did NA NA NA 0 1 History School 5 iTaukei Students did History NA NA NA 7 20 Indo-Fijian students did not NA NA NA 1 7 take History Indo-Fijian students did 0 0 1 0 1 School 6 History iTaukei Students did History 0 8 6 11 2 Indo-Fijian students did not 30 36 36 52 53 take History Source: Ministry of Education, Fiji Seventh Form Certificate Examination, Examiners Report for History from 2008 to 2012. NA- Form Seven was not established in these schools in these years so the data were not available

1.4 The Thesis As highlighted earlier, researchers such as Dakuidreketi in 1994 and 2004, Bakalevu in 1998 and Otsuka in 2006 have studied the disparity in the academic performance of iTaukei and Indo-Fijian students. Yet none has had the focus of the present study which I consider a major problem that needs to be solved at the earliest. Without this study I think the problem will just remain an academic issue without being practically solved. This research alone will not be able to solve the whole problem but it will be giving me potential ideas and useful, strategies that can be implemented. On the same note, the findings from this study will also help me to recommend to the stakeholders and other concerned authorities such as school principals and parents, ways in which we can keep and maintain the dignity of the subject of History in secondary schools. In this section I have given the general aim of carrying out this research, the guiding questions for which I seek to get the answers from this research and finally the outline of chapters of this thesis is given.

1.4.1 Aims and Objectives The influence of different factors surrounding a student’s life appears to be significant on the student choosing to study History at secondary schools. Over the 14 years of teaching, I have experienced that the views and perceptions of History within the surroundings of a student provide a strong indicator as to student’s desire for further studies in History. The perceived values of the individual and the society structures such as the relationship between parents and students, the relationship between teachers and students and the relationship between students and their peers are an important determinant of student’s choice of subject. Consequently, this research has the following aims: to enquire into why Indo-Fijian students are not taking History as an academic subject in the senior years of high school. to suggest ways in which History can be made more popular amongst Indo-Fijian students.

1.4.2 Guiding Research Question An understanding of factors associated with interest in History is of educational importance. This will help in developing the means for bringing History into the common consciousness and also in meeting the demands made on the school system to provide students with means to think reflectively and appreciate their cultural values. A number of studies have been carried out in Fiji on factors affecting student’s interest and performance in Science, Mathematics and Vocational subjects. History has not been the focus of any such previous study. This study is therefore designed to explore factors influencing Indo-Fijian secondary school students in their decisions to enroll in History. The key aspects of the problem that was investigated in this study were: the influence of parents, peers and the teachers the current History curriculum in Fiji and overseas the pedagogies used by the teachers in History classrooms the career path the subject may open subject viability for future national needs. The following questions have been used to guide data collection and analysis and for drawing conclusions from the data: 1. Why is History not a popular subject amongst Indo-Fijian students? 2. Is History too difficult or perceived as not interesting? 3. Do students believe History has little relevance to their lives and career paths? 4. Is the school’s ethnic population mixture a factor? 5. Is History taught well? Or teachers make the subject and History classroom boring.

1.4.3 Outline of the Chapters The purpose of this study is to examine the piece of puzzle concerning the low enrollment of Indo-Fijian students in History at secondary schools. This section of Chapter one outlines the content of each chapter of this thesis. Chapter two is a brief history of the education system, schools in Fiji. This part looks at Fiji’s education system from the pre-contact period till today. This is also about the History Curriculum in Fiji, providing details on History curriculum in Fiji from days of independence till today when the History syllabi are undergoing revision and redesigning.

Chapter three reviews the literature with respect to Indo-Fijian education in Fiji and the importance of History as an academic subject. It firstly (Part A) looks at why Indo-Fijians’ view education as an important aspect of their life and how Indo- Fijians developed the education system in Fiji. Part A also looks the work of Whitehead, who carried out a comprehensive study of the Indo-Fijian education and their participation in education in Fiji. It also looks at the work and findings of Otsuka, who in 2002 did a study on cross-culture and cultural influence on students’ performance in the Nadroga-Navosa province on the western side of Fiji. Part B of Chapter three looks at the views of different scholars, educationalists and researchers on the importance of History as and an academic subject and its inclusion in the school curriculum. Chapter four provides some comparative material on the content of the History curriculum in Britain, the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand – the nations which have historical or political links with Fiji. In addition, chapter four puts the case of Fiji in comparison with those four nation’s efforts to introduce appropriate content to boost the enrollment numbers for History. This analysis also gives me an idea of the History content in these countries. Analysis of the curriculum in this chapter enabled me to see what Fiji’s History curriculum is lacking and affords me a vision for recommendations. That is, the changes that can be done to the History syllabus in Fiji to improve Indo-Fijian students’ perception about the subject of History at secondary schools. Chapter five provides the information on the case study area and Fiji as a whole, as well as outlining the reasons for confining the study at Nausori. This chapter appears here because it draws on my analyzes of historical contexts surrounding Fiji’s history. Chapters six, seven and eight analyze the data collected regarding History being unpopular with the Indo-Fijian students in the six schools in Nausori where I conducted my fieldwork. Based on the data I collected, these three chapters discusses the Influence of Parents in Chapter six, Impact of Peers in Chapter seven and Influence of Teachers in Chapter eight. Other factors included within these three chapters are the analyzes of data on the view of; (a) History as a subject (Curriculum and Content), (b) School Policy (Optional subjects with History and Subject Counseling), (c) Subject Viability and Career Path, and (d) History textbooks and

14 resources. The final chapter (Chapter nine) gives my conclusions and discusses the implications of this research, its limitation and recommendations.

CHAPTER TWO

INTRODUCTION OF CASE STUDY AREA

2.1 Introduction This chapter introduces the area that was chosen to be the case study for this research. Here, I have attempted to discuss the geographical, socio-political, and historical background of Fiji. It also outlines the arrival of Indo-Fijians to Fiji and how they became involved in the education system in Fiji. I will also discuss the historical and contemporary issues affecting Nausori, the peri-urban area lying to the north of Suva, and the locality this thesis investigates. The reasons for localizing the research in Nausori are also highlighted in this chapter. The chapter, despite its brevity, lays an important foundation for the subsequent chapters. It outlines the arrival of Indo-Fijians and why they regard education highly. This helps to show how and why Indo-Fijian parents influence the education of their children, and as the research is looking for reasons why Indo- Fijian students do not take History. This chapter will enable us to understand whether the Indo-Fijian parents who put so much effort into the education of their children do have an influence on their child’s choice of subject.

Figure 2.1 Map of Fiji

Source: www.fiijiislands.com.

2.2 A Brief History of Fiji Fiji, as we know today, is made up of 330 islands in the southern Pacific region between Vanuatu, Samoa and Tonga. Of the 330 islands, about 110 of them are inhabited. The three major islands are Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Taveuni (see Figure 2.1). Fiji lies in a central position in the South Pacific and its centrality in communications, trade and distribution networks is expedient for many international and regional organizations to base their headquarters in its capital city of Suva. This may explain the commonly-used nickname of Fiji acting the ‘hub’ of the South Pacific. Notwithstanding the location, Fiji is a relatively late acquisition of the British Empire. In 1874 Fiji became a British colony. Its independence came in 1970, four years shy of a century, comparatively late for many British colonies, and Fiji has been independence since 1970 and became a member state of the British Commonwealth. Fiji’s membership lapsed in 1987, after a military coup imposed a Constitution contrary to Commonwealth principles, and then returned to membership in 1997. Then following the overthrow of the democratically elected government in 2000, Fiji was suspended from the councils of the Commonwealth. Suspension was lifted in 2001 when democracy and the rule of law had been restored in accordance with the Constitution, but was then imposed again in 2006 when the democratically elected government was again overthrown by the military. By mid-2009, the Commonwealth council noted that Fiji’s situation had deteriorated strikingly with the purported abrogation of its Constitution and further entrenchment of the authoritarian rule. In the same year the Commonwealth noted the delay of return to democracy by the military regime, the Commonwealth fully suspended Fiji’s membership in 2009.17 Fiji’s first residents are thought to have arrived in the country some 3,000 to 4,000 years ago through the islands of Melanesia. Many aspects of this and subsequent waves of migration and settlements still remain unknown, but archaeological and historical evidence agree that the Fiji group seems to have received continuous waves of settlers from the first settlement onwards. Today’s iTaukei were present in the islands when Europeans first arrived many centuries later. Before becoming a crown colony in 1874, Fiji had experienced contacts with

17 Commonwealth Network, “Commonwealth membership and suspension”. www.comonwealth.org.com, accessed on 7th April, 2017. 17 the European, who came as explorers, traders, beachcombers, missionaries and later as settlers and planters. It was Sir Hercules Robinson who concluded the Deed of Cession with the Chief Cakobau in 1874 of Eastern Viti Levu. The Deed of Session served as the foundational instrument to establish a temporary government, while Robinson left to continue his rule at New South Wales in Australia. Sir Arthur Gordon replaced Robinson in 1875. He is widely regarded for implementing many policies in the Fijian administration. Shortly after arrival Gordon saw that Fiji’s economy would develop by the adoption of sugar industry.18 To supply the necessary laborers on sugar plantations, Gordon urged the possibility of bringing indentured laborers from the Indian subcontinent. Gordon was reluctant to involve iTaukei in commercial employment. He advocated the protection of ‘indigenous rights’ and wished to confine iTaukei in their villages to avert troublesome conflicts. Thus, he imported labor as a preferable solution for planters.19 Gordon’s policy resulted in indirect control—a method of control over the indigenous people that the British had attempted elsewhere in the Empire. The indirect control suited both the British and the Fijian chiefs well; they received ‘protection’ by the British while retaining their communal lifestyle and remaining in the villages. This allowed the chiefs to keep their people right under their ‘thumbs’.20 The government’s attention shifted to recruiting laborers from India since such schemes were already successful in Africa and the Caribbean. The first shipment of Indian laborers arrived in the country in 1879. Until 1916 when the system was abolished, about 60,000 girmitiya arrived in Fiji, of which only one-third returned to India at the end of the indenture. Today the generations who call Fiji their home are for the most part the descendants of the remaining two-thirds.21 Under the 2013 Constitution they are referred to as ‘Fijians of Indian descent’. Although regarded as a minority during the colonial era, the Indo-Fijian representation in the total national population increased until the 1970s when it exceeded 50 percent. Today they form a smaller percentage but are still a major cohort of Fiji’s population.22 Others in Fiji include Europeans, Chinese and the other Pacific

18 Brij V. Lal, Broken Waves: A History of the Fiji Islands in the 20th Century. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. 1992. p. 8. 19 Ibid. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 18

Islanders who made Fiji their second home and who have permanent residence here in Fiji. The Chinese and Pacific Islanders are engaged in the economic operations of the country either as farmers, workers, or in business. Within the latter group are three major groups which include the Rotumans, Tuvaluans and the Banabans.23 Although they are distinct culturally and ethnically from the iTaukei, they also form a major cohort of Fiji’s indigenous population. The diversity of people speaks clearly of the value in teaching History in Fiji as a means to greater understanding of the present.

2.3 The Case Study Area – Nausori and Its Importance to Indo-Fijians The six schools that were part of this research are based in Nausori Township, about 30 minutes’ drive from the capital city of Suva. This was also the first settlement site for boatloads of Indian laborers hired under the indenture system, giving Nausori a historical significance for both iTaukei and Indo-Fijians, as will become apparent in the following paragraphs. Upon their arrival from India in 1879, many Indo-Fijians were first settled in Nausori to start off the growing industry of sugar. The Nausori sugar mill provided the first shipment of sugar to London in 1881 and the mill continued operation till 1959.24 The operations ceased in early 1960s because it was found that the wetter areas of Viti Levu were not producing the necessary quality as well as quantity of sugar, so Colonial Sugar Refinery started to establish mills in the drier sides of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. This movement did not have any impact on the already resident Indo-Fijian laborers who continued to stay in Nausori after the end of the indenture period and use its land for other agricultural production, mainly rice.25 The water logged soils of the delta and the hard labor provided by the Indo-Fijians resulted in Nausori becoming a rice producing area.26 Nausori was declared a town in 1931. Its resources and commodities and the supply of cheap labor force helped Nausori to develop into a modern town today, which also accommodates the second international airport of the country. Because of Nausori’s historical attachment for

23 Rotumans and Banabans, though they are part of the Fiji population, are different in their physical appearance and traditions. Rotuma is part of since 1881 as it lies within the Exclusive Economic Zone of Fiji and also it was the colonial government’s administration decision. While the Banabans are residing in Rabi and Kioa, they were relocated from Ocean Islands, Banaba. Some Tuvaluans also live on Kioa Island, off Vanua Levu. 24 See www.nausoritowncouncil.org. 25 Lal. 1992: 25. 26 See www.nausoritowncouncil.org. 19 the Indo-Fijians, I believe the area is an ideal choice for this research as it involves Indo-Fijians and history (as the study of the past). Commonly, Nausori is also known for a number of historical events and activities.27 The Nausori Town Council website offers a number of historical features. These areas include: Ratu Cakobau’s islands of Bau and Rewa are within the boundary of Nausori (see the map of Nausori on Figure 2.2). Unwillingly, the ‘outsider’ newcomers were thrust into ringside seats for the ongoing iTaukei power struggles. These two islands were involved in iTaukei power struggle before Fiji was colonized in 1874. After the Battle of Kaba when Cakobau accepted Christianity, the Bauan kingdom became the leading kingdom of Fiji. The Tailevu, part of Rewa and Naitasiri provinces, which are administered from Nausori, have a strong political, social and economic influence in the general administration of the country.28 The three provinces are part of the Burebasaga confederacy which was part of the Cakabau’s administration during the pre- European contact period. Nasilai Reef (Figure 2.2) located about 15 kilometers from Nausori town is the place where the Syria, carrying 497 Indian laborers from India, sank in 1884, with 56 of them losing their lives. A monument in remembrance of these laborers is built at the entrance of the town.29 The trauma of this night remains a historical memory shared by all communities involved.30

27 The list is based on the historical events and activities that are present today and which plays an important role in the affairs of the country. 28 See www.nausoritowncouncil.org. 29 See www.nausoritowncouncil.org. 30 Lal. 1992: 35. 20

Figure 2.2 Map of Nausori and location of the Case Study Schools

Scale: 1cm = 2 km

Source: www.fiijiislands.com

The old sugar mill buildings (Figure 2.3) and the quarters (Figure 2.4) for the indentured laborers and the European officers can still be found at the far end of the town. Today the mill site and the faculties are used by a private company to manufacture chicken feeds. Fortified villages dating back to the early 19th century have been sighted at Kuku (about 10 kilometers from the town).31 The famous battle site of Kaba is also situated within the vicinity of Nausori.32 This was the site where Cakabau fought a battle with the warriors of Rewa. Cakobau was

31 See the Map of Nausori on (Figure 2.2) for Kuku’s location. 21 defeated by the Rewans who were helped by the Tongans who were led by their prince Ma’afu. The Battle of Kaba which was seen as a victory for Christianity over heathenism, a victory which led to a series of mass conversions of iTaukeis to Christianity. The first Methodist missionaries’ training buildings (Figure 2.5) in Fiji were constructed and are located at Davuilevu. Today this building is used by Lelean Memorial School for their conference and meetings. Other facilities are used by the Methodist church of Fiji to operate a theological school. The old Rewa Bridge, a heritage landmark that was built to assist the colonial government in providing efficient service to the area in the early 1900s, has been preserved.33 The old bridge is currently used by the pedestrians to walk across the Rewa River to and from the Nausori town by the people of nearby settlements. The new Rewa Bridge built in 2004 through the assistance of the European Union is a sign of friendship between Fiji and the European Union.34 It is a crucial link in road communications system. Lastly as per the data given in Table 2.6, Nausori is the only urban center apart from Suva, Nasinu, Labasa, Lautoka and Nadi to have high Indo-Fijian population within both its urban and peri-urban zones. The pictures in the following pages (Figure 2.3, Figure 2.4, Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6) show the historical buildings and sites that are still present and in use in Nausori.

32 See the Map of Nausori on (Figure 2.2) for Kaba’s location. 33 See www.nauoritowncouncil.org. 34 See www.nauoritowncouncil.org. 22

Figure 2.3 The old Nausori sugar mill which is currently used by Good man Fiedler Fiji Ltd. For processing chicken feeds.

Source: www.nausoritowncouncil.org

Figure 2.4 Old CSR Quarters in Vunivivi Hill

Source: www.nausoritowncouncil.org

Figure 2.5 Baker Hall in Davuilevu -- 100 years old

Source: www.nausoritowncouncil.org

Figure 2.6 St. Lawrence Anglican Church in Main St, Nausori

Source: www.nausoritowncouncil.org

Indo-Fijians make up the bulk of the population in the Nausori area, in comparison with other major urban centers of Fiji (Table 2.1). This population of Nausori is also made up of largely the new residents who have come in from outer areas of the Central Division to look for employment and for better living standards in the capital city of Suva. Most of these immigrants to Suva were former sugar cane farmers whose land leases had been expired and were not renewed. Due to high rent and lack of space elsewhere, these people have chosen to remain in Nausori.

Table 2.1 Population of Towns and Peri-Urban Areas by Ethnic Origin and Sex as of 16 September 2007 Declared Cities, Towns and Ethnicity Urban centers ITaukei Indo-Fijians Others Total City 39,714 22,478 12,289 74, 481 Suva Peri-Urban 7,625 2,686 899 11,210 Town 8,351 589 1,812 10,752 Lami Peri-Urban 8,211 424 1,142 9,777 Town 38,476 32,244 5,344 76,064 Nasinu Peri-Urban 8,043 2,768 571 11,382 Town 10,603 13.145 1,171 24,919 Nausori Peri-Urban 8,514 13,372 799 22,685 City 20,986 19,476 3,011 43,473 Lautoka Peri-Urban 3,256 5,243 248 8,747 Town 4,947 4,961 1,777 11,685 Nadi Peri-Urban 14,860 14,275 1,464 30,599 Town 2,369 4,103 354 6,826 Ba Peri-Urban 3.211 8,284 205 11,700 Town 801 702 131 1,634 Sigatoka Peri-Urban 3,869 3,719 400 7,988 Town 3,978 3,174 554 7,706 Labasa Peri-Urban 5,947 13,831 465 20,243 Town 1,367 1,590 328 3,288 Savusavu Peri-Urban 1,875 1,355 519 3,749 Town 725 787 219 1,131 Levuka Peri-Urban 2,547 219 500 3,266 Tavua Town 337 645 97 1,079 Peri-Urban 1,243 49 17 1,309

Source: Fiji Bureau of Statistics - Key Statistics: June 2012

Table 2.2 shows the increase of residents according to the ethnic groups. The overall trend is that the population of the Nausori area is growing, and is bound to grow even further. The Indo-Fijian population in both years (1996 and 2007) for all the boundaries under the supervision of the Nausori town Council is more than the iTaukei population. Indo-Fijians do have a major influence in the administration of 25 the Nausori area as they are the majority in the rural-urban fringe, while the iTaukei are tied to their traditional land and making a living while confined to their villages and the communal lifestyle under the authority of their chiefs.

Table 2.2 Population of Nausori by Ethnicity, 1996 and 2007 Major town Population in 1996 Population in 2007 boundary of Fijian Indo- Other Fijian Indo- Other Nausori Fijian Fijian Total Nausori 11,94 22,784 1,149 19,11 26,571 1,970 Town and Peri- 8 7 Urban Naulu-Nakasi 2,596 5,909 208 3,728 6,870 464 Ward Davuilevu Ward 1,514 1,836 218 2,295 1,636 274 Nausori Ward 687 1,331 158 1,493 1,616 214 Nausori Peri 5,728 11,850 466 8,514 13,372 799 Urban 1996-2007 Population 1996-2007 Population Change by Ethnicity Percentage Change by Ethnicity Total Nausori 7,169 3,733 821 38% 14% 42% Town and Peri- Urban Total Nausori 4,383 2,211 488 41% 17% 42% Town Wainibuku- 1,664 1,165 120 54% 39% 55% Davuilevu Ward Naulu-Nakasi 1,132 961 256 30% 14% 55% Ward Davuilevu Ward 781 200 56 34% 12% 20% Nausori Ward 806 285 56 54% 18% 26% Nausori Peri 2,786 1,522 333 33% 11% 42% Urban Source: Fiji Island Bureau of Statistics -- 2012

2.3.1 Schools and Schooling in Nausori Within the jurisdiction of the Nausori education office, there are 25 secondary schools, 21 of which are managed by the different ethnic groups (10 – Hindu, and 11 – iTaukei), while four are managed by the government.35 The schools within this boundary have the same curriculum as other schools around Fiji and have similar policies like other schools around the country. On the same note, eleven

35 Personal Interview by the author with Ministry of Education Officer (the District Counselor) based at Nausori Education Office. 13th February, 2012. 26 schools are labeled as underperforming.36 These schools are a matter of concern for the Ministry of Education in their effort to make Fiji a “Knowledge Based Society”.37 The Ministry of Education had deployed a team of senior officials from the Ministry to look into strategies to improve the results of these underperforming schools.38 The results in History were not pleasing. One of the factors highlighted was that the subject is not given major attention at the lower levels (Forms 3 and 4). In schools around the area, History was not given priority by the Indo-Fijian students in comparison to Vocational, Commerce and Science subjects.39 As delineated in Tables 3.4 and 3.5, though History numbers in the six schools had been increasing it was not significant compared with other subjects. Indo-Fijian teachers and Indo- Fijian students had a pre-conceived idea that History was about memorizing facts and events. Because it was about the study of the past, they did not consider it worthwhile. However, the new History curriculum for Years 11(Form 5) and 12 (Form 6) has been given better preference though not by Indo-Fijian students.40 Thus, looking at the historical attachment that Indo-Fijians have with Nausori plus the historical importance the area has, Nausori provides an ideal case study area. In this chapter, the case study area for this research was looked at to analyze the historical importance of Nausori to the Indo-Fijians and Fiji as nation. The historical importance of this area to both Indo-Fijians and Fiji makes it an area worth studying. The information laid out in this chapter provides additional perspectives and perceptions towards this research. This chapter is related to the thesis question as it provided the fact the Nausori communities do have historical attachments to the Indo-Fijians and Fiji, but still the current generation of Indo-Fijian students do not prefer to take the subject of History at secondary schools in Nausori as local

36 These are schools that have below 50 percent pass rates in their FSLC examination over the last five years. 37 Pillar 11 of the People’s Charter for Change, Peace and Progress that was used by the Bainimarama government from 2006 till 2013 when the Constitution was adapted. 38 The officials are holding high positions in the Ministry of Education’s hierarchy and have been given the authority to use appropriate measures to improve the Form 6 results at the underperforming schools. These officials can recommend the transfers and removal of teachers who are not performing and meeting the expectations of the schools and the Ministry as well. The officials make random trips to their designated schools and monitor their progress. 39 Personal Communication by the author with the Senior Education Officer for History based at CDU. Ministry of Education (Fiji) on 27th January 2013. 40 In this thesis I use the terms ‘Form’, ‘Class’ and ‘Years’ interchangeably and indicate these in brackets. 27 examples are readily available for them to refer to. The 1991 Form 7 History Prescription outlines that the fundamental goal for teaching History at secondary school is to help students become responsible, critical, reflective and active citizens who can make informed and reasoned decisions about the societal issues that confront the local, national and global community41. History as an academic subject is about studying and evaluating the past. But there is an element of rejection for History amongst the Indo-Fijian students in secondary schools.

41 Ministry of Education (Fiji), Fiji Seventh Form History Prescription, Ministry of Education (Fiji), Suva. 1991. p. 2. 28

CHAPTER THREE

FIJI’S EDUCATION SYSTEM AND HISTORY CURRICULUM

3.1 Introduction In this Chapter, I will provide a brief description of Fiji’s education system from the pre-colonial era till the present. This description outlines the system of education in Fiji and the pedagogies that were used in transmitting knowledge, drawing attention to some historical facts about the education system in Fiji from the pre-colonial times to the 21st century. Changes in the education made by the present government are noted in particular. These developments provide a necessary and important backdrop to both the content and pedagogy in the teaching and learning of History at school, and may provide us with clues to better understand the perceived lack of popularity amongst Indo-Fijian students. Also, included are the outline of the new and old History prescriptions and content for Fiji schools, highlighting the changes in the History curriculum. This chapter is important since the thesis looks at both the History curriculum and Indo-Fijian subject selection; to understand the outcomes of this study, one needs to know the education system in Fiji. This thesis is about History as a subject. The audience should have knowledge of the History curriculum that is presently in operation in Fiji’s high schools. As the role of government in education and the changes to the History curriculum are highlighted in this chapter, this will give an indication if these two factors have an impact on Indo-Fijian students’ perception of History in the data analysis. Education in Fiji today is organized with a centralized system of decision making and centralized curriculum making. That is, very little consultation is carried out with teachers, parents, industry or students regarding the changes in the curriculum. Policies are top-down in designing, reviewing, revising or devising new curriculum. At the top, the officials from the Ministry of Education may just say that as a general policy, all subject curricula are to be under constant evaluation and will be re-written every ten years. Then at the operational level, the team of subject specialists and the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) will get on with the practical level of putting this policy into practice. The hierarchical nature of educational policy-making has historical roots.

3.2 Current Structure of Schools in Fiji Here, it would be apt to provide the current ‘snapshot’ of the structure of schooling and qualifications in Fiji. Successive governments in Fiji since the country became a British colony in 1874 took measures to formalize the education system. This marked a change from the pre-colonial era in which education had not been the main priority. In the colonial era schools were established, increasingly with centralized curricula, which purported to enhance learning and development of the citizens of Fiji. Today there are more than 500 primary schools and 178 secondary schools around the Fijian archipelago. Until the early 1970s, schools in Fiji had a structure of eight years of primary education (Classes 1–8), followed by five years of secondary education (Forms 3–7) modeled after the New Zealand education system.42 The structure changed in the early 1970s when students received six years of primary and six years of secondary schooling. Junior secondary schools were established to accommodate Forms 1–4 while the former junior secondary schools were upgraded to have Forms 6 and 7. Most junior secondary schools now had become full secondary schools by adding Forms 5 and 6 and for some, Form 7. In 1997, the Ministry of Education decided to change back to the eight-year primary cycle and secondary commencing at Form 3 rather than Form 1. Initially, this was only applied to schools administered by the Ministry of Education as there were some schools that were managed by religious communities, but later the Ministry recommended the change be adopted in all other secondary schools in Fiji.43 The reasons for the change were noted in the compulsory education initiative, as well as being related to issues of both inaccessibility and inequality. The secondary schools cater for students from Form 3 (Year 9) to Form 7 (Year 13), while the primary schools provide basic education for Class 1 to Class 8 (Years 1 to 8). Secondary school is divided into two levels: Junior Level–Form 3 to Form 4 (Year 9 to Year 10), and Senior Level–Form 5 to Form 7 (Years 11 to 13). In the junior level, students do a compulsory set of seven subjects, while at senior level each student chooses a total of three elective subjects to supplement the compulsory

42 Helen Tavola, Secondary Education in Fiji: A Key to the Future. Institute of Pacific Studies. University of the South Pacific. Suva. 1991. p. 6. 43 Ministry of Education (Fiji), Fiji Islands Education Commission Panel Report, Ministry of Education (Fiji). Suva. 2000. p. 18. 30

English and Mathematics. The options from which a student can choose are as follows: Science (Biology, Chemistry and Physics) Commerce (Accounting and Economics) Arts (Geography and History) Vernacular (Hindi, Urdu and Vosa Vakaviti) Technical Employment Skills Training (TEST) or Vocational Subjects (Computer, Technical Drawing, Applied Technology, Home Economics and Agricultural Science). What is worth noting here are the terms such as ‘Class’ and ‘Form’. These refer to the years in which primary- and secondary-school in which students are enrolled. The official term today is ‘Year’ which combines and supersedes ‘Class’ and ‘Form’, following the directive from the Ministry of Education in 2014. Thus, Class 1 is now referred to as Year 1 and Form 3 changed to Year 9 and so on. However, what seems to complicate is that the new terminology has not yet gained much currency in ordinary parlance among communities, parents, students, and even teachers: the old terms still persist. While the structure of schooling underwent changes, national educational qualifications also went through significant reforms. Currently there are two national examinations administered by the Ministry of Education in Fiji that set the pathway for the future of students who have completed secondary school. After the abolishment of three public examinations in 2010 at Class 6, Class 8 and Form 4, Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination (FSLCE) and Fiji Seventh Form Certificate Examination (FSFCE) examinations became the new measurements of student achievement that determined students’ future. The abolishment of a national examination at these three levels and retaining the examinations at Forms 6 and 7 levels still means Fiji schools are examination-oriented as the examinations still assess the same skills. In 2010, the government introduced this change to enable students to complete their education to Form 6. If a student passes FSLCE with a mark of 200 out of a total of 400, they have two options; either to follow and complete Form 7 or start off with Foundation Studies at tertiary education in place of Form 7 at secondary schools. The range of subjects offered at the Form 6level was quite large,

31 compared with the range of subjects offered for the former New Zealand University Entrance Examination. At Forms 6 and 7 levels students were given a wide range of elective subjects, both academic and vocational.44 For FSLCE, a student had to complete two years of study (Forms 5 and 6) and a three-hour examination for each subject at the end of Form 6 to determine readiness to progress to the next level. FSFCE is a one-year academic or vocational combination of subjects taken by an individual student. After attaining a passing mark of 200 out of a total of 400 in the FSFCE, a student is eligible for tertiary education except for the University of the South Pacific. While this aggregate mark makes the student eligible for tertiary education, but it does not grant an entry to programs or courses offered at different tertiary institutions. Different tertiary institutions have different entry requirements that student need to meet in order to do a course or program. With time there has been a growing demand for changes in the curriculum by teachers, students, tertiary institutions and the private sector. This has also resulted in the formation of different institutions such as the Examination and Assessment Unit, the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) and other work groups to review the syllabus and the curriculum which then established an appropriate curriculum for students. The curriculum that is used in schools today has gone through changes, but the outcome of the curriculum and the content, are determined by many factors, which at times are not bounded within the vicinity of the school environment. In 2014, the Ministry of Education introduced the Fiji Islands National Curriculum Framework (FNCF), which requires some subjects with outdated topics and syllabi to change and incorporate appropriate topics for the current generation. FNCF is another initiative from the government to include a more student-centered curriculum and revise the current curriculum to make it more relevant to the students’ environment.

44 Academic subjects include Accounting, Economics, Geography, Vernacular, History, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, while Vocational subjects include Technical Drawing, Applied and Introduction to Technology, Agriculture, Computer Studies and Home Economics. The distinction between the academic and vocational subjects is made by the Fiji Ministry of Education and the officials at CDU. 32

3.3 Pre-Colonial Education in Fiji In traditional iTaukei society, education was practical, vocational and largely instrumental in maintaining the status quo.45 The system was simple but it was tightly controlled by the customs and traditions, which ensured that the tribe, family or other groups in the tribe were taught the correct skills necessary for the survival of the whole group and culture. The system of control was sanctioned by custom and passed down from generation to generation by an oral tradition. In a society whose needs were simple and whose numbers were low, this education allowed the people to perform their traditional roles satisfactorily. It also ensured stable and persistent cultural reproduction. The education system during this pre-European contact period mainly focused on boys learning the skills of farming, warfare and survival of their families. Boys would accompany elders of the village to learn about the environment and making the land and sea their means of survival. Girls were stationed in the gardens and inside the house learning the basic skills of the daily domestic chores. Mothers were expected to see that their daughters were well equipped with this knowledge so that once married they could keep their new family intact and together. The method of transmitting knowledge during this era was verbal or oral communication and also learning by doing in a very practical, hands-on approach. There was no formal school system. The continuity and maintenance of the community was paramount in this period. As the whole community was involved, what was taught and learned was largely determined by the tradition. As such, learning was pragmatic and practical. Acquisition of food and the demonstration of acceptable attitudes, values and behavior for the community survival were the major outcomes of the traditional education.46

3.4 Colonial Education System in Fiji Christian missionaries introduced the concept and practice of western type schooling in Fiji in the mid-19th century.47 The curriculum was primarily concerned with transforming the society they encountered on the basis of Christian principles. This was the beginning of formal education in Fiji, with an externally imposed

45 Isimeli Jale Cokanasiga, Fiji Constitution Review Commission. Education Paper: Foundation for the Future: Education Issues, Problems and Prospects. Institute of Education. The University of the South Pacific. Suva. 1996. p. 4. 46 Ministry of Education (Fiji): 2000.19. 47 Tavola. 1991: 5. 33 curriculum brought by the missionaries.48 In such a system of education, the community did not participate in curriculum development and the foundation was laid for the emergence of an academic focused schooling, and the ‘center-periphery’ model of curriculum development.49 That is, the missionaries controlled whole school curriculum, including the design and the implementation of the curriculum. The decision on the curriculum and schooling were in the hands of missionaries. This system provided the means for the missionaries to have firm control of curriculum decisions.50 Such a system in practice was highly influenced by the churches and the values of the Christian denomination the missionaries belonged to. The whole curriculum was based on the teachings of the Bible and Christian values. In this system, the curriculum contained content and pedagogies that promoted the culture of learning amongst students and wider participation in the respective churches. Initially, the colonial government had minimal involvement in the field of education for the indigenous and the Indo-Fijian populations. This is because for the Europeans believed that iTaukei were comfortable with their communal lifestyle while Indo-Fijians should remain as the working class. The colonial establishment and the planters, who supported the colonial economy in Fiji’s early years, saw no reason why Indo-Fijians should not just remain an uneducated laboring class. Unlike the missions, government was not as interested in the fundamental changes to the society since it was primarily concerned with the development of an efficient colonial administration. As a result, early government schools were aimed at producing functionaries of the colonial government, with the curriculum based on the British and later the New Zealand education system.51 In 1924, the New Zealand Education Department established a co-operative scheme to recruit teachers for service in Fiji because it was difficult to recruit teachers from Britain.52 This system of recruitment, which used the same syllabus, textbooks, examinations and teachers as in New Zealand, continued until the early 1970s.

48 Cokanasiga. 1996:4. 49 ‘Center-periphery’ in this period of education development means that the missionaries held the authority for the development of the education system, curriculum and policies. The missionaries were the central education authority. Policies and orders emanated from the center and were passed out through the system to its edges. Input from the periphery (or the grass roots of the system) was negligible. 50 Tavola. 1991: 6. 51 Cokanasiga. 1996: 10. 52 Ministry of Education (Fiji). 2000: 12. 34

Consequently, English became the medium of instruction in all schools from the time when the missionaries established the formal schooling system in the late 1890s. Significant features of this curriculum were the minimal participation of community and teachers in its formulation, and the emphasis upon the production of knowledge rather than the process of learning with scant attention to its relevance for the local situation.53 Thus, the formal education during most of the colonial period became a tool for producing future ‘colonial elites’—a group of the middle-class who would occupy critical administrative roles on behalf of the colonists. In turn, the rationale for educating the local people was to groom them to be loyal to the ‘colonial elites’ which almost by definition were Europeans.

3.5 Post-Independence Education System in Fiji In preparation for independence, the British government established the Fiji Education Commission in 1969. Its purpose was to look into the affairs of the education sector in the mid-1920s, examined the colonial system of education and argued that much of what was being taught was not geared to local needs and aspirations.54 In 1969, a Royal Commission Report raised concerns regarding the quality of education at all levels and the need to alter the curriculum to reflect the needs of the population. In 1970, the year Fiji gained independence, Fiji’s Ministry of Education established a CDU following the recommendation by the 1969 Fiji Education Commission report. The main operation of the CDU is to revise the various curricula.55 The 1969 Fiji Education Commission was hailed as producing the “Master Plan” for educational development in the decades after independence.56 Government’s platform was to allocate a high percentage of its annual budget to schools. Many diverse educational development activities were able to run effectively and with great success with the financial support from the government. In the early years of Fiji’s independence, the New Zealand teacher scheme worked well with the support of the Fiji government’s allocation. This was also the time when the regional education institutions such as The University of the South Pacific (established in 1968) started their operations. Apart from the small number of

53 Tavola. 1991: 5. 54 Ministry of Education (Fiji). 2000: 19. 55 Tavola. 1991: 18. 56 Ibid. 35 government schools, communities and civil society organizations owned and managed most schools. The Education Act (1978), which was later supplemented by the education gazettes, set out the key features of the new education system and described the responsibilities of the state and the school controlling authorities. By 1984, the CDU completed the task of reforming the curriculum for the first 10 years of schooling. The adaption entailed adapting the themes or topics to Fiji or the southern Pacific region. The CDU designed the major changes in secondary examinations when the FSLCE replaced the New Zealand School Certificate (NZSC) in Form 5 and the New Zealand University Entrance (NZUE) in Form 6 in 1987.57 The NZSC took place in Form 5 to gain admission into Form 6 while NZUE was the examination to gain entry into universities. Teachers teaching the NZSC and NZUE came mainly from New Zealand, used the New Zealand curriculum and taught mainly in government-funded schools. The Fiji government abolished the system in 1986, since the cost of maintaining the system became too expensive as the salary paid to the New Zealand teachers by the Fiji government was equivalent to the salary in New Zealand. This grew higher as the teachers received travelling expenses and allowances. The New Zealand teachers tended to serve for two or three years and the high turnover had detrimental effects especially in secondary schools. For instance, teachers introduced new ideas and use methods of teaching. The students often felt uncomfortable because by the time they became accustomed to teachers’ individual teaching styles, the teachers finished their contracts and left Fiji. For the decades immediately after independence in 1970, the Fiji government constantly allocated between 20 percent and 30 percent of its annual budget to education, of which about 70 percent went to the expatriate teachers’ salaries and allowances, while the rest was used for the establishment of new schools, improving teacher training facilities and institutions and employment of more teachers under the ‘grant-in-aid' teacher scheme. The grant-in-aid teacher scheme set up by the government provided, that 80 percent of the wages of the grant-in-aid teachers would be paid by the school from the grant given by the government to schools for their administration, the remaining 20 percent by the grant allocated to the Ministry of Education. The 80 percent paid by the schools was deducted from the grant given to

57 Now in 2017, the Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination is known as Fiji Year 12 Certificate Examination and Fiji Seventh Form Examination is known as Year 13 Certificate Examination. 36 the schools. Teachers hired on the ‘grant-in-aid’ schemes were the new recruits before they were absorbed as civil servants. This system was abolished in 2007 and all teachers were employed either as civil servants on contract or as civil servants with their salaries entirely paid by the Ministry of Education. This was an important change, since the schools initially paid their teachers’ salaries, when I look at it now I am concerned about the silence on the development of an Indo-Fijian education system and Indo-Fijian’s insistence on their right to education which probably determined the subjects taught as driven by community’s demands.58 Until the 21st century, the education system in Fiji was very examination orientated. During this period a child entering school was subjected to taking five national examinations within a period of only eight years: first at Class 6, second at Class 8, third at Form 4, fourth at Form 6 and lastly at Form 7.59 Salanieta Bakalevu claimed as early as 1998, that the high frequency of national examinations adversely affects the teaching and learning processes in the school system.60 Teachers, much to their dismay, had to teach primarily for the purpose of scoring a high number of passes. On the other hand, students confined their learning to the content and questions they thought would help to score high marks. Such attitudes dictated the processes of teaching and learning in Fiji’s classrooms. Although examinations are one means of measuring students’ progress and the effectiveness of teaching, the knowledge and skills that are required for survival in of normal daily life were not assessed. The examinations in fact simply measured the recall and analysis skills that would give high grades in the examinations and as such they did not prepare students for ‘the real world’.61 Teachers and students felt that recall (or rote learning) did not develop skills in analysis at all. History, on the other hand, with its societal and civic component part of the syllabus, made students become aware of the community and the happenings of the individual’s surroundings.

3.6 Fiji’s Education System in the New Millennium The beginning of the 2000s saw further changes in Fiji’s education system. These changes followed the recommendations of the Fiji Education Commission

58 Ministry of Education (Fiji). 2000: 19. 59 Ibid., p. 15. 60 Salanieta Bakalevu, ‘Fijian Perspectives in Mathematics Education’. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Waikato. Hamilton, New Zealand. 1998. p. 9. 61 Ibid., p. 16. 37

Report of 2000 and the Fiji National Curriculum Framework (both editions one and two), whose main objective was to provide quality education to the children of Fiji through quality curriculum and quality delivery. In 2003, the Ministry of Education reformed the Forms 3 and 4 (Year 9 and Year 10) syllabi to include internal assessment.62 Fiji Junior Certificate Examinations that earlier involved a two-year course at Forms 3 and 4 was reduced to only one year with Form 3 having internal assessment tasks to be completed by students.63 Students were required to complete their internal assessment tasks at Forms 3and 4 to move up to Form 5. These tasks were of two types: the Classroom Based Assessment (CBA) and a Common Assessment Task (CAT). The CBA and CAT take place in Forms 3 and 4 respectively. All the Form 3 students are to complete a set of nine CBAs before progressing to Form 4. The CBA were tasks that teachers design and assess. This includes tasks such as posters, drama, mapping and group work, to name a few. Teachers also were to make their own criteria for assessments. Teachers design the tasks based on the ability of their students. At Form 4 level students were to complete a Common Assessment Task (CAT), which is designed by the subject specialists at CDU. That is, a task common to all students at Form 4 level in Fiji and they also had to complete a set of seven CBAs. The CDU organizes a moderation day and time where teachers based in different districts would come and moderate the CAT task and the marks. A similar syllabus and course were set up for Classes 6, 7 and 8. Later in 2010, the government announced the abolition of three of the national examinations, at Class 6, Class 8 and Form 4 levels, leaving students to sit for only two national examinations, at the Form 6 and Form 7 levels.64 In 2015, the government reintroduced the two major examinations in primary level and the three major examinations for Forms 4, 6 and 7. With this change, the Class 7 and, Forms 3 and 5 were to sit for a Final examination at the end of the academic year. The examination is prepared by the CDU and all the students sit standard papers and are marked by teachers at their respective schools. With such a new system in place, the systems of CAT and CBA were abolished.

62 In this thesis I use the terms ‘Form’, ‘Class’ and ‘Years’ interchangeably and indicate these in brackets. 63 Now in 2017 Fiji Junior Certificate Examination is known as Fiji Year 10 Certificate Examination. 64 Ministry of Education (Fiji), Term 1 Gazette, Fiji Ministry of Education (Fiji). Suva. 2006.p. 3. 38

Alongside these reforms, the Fiji government took a drastic measure to alleviate the financial burden on parents. From 2014, the government began funding full tuition fees for all children from primary education up to the end of secondary education. Free education, at primary and secondary levels, may be a basic human right people in many industrialized nations take for granted. However, this is not the case in developing nations, including Fiji. Until 2014, children’s education came with a ‘steep price tag’. Parents and guardians paid not only their children’s school fees, but also bus fare, stationery, textbooks, uniforms and food. Moreover the ‘steep price tag’ covered other expenses such as the improvement of teaching-learning facilities and providing free transport and food vouchers for children who are from low-income families. However, the long established practice of paying children’s tuition fees created a mindset in which parents saw education as an investment for and in their children. In an interview conducted in June, 2013, the last year in which parents paid tuition fees, an Indo-Fijian parent from School 6, whose son decided against taking History, highlighted the reason for not allowing his child to take History as “History is not important for my son’s job prospects”.65My findings in subsequent chapters will demonstrate that this is not an isolated opinion, but a significant reason my interviewees gave. It is also a reason I have encountered formally and informally throughout my teaching career. This step by the government has the potential to achieve free primary and secondary education, leading to high participation in the tertiary education of the country. On the same note the government had introduced the ‘toppers scheme’ and the loan schemes to assist students to continue with their education at tertiary level.66 In the 2015 budget, the government announced it would provide free textbooks to students of primary and secondary schools to lower the burden on parents who cannot afford to provide expensive textbooks for their children.67 In general, primary schools were much more dispersed than secondary schools. This was to maximize children’s chances of completing at least eight years of schooling. It was also less costly for parents to keep their primary school-age

65 Interview by the author with the Indo-Fijian parent from School 6 whose son is taking Science in Year 11 in 2013. 66 The ‘toppers scheme’ was introduced in 2010 by the Bainimarama government, whereby students who score 300 or more out of 400 in the Form 7 external examination will get full scholarship at the three tertiary institutions in Fiji. 67 “2015 Budget Allocation for Ministry of Education”, The Fiji Times, 24th November. 2014. p. 10. 39 children at home attending primary school than to shoulder the cost of sending them to secondary boarding schools. Primary education allowed access to all children from the ages of six to about 14 years, while the secondary school level, which comprised Forms 3 to Form 7, was accessible to all who had successfully completed primary school. Consequently, primary education could influence an individual’s future prospects.68 Success at this level could mean entry to tertiary studies or employment. The government, since the 2006 coup, has shown their commitment towards meeting the educational needs of students, by providing them with textbooks, bus fares and tuition fees. One of the major goals of the current government led by Voreqe Bainimarama of the Fiji First Party is for all students to reach and complete Form 6 level of education. At the same time, examination marks are important as they will determine a student’s movement to another level. For Year 13 students, obtaining a pass, an aggregate mark greater than 200 out of the full mark of 400 were vital and this meant entry to tertiary institutions.69The University of the South Pacific allows students to start with degree courses provided they achieve a total mark of 250 out of 400 in their FSFCE.70 Furthermore, a student who gained lower marks needed to complete the other preliminary courses before he or she could enroll in degree courses. In Form 6 a pass of an aggregate mark of 200 out of 400, allows students direct entry to Form 7 or Foundation Studies in tertiary institutions in Fiji.

3.7 Rationale for Changes in the Curriculum For gaining a better understanding of the reasons for the perceived unpopularity of History amongst Indo-Fijian students, it would be necessary to consider the broader picture of curriculum reform in Fiji. Curriculum sets the tone of pedagogy and content and orientates the subject syllabi. So far, this has argued that according to the Fiji Peoples’ Charter for Change, Peace and Progress, education is one of the most prominent means the present government is using to foster national unity.71 This document was devised and used by the Bainimarama government to

68 Tavola. 1991: 26. 69 Ministry of Education (Fiji). 2000: 17. 70 In 2017 now the Fiji Seventh Form Certificate Examination is called the Fiji Year 13 Certificate Examination. 71 Hon. Filipe Bole, veteran politician since Fiji’s independence, made this comment during the launching of the second edition of the Fiji National Curriculum in February, 2013. The National Curriculum Framework is another initiative from the government to include a more pupil centered curriculum and revise the current curriculum to make it more relevant to the students’ environment. 40 guide the way in which Fiji was ruled and administered from 2006 to 2013, when the 2013 Constitution of Fiji was formally accepted.72 The ‘Charter’ acted like a Constitution for the country, till the 2013 Constitution came into effect. Some of the pillars from the Charter were placed in the new Constitution, since the ‘Charter’ had already set-up the platform of governance of Fiji. The second edition of the Fiji Islands National Curriculum Framework (FNCF) articulates the philosophy and structural reforms for curriculum from early childhood education to Form 7 at Secondary level in Fiji. One notable feature of the second edition, is alignment of the curricula to the ‘Charter’ especially Pillar 9 in ‘Making Fiji a Knowledge Based Society’. In the wake of the coups in Fiji since 1987, and with persisting political instability and growing sense of insecurity, the country has lost, through emigration substantial numbers of its experienced professionals and skilled workers. The skills gap that has emerged cannot be readily filled because new entrants to the labor force lack expertise, education, experience and training. Nearly fifty percent of the students coming out of the school system are being absorbed in the formal job market. As such, some of the measures and actions taken as part of the Pillar 9 of the ‘Charter’ are: Ensure access to quality education for all Establish a modular system of education Increase access to tertiary and higher education Ensure improved overall quality of teaching and learning through better trained educators Implement a progressive and responsive curriculum Improve the financing of education

In the words of the then Minister for Education in 2013, Filipe Bole, focusing on Pillar 9 of the ‘Charter’ will mean ‘a well-educated population will help Fiji’s economic recovery’. The FNCF sets the guidelines for education providers to ensure a good quality curriculum and education in Fiji. The FNCF aims to produce students who have the right skills and competencies to take on the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century. The inkling of a new curriculum was conceived

Also part of this program required the CDU to revise some of the old curriculum and content that is not relevant to the students now. 72 Ministry of National Planning (Fiji), Road Map for Democracy and Sustainable Socio-economic Development 2010–2014. Ministry of National Planning (Fiji). Suva. December, 2009. p. iv. 41 during the 2005 Education Summit in Suva which was attended by school heads, officials from the Ministry of Education, and education stakeholders such as the teacher unions’ and officers who look at student education in Fiji. The participants raised concerns on the need to change curriculum approaches, design, content and assessment. These issues were addressed in the first edition of the FNCF in 2007.73 The reforms in the second edition of the FNCF were subjected and aligned to international conventions and regional educational goals as outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Millennium Development Goals, and Education for All. “The changes in the expectations of students, society and the job market as well as content overload in the previous curriculum were key factors in this redesigning process”.74 The charted curriculum, in the Framework is intended to help develop Fiji into knowledge and a skill based society and is to be used by officers of the Ministry of Education and all those engaged in the education of young people in Fiji. Based on the FNCF, changes were to be done to the existing curriculum and making it more students centered. While on the same note, teachers were also to revise their teaching strategies to suit the needs of the students and prepare notes on the revised syllabi. The Framework lays the platform for future curriculum and policy development. It will guide curriculum developers and teachers on ‘what’ is to be taught, ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular content will be taught. Initially teachers were not consulted but once the framework was launched workshops were organized for teachers to start working and preparing lessons based on the recommendations in the FNCF. The second edition of FNCF and the new relevant syllabus, modules and support materials have the potential to change fundamentally the way in which teaching and learning takes place in classrooms across the many islands of Fiji. A FNCF was to set up in 2014 as recommended by the Report of the Fiji Islands Education Commission 2000. The Report highlighted: “The curriculum in Fiji needs to be redesigned to produce learning experiences that would encourage creative

73 Ibid. 74 Dr. Brij Lal, the Permanent Secretary for Education, in his address during the launching of the second edition of the Fiji National Curriculum Framework in 2013. Dr. B. Lal is not the same person as Professor Brij V. Lal, a historian of Indo-Fijian descent, formally of Australian National University. 42 activities and lead to all-round physical, emotional and intellectual development of pupils”.75 The Report also stated: Although the content has been localized, it is still perceived as removed from real life. Curricula are overcrowded with factual content and still rigidly prescribed for all schools across all levels. For teachers, coverage of the curriculum detail becomes their key task rather than the development of conceptual understanding using methods of enquiry and problem solving.76 Another reason for the development of the FNCF was that, “the current curriculum is overcrowded and has been described as content-heavy”.77 Some content has been obsolete and inappropriate in the context of the contemporary Fijian society. A careful interrogation is needed to ensure that purposeful curriculum development takes place. The revision intended to move “the examination-oriented and teacher- centered pedagogical practices that better responded to the needs and aspirations across Fiji’s diverse communities”.78 The FNCF aims to “facilitate positive learning experiences, as opposed to decades-long custom of passive learning”.79 One of its intentions is not only to enable students to develop intrinsic interest and motivation in studying in school but to equip them with intellectual curiosity and personal attributes to prepare them for life-long learning. The Form 6 (FSLCE) and the Form 7 (FSFCE) History prescriptions in use since 1987 and 1991 respectively were subjects cited as needing to undergo change.

3.8 Responsibility for Changes in the History Curriculum The Ministry of Education is charged with the responsibility to provide relevant and quality education for all. The CDU is tasked with developing and reviewing new school curriculums, the production of school textbooks, instructional materials and equipment for teaching practical subjects, and the review and implementation of the national examinations to emphasize a profile of subject performance rather than consisting of ‘pass’ or ‘fail’. The CDU consisted of subject experts or former teachers with substantial teaching experience in their subject area. The members of the CDU were selected and appointed by the Ministry of Education

75 Ministry of Education (Fiji). 2000: 287. 76 Ministry of Education (Fiji). 2000: 8. 77 Ministry of Education (Fiji), Fiji National Curriculum Framework, Ministry of Education (Fiji). Suva. 2013. p. 2. 78 Ibid. 79 Ibid. 43 to prepare and administer the curriculum for teachers. The Ministry maintains that the selection of the officers was based on individual merit and not on connection with the Ministry, chiefly status or business connections.80 Since 2013 after the launching of the FNCF, the CDU was charged with revising the curriculum of those subjects that were well overdue for revision and change.81 As a result of recommendations of the Fiji Education Commission Report in 2005 and the first edition of the FNCF in 2007, a working group was formed in 2010 that included History staff from the University of the South Pacific, CDU officers and teachers, to revise the Fiji Forms 5, 6 and 7 History syllabi. The resultant new curriculum the group produced after completing their review has been used by teachers and students since 2015. The new syllabus is discussed later in this chapter. The researcher was amongst the group of teachers that took the initiative to review the FSLCE History Curriculum, which had last been designed in 1987 and never revised. Decolonization had brought changes in the schools’ administration and finance but the curriculum content lagged way behind. The Working Group prepared resource materials and designed a new curriculum for History that was better suited for Fijian students at Form 5 and Form 6 levels and at the same time would generate greater student interest in engaging with History. The new curriculum was to enable students to continue with their studies in History at Form Seven and tertiary levels as well. It was hoped they would incorporate History in the Bachelor of Arts Graduate and Certificate in Education (BAGCED) program at USP. At the same time, similar work groups were formed for Economics and Physics to undertake the same review task in those subject curriculums.

3.8.1 History Curriculum in Fiji In 2013, History was taught at the upper secondary level in 163 schools out of the 178 secondary schools in Fiji. The reasons for not offering the subject in all schools vary and include: a) schools do not have qualified teachers to teach History, (b) the required minimum number of 10 students for a particular subject to be offered is not met; and lastly, (c) some schools are newly established and do not yet offer Forms 5, 6 and 7. The FSLCE and FSFCE History prescription justify its provision in the secondary school curriculum by arguing that an understanding of the past

80 Ministry of Education (Fiji). 2000: 20. 81 Ibid., p. 25. 44

contributes to a better understanding of the present and the future.82 Figure 3.1 shows the different levels in Fiji’s school system in which History is taught to students. In primary schools (Years 1–8 or Classes 1–8), History is incorporated into Social Studies where students not only learn about historical events and dates but also start to learn about Economics and the societies and communities in which they are living. At secondary school, Social Studies becomes Social Science, which includes concepts about society as well as community, national, regional and global issues, geographical concepts and historical issues about Fiji (such as Fiji’s early discovery by Europeans, the pre-contact period, the colonial era and the post- independence period). The Social Science curriculum is divided into its two main components, History and Geography, at higher secondary school level (Years 11–13 that is Forms 5–7). Students can select one or both subjects. The selection of options differs from school to school based on the policy of the particular school. For the upper secondary schools (Forms 5–7), apart from English and Mathematics, students are to take another three optional subjects, which can include History and Geography. Students are to choose one subject from each of three groups of options: i.Biology, Accounting, Technical Drawing or History ii.Chemistry, Economics, Applied Technology, Hindi or Vosa Vakaviti iii.Physics, Geography, Home Economics, Computer Studies or Agricultural Science.83

3.8.2 Evolution of History Curriculum in Fiji The History curriculum for students preparing for public examination in 1951 was based on a wide range of topics such as the history of Fiji and organization of the colonial governments in British imperial history and the history of the “Renaissance” and “the Reformation”.84 In the 1960s, many senior Fiji secondary schools changed from the Cambridge Certificate to the NZSCE system, with a corresponding restructuring of the curriculum.85 The History students preparing for NZSCE studied eight topics, four of which were based on New Zealand while

82 Ministry of Education (Fiji), Fiji School Leaving Certificate History Prescription, Ministry of Education (Fiji). Suva. 1987. p. 2. 83 These options differ in different schools. The decision of which options to offer is made by the Principal of the school. 84 Brij V. Lal, Broken Waves: A History of the Fiji Islands in the 20th Century. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. 1992. p. 161. 85 Ibid. 45 another four were based on ‘World History’. Fiji and the Pacific were not part of the curriculum that included the following: the unification of Italy and Germany. the causes of World War I & II. the French Revolution the rise of the Liberal Party in New Zealand the life of Sir Apirana Ngata the economic policies of Sir Julius Vogel the history of transportation in New Zealand the convict settlements of Australia.

Figure 3.1 History in Schools in Fiji

PRIMARY SCHOOLS SOCIAL STUDIES: Class 1 – 8 (Content includes – Social (Years 1 – 8) Science, Geography and History)

SECONDARY SCHOOLS Forms 3 – 4 SOCIAL SCIENCE: (Content includes – Social Science, (Years 9 – 10) Forms 5 – 7 Geography and History) (Years 11- 13)

SECONDARY SCHOOLS Forms 5 – 7 GEOGRAPHY HISTORY (Years 11- 13)

Source: Ministry of Education (Fiji), Careers Unit, 2013. p. 9.

In 1987, the NZUE was superseded by two national examinations, the FSLCE at the end of Form 6 and the FSFCE (at Form 7). For Forms 5 and 6, as per the 1987 FSLCE History prescription, there were eight themes of which students had to do any five themes. The selection of the themes was decided by teachers for students to do for their Form 6 for the examination. The new History syllabus offered a range of compulsory and optional topics to students to choose from (refer to Tables 3.1 and

3.3). In Form 7 the two Pacific topics were compulsory, while students were to choose another three topics from ten topics in the 1991 FSFCE History prescription (refer to Table 3.2). This reform entailed the revision of the History curriculum for Form 6 and Form 7. The 1987 Forms 5 to 6 History syllabus (Table 3.1) prescribed eight themes; two topics of different countries under each theme of these three themes were based on Fiji, while the others were based on countries in Asia, Europe and the Middle East. Table 3.1 shows the topics that students were required to study in Form 6 and Form 6 before they sat for the FSLCE. Students were to complete the study of three themes in Form 5 and two themes in Form 6 for FSLCE. The structure of the FSLCE examination showed that questions had Short Answer Questions, Resource Interpretation and Essay. Twenty (20) marks were allotted for each theme and students were to answer a total of five themes.86 The 1991 to 2014 Form 7 History curriculum (Table 3.2) had twelve topics out of which only two were based on the South Pacific and were compulsory. Students were to choose an additional three topics based on Europe, Asia and America. The two examinations differed a little in format. Each theme had a set of short answer questions and an essay to be answered. Overall the Form 6 and Form 7 curriculums were to fulfill the Ministry of Education’s mission and vision, which was to develop every child holistically and have a ‘Knowledge Based Society’. The History curriculum had a global focus for an implicit expectation of elites to work with people from many parts of the world and in the British Commonwealth countries. New changes to the curriculum were introduced to monitor and assess students’ performance. This was because the previous curriculum was examination oriented, and drove students towards rote learning, virtually guaranteeing that students would attempt to use rote learning and ‘parroting back’, rather than understanding and critical thinking to demonstrate their learning. These warranted students would acquire the required knowledge that would enable the child to pass the examination. The new Forms 5 and 6 History curriculum was trialed in 2014 and fully implemented in 2015. This new Forms 5 and 6 History syllabus was in line with the

86 Ministry of Education (Fiji), Fiji School Leaving Certificate History Prescription, Ministry of Education (Fiji). Suva. 1987. p. 1. 47

FNCF and the structure of the program was more student-centered. The major focus of the new curriculum was to make students the core focus of the curriculum. This meant that students’ interests, needs and capabilities were the focus of the teaching. The new curriculum put student activities first and reduced the reading part so that students’ psycho-motor and cognitive skills were extended at the same time. Once this new syllabus for Forms 5 and 6 was fully implemented, the Form 7 History syllabus would be revised also.87 Table 3.3 sets out the new topics and content recommended by the Working Group, which are now on a trial basis. The Ministry of Education wants to implement the new curriculum in 2017. Based on the directive from the Ministry of Education in July 2016, teachers were required to complete all the required topics and syllabi for external examination in Forms 4, 6and 7by the end of Term 2 so that Term 3 is only for revision and preparation for the external examination. For Forms 3 and 5, the syllabi were to be completed by Week 6 or 7 of Term 3 (depending on the schools); the rest of term 3 was set aside for revision for the Final Examination in Week 10 of Term 3. From 2015, Years 9 and 11 (Forms 3 and 5) students were to sit a Final Examination for each subject throughout the country. The papers were to be prepared by the CDU officers and the school principals were required to administer the examination with the help of teachers. Teachers only marked the papers of their respective schools. This new History curriculum is designed to cover some important social, economic and political issues of the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries. The course consists of topics selected for their intrinsic importance in a changing world. Teachers are expected to help students explore historical knowledge, find links relating events to one another, and arrive at conclusions through various teaching strategies. The curriculum provides children and students with the opportunity to investigate people and events in relation to their culture, resources and environment, which will enable them to gain better understanding of how individuals and groups interact with each other and their environment. The strand or objective for History Forms 5 and 6 is Time, Continuity and Change, and its outcome is to recognize, evaluate and describe how the past can play a significant role in shaping current actions and values and propose processes and actions to build a better future. The

87 In Personal Conversation by the author with the Ministerial officer, the Senior Education Officer for History, based at CDU. 27th January 2013. 48 study of time, continuity, and change allows learners to understand their historical roots and to locate themselves in time. Learning how to read and reconstruct the past allows them to develop a historical perspective and to answer questions such as: Who am I? What happened in the past? How has the world changed and how might it change in the future? Why does our personal sense of relatedness to the past change?

Table 3.1 Forms 5 and 6History Topics As Per The 1987 FSLCE Prescription. Form 5 (Section A) Form 6 (Section B) Themes Topics Themes Topics Cultural a) Fiji, since 1874 Nationalism a) Italy, 1848–1871 Interaction b) South Africa, 1919–1961 b) Germany, 1848–1879 Economic a) Fiji since 1930 Imperialism a) India, 1875–1947 Development b) Japan,1918–1970 b) Europe and Southern Africa, 1870– 1915 Social a) Fiji since 1945 International Relations a) Origins of WWI, 1879–1915 b) New Zealand, 1891–1970 b) Origins of WWII, 1919–1941 Welfare Conflicts a) Palestine/ Israel, 1945–1967 Government a) United Kingdom, 1832–1868 b) China, 1921–1949 b) Russia, 1927–1957 Note: Students are required to answer FIVE themes including two themes from section A and two themes from Section B and one other. The fifth theme may be selected from either Section A or Section B. Teachers normally choose three themes from Section A and two from Section B. Source: Ministry of Education (Fiji), Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination, History Prescription, 1987: 2. For a detailed overview of the 1987 Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination History Prescription see to Appendix 12.

Table 3.2 Form 7 History Topics As Per The 1991 FSFCE Prescription Section A (Compulsory) Section B (Optional) This Section is also compulsory but students need to do any three topics out of the ten topics given. Themes Topics Themes Tradition and Change in the a) Pre-Contact Pacific Societies to European Intervention France Pacific b) From Colonization to Regionalism (a) Background and Causes of the French Revolution (b) The French Revolution and its Effects Japan (a) Adaptation and the Search for Economic Autonomy 1868–1912 (b) Peaceful Diplomacy and Expansionism 1913–1945 India (a) The Background and Course of the Indian Mutiny: 1700–1800 (b) Causes, Course and Effects of the Indian Mutiny 1800–1858 USA (a) Slavery–Arguments For and Against (b) The American Civil War and its Aftermath Britain (a) Late 18th Century to the 1840s (b) 1850s–1880s Note: Each theme in Section B has two topics. Students are required to study five topics in total from both the Sections. Section A topics are compulsory so students are to choose any three topics from the five themes in Section B.

Source: Ministry of Education (Fiji) Fiji Seventh Form Certificate Examination, History Prescription, 1991: 4. For a detailed overview of the 1991 Fiji Seventh Form Certificate Examination History Prescription see to Appendix 14.

Table 3.3 Years 11 and 12 (Forms 5 and 6) History Content As Per 2014 Prescription Year 11 (Form 5) Year 12 (Form 6) Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 (Choose any one topic) (Choose any one topic) Interaction Good a) Cultural Interaction case Origins of World a) Imaging the Pacific and Governance study South Africa War I & World b) Diplomacy case study Fiji Revision Integration case study b) Leadership case study China War II c) Crisis in Solomon Islands case study Fiji c) Conflicts case study Fiji Palestine/ Israel Source: Ministry of Education (Fiji), Ministry of Education, Years 11 and 12 History Syllabi, 2014: 3. For a detailed overview of the 2014 Year 11 & 12 Prescription see to Appendix 13. .

Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 show the number of candidates for History in comparison with other subjects in the Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination (Table 3.4) and the Fiji Seventh Form Certificate Examination (Table 3.5).

Table 3.4 Numbers of Students Sitting the Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination, from 2007 to 2012. YEARS

SUBJECTS 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

English 11701 11850 11195 12759 13000 13112

Mathematics 11590 11756 11140 12363 12836 12967

Accounting 3684 3569 3658 3789 3867 3908

Economics 4398 4405 4449 4450 4811 4920

Computer 2953 2994 3125 3074 3347 3459

Geography 3184 3000 3054 3648 3822 3302

History 1294 1320 1480 1560 1770 1765

Biology 4194 3881 3768 4160 4030 4363

Chemistry 4012 4125 4012 4258 4221 4485

Physics 2850 2988 3077 3156 3200 3200

Source: Ministry of Education (Fiji), Fiji School Leaving Certificate History Examiners Report, 2007–2012.

Table 3.5 Number of Students Sitting the Fiji Seventh Form Certificate Examination from 2007 to 2012. YEARS

SUBJECTS 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

English 4517 4709 4759 4836 6109 6711

Mathematics 4436 4469 4511 4763 5944 6556

Accounting 1800 1880 1519 1653 1825 2138

Economics 1786 1802 1814 1989 2000 2479

Computer 1129 1062 1203 1532 1548 1651

Geography 986 1025 1131 1168 1600 1818

History 369 458 490 569 799 856

Biology 1965 1978 1896 1732 2589 2658

Chemistry 1987 1989 1916 1983 2578 2562

Physics 1404 1389 1396 1405 1709 1856

Source: Ministry of Education (Fiji), Fiji Seventh Form Certificate Examination History Examiners Report, 2007–2012.

History as an academic subject is part of Fiji’s upper secondary level (Forms 5 to 7) curriculum. One of its stated objectives is to improve students’ intellectual ability, increase critical thinking and develop knowledge of historical development. The Form 7 History prescription is designed to make students realize the importance of past events and how these events have impacted on present day society and how the events of the past will affect our future. Therefore the History curriculum and the content area are central components of the schooling years. The data in Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 clearly indicate the low preferences for History at Form 6and Form 7 levels over a six-year period. The numbers of students sitting for the History paper in both external examinations had been increasing but still lagged far behind Commerce and Science subjects. For example, students enrolled in History were half the numbers of those enrolled in Geography, Physics, and a third of the students studying Biology, Chemistry, Economics and Accounting,

54 a clear demonstration that students preferred to study Science and Commerce subjects over History. According to an interview the author conducted in 2013 with the Senior Education Officer for History at the CDU, the numbers increased for History, indicating that more schools were now offering History, but the number of enrollments for the subject was still far below those for the other subjects.88 In each year fewer than one thousand students sat for History at the FSLCE examination while the Commerce and Science subjects have crossed the two thousand mark. For FSFCE, the numbers that sat for History were still under one thousand while Commerce and two Science subjects exceeded two thousand. After analyzing the data above, one can easily see that History was not a popular subject amongst students at FSLC and FSFE levels. A significant number of workshops and educational forums for History teachers have highlighted that the number of Indo-Fijian students taking History in secondary schools is low when compared to the iTaukei students (refer to Table 1.1 for the difference in the students taking and not taking History in the Case Study schools). This trend was also evident in the statistics provided by the Ministry of Education officials during the Central Division History teachers’ workshop in 2013. Noticeably there were very few Indo-Fijian teachers teaching History at secondary schools. The Senior Education Officer for History at the CDU during the workshop also highlighted that since History is not popular amongst Indo-Fijian students at secondary school level, the Ministry of Education has very few Indo-Fijian History graduate teachers teaching History: since Indo-Fijians stay away from History, there are few Indo-Fijian graduates in History to teach the subject. Majority of the Indo- Fijian students takes up Science and Commerce subjects at tertiary institutions and teacher training colleges and they opt to teach those subjects. This fact alone seemed to offer sufficient justification for scrutinizing the reasons for the lack of interest in studying History among Indo-Fijian students. This chapter thus outlined the structure of schools in Fiji, the education system since pre colonization of Fiji till today, the rationale for change in the curriculum and the changes to the History curriculum since colonial rule. The

88 Personal Communication between the author and the Senior Education Officer for History based at CDU. 27th January 2013. 55 information laid out in this chapter provides additional perspectives and perceptions towards this research. That is, since this thesis is about education and specifically on History education, one needs to have background knowledge of the content of this chapter in order to understand the problem of this investigation.

CHAPTER FOUR

HISTORICAL AND EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE REVIEW

4.1 Introduction This chapter provides an overview of historical and educational literature pertinent to this study. The historical and educational literature review in this chapter is an important component of this thesis since it will provide understanding of factors that contribute to the limited enrollment of Indo-Fijian high school students in History. At the same time this thesis shows why it is important for the Indo-Fijian students at secondary schools around Fiji to study History. This chapter is divided into four sections. Section 4.2, ‘Historical Review of Indo-Fijians in Fiji’s Education System’, gives a historical review of Indo-Fijians’ participation in and contribution towards education in Fiji. The section centers on the work by Clive Whitehead, an educationalist who studied and analyzed Fiji’s education history. He undertook a comprehensive study in Fiji’s education system in 1986 and Indo-Fijian participation in schooling in Fiji. Section 4.2 also looks at the broader picture, and the work of Michael Apple and other scholars who point to the importance of education and schooling. Section 4.3, ‘History Curriculum Changes and Revision in Britain, the United States of America (USA), Australia and New Zealand’, is a review of educational literature on History curriculum revision. This section reviews and compares analyses of curriculum revision, with particular focus on History in Britain, the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. The section helps to place my study in a wider international context, and will show that curriculum revision is, indeed, not a singular or simple process, but it involves multiple stakeholders and complex processes. The comparison can provide a comparative backdrop, and illuminate the similarities and differences between Fiji and the countries compared. In Section 4.4, ‘Selected Theoretical Views on the Importance of the History Curriculum in Schools and its Contribution to Society’, I focus on the importance of the History curriculum in schools and to society, analyzing different ideas by anthropologists, cross-cultural psychologist and educationalists, authors and historians who have argued about the importance of History as an academic subject. Lastly, in Section 4.5, ‘Conceptualizing the Theoretical Ideas for Fiji’, I have conceptualized the theoretical bases for the Fiji situation. This literature and 57 historical review will take us deeper into the involvement of Indo-Fijians in Fiji’s education and schooling and also show why the study of History in Fiji secondary schools should be regarded as a significant component of a well-rounded education.

4.2 Historical Review of Indo–Fijians in Fiji’s Education System Generations of Indo-Fijians in Fiji have always viewed education as a principal means of getting out of the cycle of inter-generational poverty and moving up on the socio-economic ladder. This has long been a tenet very close to the Indo- Fijian heart. Whitehead considers education to Indo-Fijians, is “what land is to the iTaukei: the source of their existence”.89 The hope that Indo-Fijian parents invest in the education of their children is demonstrated in their willingness to sacrifice their personal and recreational time and resources so that their children can receive a sound academic education. Indo-Fijian children are taught from early life that success at school will bring rewards in adult life. This has resulted in Indo-Fijian parents’ conviction that their children need to take specific subjects in schools, which are believed to pave the way to social and economic advancement. Whitehead concluded that, “relevant education at school provides the stimulus or the catalyst for employment and prospects for life after schooling”.90 He further advocated that schools focus directly on knowledge of the local environment and the skills needed in existing and foreseeable avenues of employment. Education as a medium of achieving social status implicitly articulates and supports social and economic changes in the society. Similarly, as an academic subject, History is embedded as a study to reveal about processes of social and economic change over a period of time and about how the historian’s understanding of the present interprets and reinterprets the past. This is further supported by educationalist, Apple, who said: “curriculum and more general educational issues have always been caught up in the history of class, race, gender and religious beliefs”.91 In the case of Fiji, as Whitehead noted: British colonial rule has left an unmistakable legacy of British educational institutions and practices which is clearly reflected in the system of schools, the use of indigenous primary schooling, and the use of English as the

89 Clive Whitehead, Education in Fiji Since Independence: A Study of Government’s Policy. New Zealand Council for Education Research. Wellington. 1986. p. 7. 90 Ibid. 91 Michael Apple, Ideology and Curriculum. Routledge. New York. 1990. p. vii. 58

medium of instruction at the secondary and tertiary levels and in the widespread practice of wearing school uniforms.92 Whitehead attributes the flaws in the education system in Fiji have historical roots in the colonial era. The colonial education policies reflected the prevailing assumptions that privileged the selected minority of the population. He seems to imply that the post-independent education authorities in Fiji are faced with the challenges that the British left to the citizens of Fiji to resolve. An awareness of colonial legacy is critical in teasing out multiple contributing factors to Indo-Fijian students choosing not take History at school.

4.2.1 Indo-Fijian Participation in Education in the Colonial Era Indo-Fijians have played an important, though barely acknowledged economic role in Fiji since their arrival in 1879. For the first 30 years of colonial rule, the colonial government did not intervene in the education of the Indo-Fijians or the iTaukei. Schools established in the towns of Levuka (from 1879) and Suva (from 1883) were for European children. A generation of Fiji-born Indians had no schooling in the early years of the indenture era in the 1880s. Some did learn how to read and write from other Indo-Fijian or iTaukei, although as a rule, they were excluded from schools. By 1900, the work of the missionaries saw the establishment of schools in most Fijian villages around Fiji. The first schools for Indo-Fijians were established by the Methodist Mission and the Catholic Marist Brothers in 1898.93 As a result, as historian Brij V. Lal notes in 1998 that religious organizations such as the Methodist Mission Society of Australia and the Roman Catholic Mission took up the burdensome responsibility of educating the Fijians.94 This led the Anglicans and other Christian denominations to establish schools. Lal’s summation is not an isolated one. Kenneth Gillion, a New Zealand born historian, voiced a similar opinion earlier than Lal, back in 1962, “it is to the Christian missions that most of the credit for the educational awakening of the Indo-Fijian is due to the non-Christian leaders of the Indo-Fijian community in Fiji who received their education in

92 Clive Whitehead, Education in Fiji: A Study of Policy, Problems and Progress in Primary and Secondary Education, 1930-1973. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Otago. Dunedin. New Zealand. 1975. p. 1. 93 Helen Tavola, Secondary Education in Fiji: A Key to the Future. Institute of Pacific Studies. University of the South Pacific. Suva. 1991. p. 18. 94 Brij V. Lal, Crossing the Kala Pani. Australian National University. Canberra. 1998. p. 179. 59

Christian schools”.95 The Fiji colonial government had given consideration to providing education to Indo-Fijian children as early as 1886, but it could not afford schools even for the iTaukei and left the task to the missions. Again, in 1962 Gillion asserted that “the Indo-Fijians were reluctant to send their children to Christian schools, being afraid they would be converted to Christianity, however this feeling was gradually overcome”.96 He added that Indo-Fijians thought that their children might be taught Christian values and ideologies in the schools, which might make many Indo-Fijian parents, switch their religion. As time passed the Indo-Fijian parents’ involvement and investment in the education of their children’s education increased as they realized that despite a school’s religious affiliation, it was the chance of success that mattered more than religion. Indian religious groups such as the Arya Samaj and Muslim institutes established and operated new schools by 1916. Later, in 1926, the Then India Sanmarga Ikya Sangam (TISI) was formed by South Indians. The goal of TISI was to provide social and educational assistance to Indo-Fijians.97 The formation of this institution led to the establishment of a chain of schools managed by the Sangam organization in the colony. At this time education for Indo-Fijians was not supported by the government which maintained its colonial attitude that it would be ‘self- defeating’ to educate them. The underlying assumption was that the Indians came to Fiji as unskilled laborers and would continue to work as the unskilled laborer even after the expiry of their indenture. This attitude towards Indo-Fijians in education, compared to iTaukei, was a topic that preoccupied the colonial administrators in the evolving economic and social context of the 1920s. For instance, of school-aged children in 1927, 91 percent of Europeans, 80 percent of the iTaukei and only 17 percent of Indo-Fijian children were attending schools.98 By 1960, the attendance figures of the iTaukei and Indo-Fijians reversed: 1,662 iTaukei were attending secondary schools compared to 3,211 Indo-Fijians.99 This was because the iTaukei still preferred to stay in the villages and be confined to their social and communal norms in their respective communities.

95 Kenneth Gillion, Fiji’s Indian Migrants: A History to the End of Indenture in 1920. Oxford University Press. Melbourne. 1962. p. 152. 96 Ibid., p. 153. 97 Ibid. 98 Ibid. 99 Brij V. Lal, Broken Waves: A History of the Fiji Islands in the 20th Century. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. 1992. p. 15. 60

In 1932 during a Legislative Council session, Muniswamy Mudaliar, an Indo- Fijian member of the Legislative Council raised an issue with other members of the Council, if Indo-Fijians could attend European and part-European schools in order to attain the pre-university qualification or the school leaving certificate. Mudaliar received a negative response from the members of the Legislative Council and the desire for higher education for the Indo-Fijians was denied.100 The other members justified the decision on the ground that Indo-Fijians had been brought to work on the farms; the Legislative Council would not improve their status in Fiji.101 In the mid-1930s, Indo-Fijians started to enroll in Natabua Government School in Lautoka and Marist Bothers’ High School in Suva, both becoming a non-European secondary academic qualification institution. It was noted in the early 1940s that the Indo- Fijians continued to support the education of their children to attain higher education through community-funded schools that were not helped by the government.102 This education helped some members of the Indo-Fijian community to make their way out of poverty and influenced their perception of schooling as the means to help them achieve greater job security and income. As the number of schools for Indo-Fijians increased, the desire to offer new subjects and expand the curriculum increased. Indo-Fijian parents started to enroll their children in academic subjects rather than the technical, vocational and agricultural courses. The reason, Whitehead points out in 1981, was that the object of schooling was “not to teach their children how to live on land, but to enable them to escape from it”.103 The result was a strong desire for Indo-Fijians to learn English and this determined their attitude towards schooling. In his book Educational Reconstruction in Fiji, Whitehead concluded that “Indo-Fijians’ attitude to schooling, which reflected their highly individualistic and self-striving approach to life in general, contrasted sharply with that of the iTaukei”.104 Whitehead also noted that Indo-Fijians generally enjoyed a greater range of secondary school options than iTaukei because “the majority lived in or close to urban locations where most of the

100 Ibid., p. 93. 101 Ibid. 102 Ibid., p. 24. 103 Clive Whitehead, “Education and the Indian Problems in Colonial Fiji 1920-1945”. Education and Research Perspective. 8, June, 1981. p. 79. 104 Whitehead. 1975: 170. 61 secondary schools were situated”.105 Lal disagreed with Whitehead upon this issue in 1992. Lal maintained: A suitable education scheme for Indo-Fijians has not yet been worked out in Fiji. The same syllabus of instruction is used for iTaukei and Indo-Fijian schools as though it must be taken for granted that the two races are entirely different in almost every way; these both yet need exactly the same type of education.106 Lal speculated that the special needs and capacities of each group will emerge in the future. The special needs and the capacity that Lal referred; are the ability to survive in Fiji and the need to be educated. According to Lal, the only way the Indo-Fijians could survive in Fiji is through education. He, through his experience of growing up in the predominantly Indo-Fijian community, recollected: It was somewhat strange to find Indo-Fijian children being taught entirely in English, because although in their own homes no English was used, the teacher knew very little Hindustani. In some cases teachers had acquired some knowledge of Hindustani or another Hindi language, but the medium of instruction is English. The language problems are not going to be easily solved.107 The issue of the language of instruction was not limited to Indo-Fijians. In 1998, educationalist Salanieta Bakalevu also highlighted language problems as one of the reasons for underperformance of iTaukei students in Mathematics.108 She concluded that the use of a second language as the medium of instruction in schools had adverse impact on the teaching and learning and affected students’ understanding of concepts and ideas taught. So since students do not understand what is being taught, they tend to perform poorly or just rely on rote learning with no proper understanding. I believe this conclusion is valid since the medium of instruction in Fiji is English, and the vast majority of Fiji citizens use English as a second or even third language. Students do perform poorly as they find difficulty at times understanding the concepts, especially the low achieving students.

105 Ibid., p. 12. 106 Lal. 1998: 180. 107 Ibid. 108 Salanieta Bakalevu, Fijian Perspectives in Mathematics Education. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Waikato. Hamilton. New Zealand. 1998. p. 35. 62

Whitehead further elaborated that by the mid-1950s; both iTaukei and Indo- Fijians started to believe in education as a basic human right and demanded for more schools to open up.109 Twenty years later, in 1992 Lal disagreed with Whitehead: The young and ambitious members of Indo-Fijian descent were dissatisfied with the rudiments of standard education or vocational training that fitted them for traditional crafts at best. Instead they demanded access to adequately funded English language schooling of the sort and quality that would admit them to colonial life on an equal footing with other groups.110 This shows the Indo-Fijian parents desire for their children to get access to quality education for a long time. The Indo-Fijian parents demanded for quality and appropriate education which will result in their children having better jobs and to get their children out of the hardships of farm life. In the 1960s as independence approached, the colonial government attached the highest importance to education as a social and economic investment in the country’s future well-being. Yet according to Lal, the government made sure that the syllabus in schools remained parochial and limited to the memorization of dates, facts, and events of the British Empire. Respect for authority, fulfillment of duty, of discipline, pride in the achievement of British culture and civilization – these were the values that the colonial curriculum fostered. This however changed slowly after independence when British influence in Fiji became less prominent during the postwar era, when Britain herself was grappling with her own loss of influence in the world. Although the Indo-Fijians tend to value formal education more than did their indigenous counterparts, their major focus has always been on the male population, depriving female Indo-Fijians for the basic right to education. This was highlighted in 1999 by Jacqueline Leckie, an anthropologist from New Zealand, who noted that “Indo-Fijian women had less access to formal education than the Indo-Fijian males and indigenous women. Reasons for phenomena such as gendered and ethnic disparities in education are complex”.111 Indo-Fijian communities generally preferred to educate male children, but this must be considered against family labor and

109 Whitehead. 1986: 12. 110 Lal. 1992: 83. 111 Jacqueline Leckie, The Qawa Epidemic. Quoted in Brij Lal (Ed.). “Bitter-Sweet”. New Millennium Print. Canberra. 1999. p. 197. 63 economic constraints such as the type of jobs available and the labor demand. Indo- Fijian women tend to marry at younger ages than other ethnic groups in Fiji. Leckie further noted that during the colonial era that the Indo-Fijian women were usually “withdrawn from school before 11 years of age to prepare for marriage and to provide household labor”.112 This is attributed to patriarchy in India whereby women are regarded as a ‘liability’ since the family has to pay dowry to the bridegroom’s family on the day of the marriage. Thus, this was seen as an additional expense for the girl’s family. Males were regarded as an ‘asset’ to the family as they bring in wealth in the form of dowry and they (males) are responsible to carry on the lineage of the family.

4.2.2 Indo-Fijian Participation in Education in Post-Independence Era Since Fiji gained independence in 1970, development plans in education have had a primary aim of maintaining and improving the quality of education in Fiji. The intention was hopeful; Fiji was to expand the volume of education provided and at the same time to enhance its quality. In his three books, Whitehead viewed the education system in Fiji as one that was dictated and determined by the British. “Education adapted to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations and traditions of colonial people tended unfortunately to be interpreted as a static rather than a dynamic conflict”.113 Moreover, he pointed out Indo-Fijians have traditionally attached much greater importance to education than have the iTaukei: Indo-Fijians viewed it as a means of escape from the drudgery of farm work and as a ticket to a white collar job and families would endure great privations to enable their sons in particular to achieve an advanced education.114 Whitehead’s observation seems to have stood the test of time. A Japanese-born educationalist, Setsuo Otsuka during his study in Nadroga-Navosa in 2006, when he noted: Indo-Fijian culture respects and values education highly. Educating children has been the top priority of Indo-Fijian culture, while the iTaukei culture

112 Ibid., p. 198. 113 Whitehead. 1975: 13. 114 Ibid., p. 6. 64

encouraged children to have a strong sense of loyalty to their community and becoming good members of their village (koro).115 Otsuka, found that Indo-Fijian have a strong belief that education is the only path towards “success and education changes people for the betterment of the society and community in which they live”.116 Taking the observations by those scholars together, it appears that little change in the ways Indo-Fijians and iTaukei perceive education has taken place. It raises important questions about how and why the attitudes towards education have stayed so stable despite the passage of time. After independence in 1970, Fiji initially enjoyed a stable political environment because the 1972, 1977 and 1982 elections resulted in a parliament dominated by the Alliance government and its multi-ethnic cabinet.117 The government started to encourage equal participation from Fijians and Indo-Fijians in the field of education. In the early 1980s the government started an explicit education policy of integration to foster common nationhood.118 This policy did not last long as the political upheavals of 1987 tarnished Fiji’s self-image as a peaceful and harmonious nation, but exposed the deep fissures within. As a result of the coups, the gulf between the two major ethnic groups widened, not only in daily life but also in the field of education. Indo-Fijian enrollment in Fijian-dominant schools decreased and a parallel drop in Fijian enrollment in Indo-Fijian dominated schools developed. In the 1990s anthropologist Sue Carswell reminded that dominant attitudes among Indo-Fijian farming families were: The girls should be only educated up to Class 8 (age 13), then keep them at home for two–three years, just to get some education in cooking food and how to manage their houses and marry off in the age of 17 or 18 years.119 This accorded with the opinion reported by Hassan Khan, Director of the Fiji Council of Social Services. In 1997 Khan noted: Investment in education still favored boys compared to girls. Economic pressures have demarcated choices in allocating money and time for

115 Setsuo Otsuka, Cultural Influences on Academic Achievement in Fiji: A Case Study in Nadroga/Navosa Province. Faculty of Education and Social Work. University of Sydney. Sydney. 2006. p. 4. 116 Ibid. 117 Ibid., p. 25. 118 This policy encouraged schools to adopt a ‘4:4:2’ formula – a ratio of students of 4 Fijian: 4 Indians and 2 others to be in the school roll. 119 Lal. 1998: 15. 65

education for boys and girls. Another persistent influence on early marriage and (limited education) has been Hindu and Muslim ideologies surrounding female modesty.120 Today such beliefs are no longer prevalent in the Indo-Fijian community in Fiji. Nowadays equal opportunities are given to males and females to gain the highest academic qualification which will bring prestige to the family. Parents fully support the education of their children currently, despite the gender of the child. The changes in the educational sector in Fiji from the pre-contact period to now have seen not only changes and revision to syllabus, but also a dramatic increase in the number of schools. The schools managed by ‘racial’ communities or religious groups seek approval from the Ministry of Education, while the operations of the state owned schools is left in the hands the Ministry of Education. Due to the existence of a ‘national education system’, which, to a great extent is uniform, a ‘cultural’ inquiry in Fiji is worthwhile, as the ‘national education system’ is regulated by the government and over-seen by the Ministry of Education. All schools in Fiji use the same curricula provided by the Ministry. Students, though belonging to different ethnic groups, sit for the same external examinations, which are set by the Ministry of Education at the end of each academic year. Schools are provided with the same textbooks by the Ministry, which are written in students’ second language, English. Whitehead, argued that the “precise nature of Fiji’s education system has been determined by the geographical layout of the territory, the mixed racial composition and contrasting cultural backgrounds of the population and the legacy of the British colonial education policy”.121 This tells us that the curriculum and the structure of the current school system have been influenced by factors that may be still present around us. Fifty years ago, Whitehead highlighted that “Fiji’s contemporary educational system has its most direct roots in the pre-colonial and colonial developments of the 19th century that led to the importation of formally instituted types of schooling”.122 British colonial rule has affected our present education system and even now, nearly 50 years after independence, a

120 Hassan Khan, (1997). Quoted in Jacqueline Leckie, “The Embodiment of Gender and Madness in Colonial Fiji”. Fijian Studies. 3:2, 1999. pp. 311–336. 121 Whitehead. 1975: 278. 122 Ibid. 66 comprehensive review is necessary so that the current and future generation can make the most of their education. The content of the History curriculum, for instance, has only recently moved away from its colonial origins.

4.2.3 Indo-Fijian Participation in Education in the 21st Century Era The 21st century education system in Fiji are modeled upon an individualistic and competitive quest for high grades, high examination scores, placements in the most prestigious schools, scholarships, academic awards, praise and other forms of academic recognition and distinction, which many observers argue is specially in conflict with iTaukei cultural values that place emphasis upon communalism and parity in access to resources. This is because education has been a very sensitive and emotional subject to the iTaukei, Indo-Fijians and other ethnicities in Fiji. The common misconception is that for iTaukei, education holds marginal significance when compared to their social and community commitments, while for Indo-Fijians education has occupied a vital place in their lives since the first indenture expiries as education was seen as a way out of poverty and other socio-economic problems they had faced during the girmit era. Hence, the Indo-Fijians in Fiji have come to value education highly and want their children to excel in their pursuit of better and higher education, more so than their iTaukei counterparts. Certainly, this generalization replicates stereotypes, but it has some truth as seen in the data collected. Whitehead also articulated that the Indo-Fijians view were a driving force demanding a better quality of education at the time of independence, causing the government to speed up their provision of more schools. He added that there was an: Eagerness amounting to a kind of hunger for education among the Indo- Fijians of Fiji, but they lacked the social cohesion of the Fijians. Indo-Fijians were divided by religion, language and district of origin, all of which made it extremely difficult for them to establish and maintain a school system of their own. Only the government had the means to provide what was needed.123 Furthermore, he noted that “Indo-Fijians had long pressed for an expansion of schooling and for more widespread teaching of the English language”.124 Otsuka’s study in 2000s supported Whitehead’s claim. Otsuka found that Indo-Fijians insisted on an academic curriculum and English language instruction, because they believed

123 Whitehead. 1981: 81. 124 Ibid. 67 these would enable them to gain employment in the civil service and give them opportunities for further career development.125 A case in point, Otsuka found was that the Indo-Fijian community opposed the inclusion of Agricultural Science and Vocational Education in schools for their children.126 As farmers they had experienced that their children had already been trained in farm work, so they believed that by engaging their children in academic subjects meant that they would be fitted for better employment. This also meant that their children would no longer have to do the laborious work in farms. Instead parents encouraged their children to look for ‘white-collar’ jobs in offices. In today’s ‘market driven’ system, Whitehead’s conclusions on education seem to offer vital critical perspectives. The Ministry of Education and the Government are working in collaboration to provide students with the best so that students are not deprived of their ‘basic right.’ The Ministry of Education and the government have come up with different reforms directed towards providing students with relevant and appropriate education. Education plays an important part in an individual’s life in Fiji. Nevertheless, the education system is still following the colonial system of using examinations as the yardstick for assessing and promoting students. This review outlined that Indo-Fijian parents have valued and invested in the education of their children over many decades. They believed that through education their children would be able to have a secured future in Fiji. This meant the Indo- Fijian parents wanted their children to be well prepared for the future so they (parents) were very particular about the subjects that their children took at schools because the subjects determined the career path. Parents influenced their children to take certain subjects and ignore others.

4.3 History Curriculum Changes and Revision in Britain, the United States of America (USA), Australia and New Zealand This section compares the perceived lack of popularity of History in Fiji’s schools with similar concerns in other countries such as Britain, the United States of America (USA), Australia and New Zealand. The comparison is valid because Fiji’s education system has historical legacy from the metropolitan states such as Britain,

125 Otsuka. 2006: 23. 126 Ibid., p. 24. 68

Australia and New Zealand. I also included the USA because it and those three countries share many pedagogical assumptions. Moreover, the comparison places Fiji’s case in a global context. The issues in Fiji and solutions from these case studies often parallel those seen elsewhere, but Fiji also has a unique ethnic mix in its student population, recent independence from colonial rule and a highly centralized education structure. Aspects of the History curricula in the four countries are selected so as to highlight similarities. The History curriculum of Britain is relevant to this research as the British were the former colonial ruler of Fiji and were responsible for the implementation and establishment of the national formal education system that eventually emerged in Fiji. Australia and New Zealand (both settler colonies of Britain) are two countries whose History curricula will be analyzed, since the two countries are often referred to as the ‘Big Brothers’ to the Pacific countries and they have had considerable influence on education in Fiji. Indeed Fiji used the New Zealand curriculum and New Zealand teachers from pre-independence the 1960s to the 1980s, and Fiji students sat for two external national examinations (New Zealand Secondary Schools Examination and the New Zealand University Entrance Examination). Examples from Australia and New Zealand also provide useful comparisons for this study as both have indigenous populations.

4.3.1. History Curriculum and Its Revision in Britain In the 19th century and during the first ten years of the 20th century, Britain had no ‘national curriculum’.127 The education system was controlled by private institutions and churches in the era before 19th century.128 The so called ‘new History’, and ‘alternative tradition’, had a great impact on History teaching in Britain. In the latter half of the 20th century, many teachers and academics believed that History as an academic subject in secondary schools in England was in danger of collapsing and being absorbed as part of Social Studies or Civics. Influenced by two American academics, Jerome Bruner in 1960 and Benjamin Bloom in 1956, who offered new pedagogical ideas on the teaching and learning process. In the 1960s, educationists, concerned that History was going into

127 Simon Clarke, Thomas O’Donoghue and Carmen Zuniga, A Study of the Secondary School History Curriculum in Chile from Colonial Times to the Present. Sense Publishers. Taipei. 2015. p. 2. 128 Ibid. 69 decline proposed drastic reformulation of the pedagogical orientation of History. A shift towards analytical skills in O-level and A-level examinations pushed pedagogical reform down to the schools.129 A 1968 survey by a British educator, named H. Price on History curriculum for secondary school students in England concluded that the “teaching of History in many schools was dull and had little significance for students”.130 An outcome of that survey forced teachers, academics and politicians to seek solutions for the drop in History enrollments. Two British educators, Jeannette Coltham and John Fines, in 2010, published Educational Objectives for the Study of History: A Suggested Framework, opening up a new horizon for the teaching of History in British schools. The concept of ‘new History’ in the latter half of the 20th century rejuvenated and energized the teaching of History in secondary schools in Britain. All the developments resulted in the government stepping in to help in revising the History curriculum and having a central education system giving teachers more initiative and autonomy than they had initially, leading to the creation in 1988 of a national curriculum.131 A national curriculum for History in British schools came into being. The teaching of History as a school subject has also changed in England over time. The content and prescriptions for secondary school History were specified in detail through a series of programs of study arranged chronologically with a core of the curriculum focused on British history and optional units on European and World history. This meant that the British content was compulsory, and units on non-British history were optional. Skills and concepts were prescribed and specified according to three attainment targets which defined the organization of content.132 National curriculum revisions in 1995, 1999, and 2007 allowed teachers to plan more creatively and flexibly.133

129 A–Level (Advanced Level) is secondary school leaving qualification in Britain in Sixth Form Colleges which students complete between the age of 16 and 18 years. O–Level also known as Ordinary Level is an internationally recognized qualification which provides students with excellent preparation for academic progression to Cambridge Advanced as well as other tertiary institutions. Students’ performance in O-level determines their Admission to the Sixth Form College. In 1988, O- Level was replaced by a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), which is in use today and provides qualification in non-academic subjects and offers broader subjects. 130 H. Price. History Teaching in England and Wales. (1968: 3). Quoted in Clarke, O’Donoghue and Zuniga. 2015: p. 3. 131Ibid. 132 Ibid., p. 4. 133 Ibid. 70

The revisions in the History curriculum sprang from the preference given to British History as an academic subject in secondary schools in Britain. But the sharpened focus on British history brought with it a relative neglect of world history, local history, and black or multiethnic history. However, enrollment in History increased drastically in the years after the revision.134 This successful reform and review of the British History curriculum gives cause for optimism that with proper reform and revision of the History curriculum in Fiji, the enrollment numbers will increase, but whether such change will increase the Indo-Fijian numbers remain problematic.

4.3.2 History Curriculum and Its Revision in United States of America (USA) Two characteristics of History teaching in the USA differentiate it from Britain; first, content and teaching methods vary from state to state, and even from one top another district schools. Secondly, controversies normally arise over History curriculum content, rather than over teaching pedagogies. The broader curriculum called Social Studies takes as its core disciplines for secondary schools in USA – Geography, History, Economics, Anthropology, Political Science, Civics and Psychology.135 The main concern for discussion over the years in USA has been on “less attention being given to History as a school subject than is the case in England”.136 History established its reliability as a unique program of study in the Social Studies curriculum by becoming an instrument to attain the aims of Social Studies. As a result, the nature of History content taught in secondary schools in USA preoccupied conservative groups, educators, academics and politicians in the 1980s.137 In the words of an American educationalist, Michael Whelan in 2006 a forceful critic, students were “expected to consume History taught in classrooms, reproducing conclusions made by others without producing answers, or knowledge, that could be meaningful for them”.138 Whelan claimed that “most commonly, History lessons were teacher-centered, characterized by the use of textbooks and guided discussions. Unfortunately, this kind of lesson usually fails to promote the

134 Ibid. 135 Ibid. 136 Ibid. 137 Ibid. 138 Ibid., p. 5. 71 development of higher-order cognitive skills”.139 Earlier in, American educator, John Caron had described the: Critiques of social studies in a similar way, specifying that they represent a view that the content taught is fragmented and expository, being organized in a curriculum which privileges memorization over the promotion of in-depth analysis which would allow students to understand the subject.140 In the USA, he asserted, Social Science teachers repeatedly depended on textbooks to consolidate the structure of the curriculum and their teaching pedagogies and as a result, this practice usually presents an “extensive content knowledge, with few opportunities to study problems in-depth.141 Another issue Caron highlighted about the History curriculum in USA was: Assessment tasks given by teachers demand the reproduction of textbook content. In an attempt to cover all content included in standardized tests, which is often an overwhelming amount of information, teachers of history within the social studies learning area focus their attention mostly on teaching events, facts, and dates, neglecting issues related to historical understanding, or historical methods of inquiry.142 Bearing in mind the overall state of affairs, Caron argued: It is understandable that students in the USA often rate social studies as one of the least preferred subjects among school disciplines. Secondary school students also affirm that social studies lessons give them fewer opportunities to learn new knowledge than do other school subjects.143 As a result, conservative groups, educators, academics and politicians in the USA demanded a change in the History program of the Social Studies curriculum. They wanted the History content to include the traditional events such as the War of Independence, the Framing of the Constitution, the Civil War and the Emancipation from Slavery.144 These people strongly believed that such conventionally accepted historical events supported the American nation’s struggle for liberty, and having such concepts and content in the History curriculum would help preserve and teach

139 Ibid. 140 Ibid. 141 Ibid. 142 Ibid., p. 6. 143 Ibid. 144 Portland Public School (Portland, Oregon), United States of America’s History Curriculum Guide. Portland Public School. 1.0. August, 2010. p. 4. 72 people the importance of being an American. The Bradley Commission on the Teaching of History in American Schools in 1988 also suggested that “the States’ Social Studies curriculum for Grades 7 to 12 should contain at least four years of compulsory History. It also recommended that “all students in secondary schools be required to study American history, world history and the history of Western civilization”.145 The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) is directed at promoting curriculum centralization for all school subjects since every state produces its own curriculum frameworks and creates associated standardized tests to monitor students, teachers, and school achievement. NCSS, which developed national standards that provide guidelines for teaching Social Studies, argued that “having topics and content of national interest which has involvement of its own people in the curriculum usually creates interest and enthusiasm, which increases student numbers and preference for History at secondary schools”.146 Hence, in USA, looking at the decrease in History enrollment, the curriculum does play a vital role. Once we have the suitable curriculum for History and the syllabus are more relevant to local as well as national and international history, and appealing to the students’ changing demographic composition, we can expect that the reversal of the falling enrollment in History.

4.3.3 History Curriculum and Its Revision in Australia A former British settler colony of Australia does not have a centralized education system. The six states and two territories have different curricula and syllabi for History and other subjects, which are approved by the Federal Ministry of Education. The History curricula in the three states of New South Wales (NSW), Queensland and Victoria (as the biggest Australian state by population) demonstrate the differences and the similarities in the curriculum.147 Michael Bucklow, a retired History teacher for 40 years, and a former member of the national curriculum committee of Australia noted in 2000:

145 Ibid., p. 4. 146 North Carolina Department of Education, United States of America History Curriculum Document. 11th Grade Social Studies. Sacramento. 2007. p 8. 147 Australian Government Department of Education, The Final report on the National Seminar on Teaching Australian History in Schools. Australian Government Department of Education. Canberra. 2000. p. 15. 73

The fact that certain historical events are not in the History curriculum doesn’t mean they’re not covered, but admittedly it’s more random and up to each school to select. It’s difficult to identify from curriculum documents precisely which topics are taught.148 NSW, Victoria and Queensland involved several learning focuses over years 7 to 12 which are generally similar. In NSW, students learn about Australian history in Years 7 and 8 where the focus is on Aboriginal history and in Years 9 and 10, where the focus is on Australia as a whole. In the upper secondary school (Years 11 and 12); the emphasis is on World history and Australian history. Topics that were absent in the NSW Year 9–10 History program included the Apartheid, the Cuban missile crisis, Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge, the Berlin Wall collapse, Tiananmen Square massacre, Chernobyl nuclear disaster, the Rwanda genocide, to name a few. Even the September 11 attacks in USA are completely missing from the syllabus. History is a compulsory subject in the Years 7 and 8 in NSW schools. In the middle Grades, Years 9 and 10, students can either study Ancient History or Modern History as part of their further study, while in the upper level of NSW secondary schools, Years 11 and 12 curriculums, includes a broader range of historical events. According to the NSW Board of Studies, the Australian Curriculum will be now reviewed and revised every five to seven years. Australia had a similar case to Fiji whereby in 2000 during the National Seminar on Teaching Australian History in Schools it was highlighted that indigenous people were not interested in European version of their history–as a school subject and as matter of general interest. Australia’s migrant population showed little interest in History, again in schools and outside in Australia, the delegates at the National Seminar on teaching Australian History in schools in 2002, expressed concerns about the popularity and status of History.149 With reference to History, there is a long tradition of excluding the ‘History’ that Aborigines have safeguarded and maintained as theirs. As a result, the Australian government has pushed History as a means for creating patriotic sentiments, instead of teaching about

148 Jewel Topsfield, “National Curriculum Declares History Un-Australian”, http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/national-curriculum-declares-history- unaustralian-20120709-21rua.html. 10th July, 2010. Accessed on 24th August, 2015. 149 Ibid. 74 the Aborigine history. Further blow to History in Australia comes from an official emphasis on literacy and numeracy.150 Delegates in the 2000 National Seminar on Teaching Australian History in Schools pointed out that, “History is a demanding subject that develops students’ critical abilities–a widely endorsed goal but one who’s demanding character causes some students to avoid it when selecting subjects”.151 History is in paradoxical bind. While it is a language-rich subject, the cognitive and intellectual demands seem to deter students rather than to present them with educational reward. Speaking of Victoria’s case, the head of humanities at Genazzano Faithful Companions of Jesus College in Kew, James Gilchrist, said “Australian history needed to be a stand-alone subject to give it the depth of attention it required”.152 He said “important themes like the way the environment shapes the Australian character and the development of the early republican idea could get lost if part of a broader subject”.153 Stephanie Rosestone, the education officer at Sovereign Hill in Victoria, runs sessions for Australian History students which discuss the impact of the gold rush on Australian history she said “modern and ancient history did not replace Australian history in schools”.154 She further stressed, “The value of Australian students continuing to the senior years where they can study the subject with more academic rigor and mature focus on issues and context”.155 In Victoria the History syllabus has events such as the Cold War, Gulf war and Iraq conflict in Years 9 and 10, and other topics as optional for students. The Victorian government has elevated anxieties about the level of Australian history to be taught to Years 11 and 12 History students under the proposed national curriculum because Australian history will not be taught as a separate subject in the senior years under the national curriculum, with modern and ancient history the only two subjects to be offered nationwide. Nonetheless the federal government alleged

150 Ibid. 151 Ibid. 152 Australian Government Department of Education, Review of the Australian Curriculum Final Report. Australian Government Department of Education. Canberra. 2014. p. 4. 153 Ibid. 154 Ibid. 155 Ibid., p. 5. 75 that “Australian history was a central part of modern history and states could continue to offer their own Australian history courses if they chose to do so”.156 Victoria is one of several states that maintained Australian history as an individual subject, “Although it struggles to compete with the popular revolutions subject, who looks at bloody events such as the French and Russian revolutions”.157 The Victorian government believes the national history curriculum should contain clear and substantial knowledge of Australian history.158 In 2015, Stephanie Forrest, a research scholar at the Research Institute of Public Affairs in Canberra, argued that students will miss out on learning about their national identity in any depth, while others say Australian history is better taught as part of modern history, which covers international conflicts, revolutionary change and Asian and Australian history from 1750 to the early 21st century.159 The History Teachers Association of Victoria in their reply noted: It was very concerned there was no dedicated Australian history subject in the senior secondary part of the national curriculum, particularly at Year 12 level. We believe students need to be able to study the history of their own country in a sustained way at the senior level.160 In Queensland students in Years 9 and 10 learn about the Cold War, the Gulf War, the Iraq conflict and Chernobyl. Queensland recorded “11 to 12 percent of students study Modern History in the Queensland Core Skill (QCS) course”.161 Overall, the NSW Board of Studies website discloses that on an average of the last five years, only 14 percent of NSW Higher School Certificate (HSC) students studied Modern History in 2013, while in Victoria an average of 11 percent of students took Modern History in the Year 12 Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) course between 2009 and 2013.162 If the data on NSW, Victoria and Queensland (as biggest Australian states by population) can be stretched to offer a dependable assumption for the entire country,

156 Australian Government Department of Education, NSW Senior Secondary Review and Evaluation: English, Mathematics, Science and History. Board of Studies Teaching and Evolutional Standards. Canberra. 2013. p. 7. 157 Ibid. 158 Ibid., p. 8. 159 Stephanie Forrest, “Scrap the National Curriculum: Parents and Schools should decide how to teach our national heritage, not Canberra”. In IPA Review. 65, 2015. p. 24. 160 Australian Government Department of Education. 2014. p. 4. 161 Ibid. 162 Topsfield. 2010. 76 the outcomes are as follows; between 86 and 89 percent of Australian high school students will not acquire knowledge about major world events such as those prescribed in the State syllabi at an Australian high school, simply because they didn’t take History as an option beyond the required Years 9 and 10 course.163 The NSW curriculum is presently in the course of having an Australian curriculum substituted with the History curriculum being centralized as well. Historic events such as ‘the Gulf War’, ‘Cuban missile crisis’, ‘Chernobyl’ and the ‘Berlin Wall’ are at this time incorporated in the Years 9 and 10 History syllabi, while events such as ‘Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge’ and the ‘Tiananmen Square massacre’ will be scrapped from the curriculum completely.164

4.3.4 History Curriculum and Its Revision in New Zealand The dispute over History in secondary schools has tended towards the senior curriculum in secondary schools than lower secondary curriculum (Years 9 and 10), where History is incorporated into Social Studies. It is this subject that all students to some extent became involved with the past. The introduction of Social Studies as a required subject in New Zealand met with significant resistance from History teachers. In 1990, Marcia Stenson a New Zealand historian concluded that, “Although the numbers opting for history began to decline in the late 1970s History teachers have continued to perceive their subject as of high academic status compared with the more lowly Social Studies”.165 She further argued that, the introduction of Social Studies in the senior secondary schools following the implementation of a new national system, the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA), has altered that view to a limited extent, with a small but enthusiastic group of teachers specializing in the concept-based subject and its own distinctive language and identity; although fewer than 20 percent of schools at the time of writing have taken up this opportunity.166 NCEA is oriented towards skills rather than content. Social Studies in New Zealand secondary schools have suffered from a reputation as a ‘soft’ subject. Social Studies therefore has compared poorly with the specified knowledge

163 National History Curriculum Board, Framing Paper for Consultation. November 2008 to February 2009. National Curriculum Board. Canberra. 2010. p. 5. 164 Ibid., p. 6. 165 Marcia Stenson, (1990). Quoted in Rowena Taylor and Mark Sheehan, The Place of History in the New Zealand Curriculum. In New Zealand Journal of Teacher’s Work. 8: 2, 2011. p. 158. 166 Ibid. 77 accessible in History. In the NZC the relatively open-ended achievement objectives are intended to allow teachers considerable choice in their selection of context and content. Furthermore, Social Studies teachers were given the liberty to select contexts and topics in relation to ‘concept-led achievement objectives’ after Social Studies in the New Zealand Curriculum (SSiNZC) were introduced in 1997. History teachers were given a similar freedom to take this approach, “where students are expected to demonstrate competence in expressing their knowledge and conceptual understanding as well as skills to meet the achievement objectives”.167 The NZC offers openings for History and Social Studies educators who have a fixed hold of the “disciplinary features” of History to organize content that reproduces the ideas and practices of past philosophy and that are communally relevant.168 The content of secondary school History in New Zealand has hardly ever mirrored the research by current historians over the last 25 years. In spite of an extensive choice of possibilities in the previous History curriculum, teachers selected a contracted collection of themes that highlighted war and politics.169 The implementation of senior Social Studies since 2002 has clarified and reinforced the conceptual approach to the subject, which is now also an expectation in History. While Social Studies and the central ethos of the NZC has been a close fit, this has been more challenging for content-rich, compartmentalized subjects such as History in the senior secondary which has been dominated by examination prescriptions. As pointed out by a New Zealander educationist, Mike Aitken, in 2005, “Social Studies has been criticized for rarely engaging with the salient features of the discipline of history (such as argument, evidence, significance and context) or ensuring students develop a firm grasp of the substantive features of the past”.170 The implementation of The New Zealand Curriculum (NZC) according to the Ministry of Education in 2007 “had major implications for teaching and learning History in both junior secondary school Social Studies and senior History courses”.171 At the upper secondary school level (Years 11–13), History teachers have a high degree of

167 Rosemary Hipkins, Reshaping the Secondary School Curriculum: Building the plane while flying it? Findings from NZCER National Survey of Secondary Schools 2009. New Zealand Council of Educational Research. Wellington. 2010. p. 7. 168 Ibid., p. 8. 169 Ibid. 170 Mike Aitken. (2005). Quoted in Rowena Taylor and Mark Sheehan, The Place of History in the New Zealand Curriculum. In New Zealand Journal of Teacher’s Work. 8: 2, 2011. p. 157. 171 Ibid., p. 156. 78 autonomy in the NZC as there are now no prescribed contexts. “The only provision is that senior secondary school history programs are required to be of significance to New Zealanders”.172 Furthermore in 2010, Rowena Taylor a senior lecturer at Massey University, had argued that the “unique feature of New Zealand senior History programs over the last 25 years is that students have not generally studied their own country’s past in any depth”.173 In 2011, Mark Sheehan an educationalist at the Victoria University of Wellington, argued that History as an academic subject did not feature highly in New Zealand’s secondary school curriculum and students usually performed poorly in analyzing past events to make conclusions for the present day.174 The subject could be taken simply as an optional subject in the concluding years of secondary school (Years 11-13) in New Zealand, where only a few students.175 Students did study some History as it was integrated in Social Studies, where historical conceptions were set in the theoretical strand of “Continuity and Change” in the curriculum.176 History in secondary schools in New Zealand thus does not play an explicit role in building or maintaining citizenship education goals such as are a feature of school history programs in the international arena. For example, Year 13 History students focus on one in-depth study for their final school examination with a choice of topics between 19th century New Zealand colonial history or 16th and 17th century England.177

4.3.5 What the Comparison can tell us: Lessons for Fiji? The reforms in the History curriculum for the respective countries mentioned in this chapter are similar to what is currently happening in Fiji under the National Curriculum Framework (NCF). As seen in Chapter 3, the NCF is designed to review and reform the current History curriculum so that it is more skill based, which will help students in future. Countries have changed their curriculum so the numbers in the subjects that had low enrollments experienced an increase. So this section is

172 Ibid., p. 157. 173 Rowena Taylor and Mark Sheehan, The Place of History in the New Zealand Curriculum. In New Zealand Journal of Teacher’s Work. 8: 2, 2011. p. 156. 174 Ibid., p. 157. 175 Ibid. 176 Ibid., p. 158. 177 Ibid. 79 important for my research to see if the current Year 11 to Year 13 History curriculum change will have an impact on Indo-Fijian students’ preference for the subject. This review of the four countries reveals that Fiji like Britain and New Zealand has a national curriculum for the schools to follow. In contrast, USA and Australia do not have a centralized curriculum although they have a central authority that regulates and oversees the attempt to ensure that an appropriate and effective curriculum is offered in the different states. Nevertheless, all four countries do face the problem of the unpopularity of History as an academic subject at secondary school level and in the recent decades have revived the subject by revising and redesigning the subject content to make it more attractive to students. The subject content and the policies of the central authority governing the school curriculum are critical in influencing the ways students see subjects in schools. This comparison of curricula also reveals that content is a crucial factor, with students, teachers and parents having preferences for and against, for example, events like the Cold War, or local history, or conflicts with the indigenous people. The extent to which content is a motivating factor for Indo-Fijian students’ preference for History remains uncertain.

4.4 Selected Theoretical Views on the Importance of the History Curriculum in Schools and its Contribution to Society From discussion above, it is clear that many scholars and historians around the world have expressed opinions on the question ‘Why History needs to be part of the curriculum?’ This section will introduce the reader to the reasons educationalists and historians believe History is an important subject. The reasons they raise may shed light on the reasons Indo-Fijians do not take History, because these reasons can make the ideals of History that the Indo-Fijian perceive as having little relevance to their future aspirations. Knowledge and awareness of students’ attitudes towards the study of History are used by History curriculum planners to develop better and more appropriate curricula. Curriculum development is based on the theoretical background that considers learner, knowledge and society as the three main bases of curriculum.178 The learner is the most important element in the structure of the curriculum.

178 Elliot Eisner, “No Easy Answer: Joseph Schwab’s Contributions to Curriculum”. Curriculum Inquiry. 14: 2, 1984, pp. 201–210. 80

Identifying and responding to students’ voices may help reduce the alienation that some students feel from schooling and helping them to overcome the associated problems. From this perspective, accommodating student voices becomes a means of transforming schooling and of making the curriculum more relevant to students’ needs and interests.179 In the case of Fiji, Whitehead in 1975 observed that Indo-Fijians believed education was the right way to win a recognized status in the Fijian community and at the same time through the achieved status they would be heard and appreciated.180 He in the same year, suggested, that the Indo-Fijians saw education as a means to “get rid of the hardships faced in the farms and a pathway for paid employment”.181 American historian, Ian Steele, generalized in 1976 along similar lines: History has an important contribution to make in the education of school children and indicates that the subject should be taught more effectively so that children might gain the maximum benefit from its study.182 Consequently, in his work published in 1981, Whitehead defined the role of education “as a basic human right and as an essential component in the process of material development”.183 He added: The quality of education in many countries is dependent to a large extent on the nature and content of the curriculum followed in the schools. Education has assumed an unprecedented importance in planning for national growth in the developing countries of the world.184 Compare Whitehead’s statement in 1981 with that by American psychologist Bernice Levin and educator Robert Havighurst in 1984. They predicted that in the 21st century, education would become the principle avenue for employment rest on “college education for middle class occupations and high class education”.185 They justified that as parents realized the importance of education as an avenue for opportunities, parents would encourage their children to stay in education longer and

179 Adam Fletcher, “Teaching Meaningful Student Involvement”, www.soundout.org. Accessed on 27th January, 2013. 180 Whitehead. 1975: 3. 181 Ibid., p. 6. 182 Ian Steele, Developments in History Teaching. Open Books. London. 1976. p. 4. 183 Whitehead. 1981: 190. 184 Ibid. 185 Bernice Levin and Robert Havighurst, Society and Education. Ally and Bacon Inc. New York. 1984. p. 36. 81 pursue higher qualification.186 This is also evident in Fiji. The rationale and function of History education is an issue many historians and educationalists have debated. Also in 1984, French historian Marc Ferro argued: The study of History gives cohesion and deeper meaning to the rest of the curriculum, providing the context and time, for all that the pupil seen around them; it is hoped that it may remain an essential element in the education of pupils in secondary schools.187 Ferro recognized that, History plays a pivotal role in the integration’ of other subjects. The case from the United Kingdom reflects Ferro’s position. History integrates the proximity of knowledge with subjects such as Science, Geography, Literature and Art. As such, many regard History as a subject that provides an individual a ‘cultural education’.188 Generalizing widely across the spectrum, Apple asserted grandly in 1986: Schooling prepares all students to take advantage of every opportunity for personal development that our society offers. It should prepare all our children for the continuation of learning not only now but throughout their adult lives.189 More than that, schools prepare enfranchised citizens. They must provide an adequate preparation for discharging the duties and responsibilities of citizens”.190 The idea that schooling could and should be instrumental in the production of enfranchised citizens, rather than mere trained cogs elicited growing support. In 1997, we find American and historian Harvey Kaye still urging the idea: School could be an instrument for the preparation of critical citizens. Its function should not be to produce graduates simply to assess the consistency of an argument, like in formal logic, but to produce thinking individuals ready to question the premises on which the arguments are based. Future citizens should be capable of providing a nature to the society so that its vested

186 Ibid. 187 Marc Ferro, The Use and Abuse of History, or, How the Past is Taught. Routledge and Kegan Paul. London. 1984. p. 5. 188 Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters in Secondary Schools, The Teaching of History in Secondary Schools. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1985. p. 5. 189 Michael Apple, Teachers and Texts: A Political Economy of Class and Gender Relation in Education. Routledge and Kegan Paul. New York. 1986. p. 109. 190 Ibid. 82

interests and even solutions lead individuals beyond the confines of the society.191 Kaye, added: The truth about the past and the truth about the present are indivisible. Without accepting the truth about what happened, it is impossible to address correctly what is happening now. Without the truth about what is happening now, it is impossible to substantially improve the existing state of affairs.192 Similar sentiments were propounded in 2000 by John Tosh, a British historian, who pointed out: Without Historical knowledge, we could not understand ourselves in contrast with our ancestors and possessing it we also satisfy a spontaneous interest in the world around us and in the people who have been within it.193 Tosh further added that the study of History is an intellectual pursuit, an activity of the reasoning and an individual should realize that its (History) main service lies in its essence. Moreover, he added: Its real value as a social activity lies in the training it provides, the standards it sets, in this secularly human concern. The study of History, regarded as an autonomous enterprise contributes to the improvement of man and it does so by seeking the truth within the confines of its particular province, which happens to be the rational reconstruction of the past.194 In 2001, Chris Husbands, a member of the National Trust Learning Panel of Britain, expressed the opinion: As an academic discipline, History is an attempt to resolve difficulties and to construct intellectually coherent accounts of the past which are consistent with the evidence.195 In 2012, Mary Lythe, an English educationalist pointed out: History is not what happened in the past; rather it is the act of selecting, analyzing and writing about the past. It is something that is done, that is

191 Harvey Kaye, Why Do Ruling Classes Fear History? Martin’s Griffin. New York. 1997. p. ix. 192 Ibid., p. 16. 193 John Tosh, Historians on History. (2nd Ed.). Pearson Education. Singapore. 2000. p. 175. 194 Ibid., p. 30. 195 Chris Husbands, What is History Teaching? Language, Ideas, and Meaning in Learning about the Past. Open University Press. Philadelphia. 2001. p. 5. 83

constructed, rather than an inert body of data that is scattered in the archives.196 Likewise, Conal Furay and Michael Salevouris, both American historians, in 2012 outlined five reasons as to why History is a rewarding subject. They are: a) History gives an individual a sense of this/her own identity – both social and personal identity. b) Knowing more about History helps one to understand the present, since the ‘present is the product of the past’. c) It helps us analyze and understand the actions of humans and the social institutions in the community. d) It assists one to be tolerant and open minded; ‘returning from visits to the past, we have perhaps rid ourselves of some of our inherent cultural provocation’. e) History is the foundation of many other disciplines – it is ‘valuable in the study of: literature, Arts, Philosophy, religion, political science, anthropology, sociology and economics’.197 Furay and Salevouris believed that “rapid changes we see around should not hide the basic reality that all we do, all we think, indeed, all we are is the cumulative result of past experience”.198 They noted that “the future is an abstraction, the present but a fleeting moment, all else is History”.199 “History, they declared, is related even more closely to social and behavioral science, for example anthropology, sociology, political science, economics and psychology. History provides many raw materials for the social recognition seekers”.200 Historians Jacques Barzun and Henry Graft in 2012 noted that Social Sciences “are in fact daughter disciplines to History for they are each part of the historical investigation having long formed part of historical writings; both History and Social Science are bodies of knowledge that deal with humans in society”.201 As far as providing students with ‘knowledge of the local environment’, History can help us to know and understand better our fellow beings, history teaches

196 Mary Lythe, (2012). Quoted in Conal Furay and Michael Salevouris, The Methods and Skills of History. (3rd Ed.). Harlan and Davidson Inc. London. 2012. p. 142. 197 Furay and Salevouris. 2012: 6–7. 198 Ibid., p. 4. 199 Ibid. 200 Ibid., p. 246. 201 Ibid., p. 247. 84 us uncertainty and critical judgment and History prepares us to face the problems of the contemporary world.202 Fletcher’s statement dated in 2012 promises much potential of History. However, as this discussion has shown, Fletcher’s statement repeats many of the pedagogical assumptions and benefits repeated so many times before in many countries. It seems as though if History is an unpopular subject at school, the students fail to see the benefits of History. Furthermore, if these statements of the benefit of History remain unchanged in many parts of the English speaking world, it would seem as though the History educationalists may have failed to promote it in schools. This makes a serious issue in an age that schools compete for more time to teach extra subjects such as computing that History teachers did not need to think of several decades ago. Here is another generalization that seems made for specific local context of this study. In a newspaper article in 2010, The Prime Minister of Fiji, Voreqe Bainimarama, during the Fiji Day celebration at Albert Park in Suva, highlighted that the necessity for studying History. He believed that the present was the product of the past and the future would depend on the present. Bainimarama further added that, “all the political upheavals since independence were the product of the decisions made in the past”.203 Such localized rhetoric fits seamlessly in the generalized rhetoric of universalizing western commentators. Youths today live in an environment characterized by increasing complexity and face overriding priorities. The scholars insist History fulfills a vital role in equipping children with intellectual capacity to negotiate these difficult choices they will have to make in adult life. The children therefore need to study History as it focuses on the problems and issues of human beings over time in a changing environment. The study of History helps to develop desirable habits, values, attitudes and skills in order to make decisions.204 History as an academic subject is about studying the past because “our present is the result of our past”.205 That is, the past affects our present and future. This reveals that History is fundamental and developmental. History in the school

202 Fletcher. 2013. 203 Mere Naleba, “PM’s Message to the Nation on 40 Years of Independence”, The Fiji Times, Suva. October 11, 2010. p. 15. 204 Rhys Andrews, Catherine McGlynn and Andrew Mycock, National Pride and Student’s Attitudes towards History: An Exploratory Study. In Educational Studies Journal. 36: 3, 2010, pp. 299–309. 205 Naleba. 2010: 15. 85 curriculum is vital. The study of History should be seen as inseparable from the study of the society. History by virtue of its time perspective can reveal what is enduring about society and its structures. It can help us to be more truly objective and rational about the social problems because it can reveal them as relative and transitory. Through the study of History children will understand the structure of the society better and possess a more critical standard of judgment. Still on the ‘big picture’, History fulfills an essentially socializing and integrating role, by introducing pupils to the society of which they will become adult members. History as an academic subject always talks about the past. That is, students deal with the past and as they study the subject, they get to know what their present society was like in the past. Since her colonial days, Fiji has been a multiethnic society. Likewise in this study’s specific case, by studying Fiji’s past, a student will get to know the policies and ways the different cultures and ways in which races were able to interact and integrate since colonial days. In schools a set of regulations and rules guide students’ choice of subjects. Not all students are given the liberty to choose their academic subjects. Other factors present in schools determine the choice include but are not limited to, the options present, the careers teacher’s advice, and the school policy on low achievers. So rather than providing the students with the freedom to choose subjects schools may impose conditions that force students to take up some subjects that they do not want to do. In the particular case of Fiji today, schools are seen to play a part in low enrollments for certain subjects and this research is based on looking at how school policies affect students’ choice. Taken together, all the scholars mentioned above are in broad agreement on the benefit of education for all children, and History education, and seem to suggest three types of benefit in education: a) the development of individual students’ intellect to realize their potential as autonomous adult citizens; b) the development of future citizens’ capacity to make economic contribution to the societies in which they live; and c) the fulfillment of parental desire for their children to be ‘better off’ than their current socio-economic standing–to gain greater advantage in securing employment with higher salaries and status.

These three types of educational benefit show differences in the fundamental role of education: is it for earning academic learning? If it is for the former, how much can the state expect the students to pay back to the society for their investment? Likewise, if it is for parents’ who contribute to their children’s education, how much can they reasonably expect their children to pursue their individual aspiration while securing the parents’ own socio-economic security as well as the children’s own livelihood? History, by its nature, has the tendency to be regarded as an academic subject with little relevance to the ‘real world’ of economic survival, as opposed to a vocationally-oriented subject. As an academic subject, many parents and students perceive the only skills needed in History are mindless absorption and recall of the fact about the past events and figures. How have scholars, then considered the role of History education within the parameter of formal, that is, state sanctioned education system?

4.5 Conceptualizing the Theoretical Ideas for Fiji The ideas outlined in section 4.4, which is on ‘Selected Theoretical Views on the Importance of the History Curriculum in Schools and its contribution to Society’, are found to be no less applicable to the specific case of Fiji in the six case study schools. As outlined in the new Year 12 and 13 History prescriptions, the general aim of History education in Fiji schools is to prepare critical minds that can analyze the past and become critical and skillful thinkers of the society. As a result, the new prescription is designed using the objectives outlined in the Fiji Islands National Curriculum Framework. This new initiative by the Ministry of Education is to localize the content of the subjects for which revision of the syllabus was well overdue, including History. As said in earlier chapters, people concerned with the teaching of History in Fiji schools should perhaps organize events and activities to help make Indo-Fijian parents aware of the importance of History and the place of the subject in the school curriculum. These could include having History parents’ night or day, History week at school and inviting the parents or distributing brochures to parents. As for the teaching of History, the arguments raised in the general discourse remain prevalent for the present-day History education in schools, as parents and children plus teachers who were interviewed did raise the issue that there is a need for the people concerned, especially teachers, to put in extra effort to see that the 87 appropriate knowledge is disseminated to the students. In this case, it is teachers who end up playing a proactive role in the promotion of the subject as well making the History classrooms appealing and conducive to learning so that the subject attracts more students. The literature reviewed in this chapter has highlighted the value of History education in Fiji, the vital role that school and the education system play, and lastly, the reasons for History to be part of the curriculum. The views and opinions that have been raised in this review have attempted to place this study in these pedagogical and historical contexts–both internationally and in Fiji. Therefore the changes made in 2010–2015 to the Year 11 to Year 13 History curricula in Fiji can incorporate comparable outcomes to those adapted to the four countries. This requires, however, students, parents and teachers, appreciating relevance in the content taught in History classrooms far more than they do today. It is too early to make judgment in 2017, but anecdotal evidence suggests that in trials in 2015 the History teachers were satisfied with new content. The evidence in this chapter from other countries certainly shows that modernizing, decolonizing and localizing the History curriculum is a factor in increasing History’s popularity. It is clear that the school curriculum is the product of complex and often competing needs and demands of the society. On one hand, education fosters individual intellectual faculties to become autonomous citizens in adulthood. On the other hand, education is also a means to securing livelihood. Educationalists and historians have stressed the significance of History not only in schools but also for the overall intellectual benefit for students. The case of Fiji demonstrates, as this and previous chapters have shown, is that what the Ministry of Education of Fiji conceives of History as a means of developing a national identity among students. Yet, the historical legacy of colonial education system remains. The literatures reviewed in this chapter suggest the Indo-Fijian perceive education as a way to improve their socio-economic standing. The subsequent chapters will discuss and analyze what students, parents and teachers consider to be influencing the choices students make in studying and not studying History at high schools. The voice of those groups may illuminate the gaps between the stated aims of History education in today’s Fiji and the expectations those groups have in education.

CHAPTER FIVE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN

5.1 Introduction This brief chapter introduces the research methodology and design I have used in obtaining and analyzing the data. In this chapter, in Section 5.2, ‘Justification for the Methods Used’, I will start by shedding some light on my reasons for the methods I used to do this research. I will then outline my preparative stages in section 5.3, ‘Preparative Stages’, where I will discuss procedures that I followed to conduct this research. In section 5.4, ‘Data Collection Techniques and Procedures’, I will outline the different techniques I have used to collect data and lastly in 5.5, ‘Data Analysis’, I will outline the methods used to analyze the data and draw conclusions.

5.2 Justification for the Research Methodology Used The research has used a mixed methods design, which comprised qualitative and quantitative study; I used surveys and interviews as the main research tools for data collection. This research project investigated reasons for Indo-Fijian students not taking History as an academic subject at six secondary schools in Nausori, Fiji. The following factors were analyzed: the influence of parents, peers and teachers the current History curriculum in Fiji and overseas the career path and subject viability for future needs. By mixed methods design, I refer to the conceptualization made in 2003 by John Creswell, Vicki Clark, Gutmann and William Hanson: Collection and analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data in a single study, in which the data are collected concurrently or sequentially, are given a priority and involve the integration of the data at one or more stages in the process of research.206 A mixed method design is appropriate for research about schools and education in general. As a methodology, it involves ethical assumptions that give direction to the collection and analysis of data and provides a mixture of qualitative and quantitative

206 John Creswell, Vicki Clark, Michelle Gutmann and William Hanson, Advanced Mixed Methods Research Designs. Sage Publication. Thousand Oaks. California. 2003. p. 209. 89 approaches in all stages of the research. This thesis focused on collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data; using both approaches in combination provides a better understanding of the problem investigated.207 A quantitative method was employed to produce statistical data, while the qualitative approach was used to explore the social realities and describe the phenomena not easily revealed by quantification. The qualitative approach helped me to understand the different ways the participants interact with their social environment and surroundings that form the different variables of this research. Using both qualitative and quantitative analysis helped to present the participant perceptions as accurately and correctly as possible.208 In qualitative inquiry the researcher is the instrument for conducting the research. Therefore the validity and reliability of qualitative data will depend to a great extent on the “methodological skill, sensitivity and integrity of the researcher”.209 That is, the researcher is the sole person in charge and conducted this research and determined the participants and their surroundings. The outcome of qualitative research very much depends on the researcher and the skills that the researcher uses to get the results and collect the data. The researcher is a lens or filter through which the data pass, and in the process the understanding of what the participants expressed is bound to be to some extent influenced, misunderstood, exaggerated and altered in some way by the researcher’s own biasness, opinions and misunderstanding. So to complement and draw a valid and reliable conclusion, researchers use both the qualitative and quantitative methods. Using the mixed methods approach provides more comprehensive answers to research questions, going beyond the limitations of just one approach. Simply, when combining qualitative and quantitative research this thesis presents data in the form of words and in the form of numbers respectively. The mixed methods allowed me as a researcher to generalize results from the sample to a population.210 The mixed methods also helped me gain a deeper understanding of the problem that I wanted to investigate. Analyzing the data collected using the qualitative methods (interviews,

207 John Creswell and Vicki Clark, Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research. Sage Publication. Thousand Oaks. California. 2006. p. 225. 208 Mesake Dakuidreketi, Contexts of Science Teaching and Learning in Fiji Primary Schools: A Comparative Study of Ethnic Fijian and Indo-Fijian Communities. Ph.D. Thesis. The University of Canterbury. Christchurch, New Zealand. 2004. p. 166. 209 Ibid. 210 Ibid. 90 survey and observation) and quantitative (numbers, rating and ranking) enabled me understand the problem properly and make proper and valid suggestions that would be of future use.

5.3 Preparative Stages This section provides the description of the procedures I followed before I conducted my fieldwork in the schools. This included steps such as writing the proposal, protecting the identity of my participants, gaining permission from the Ministry of Education and the school principals. Participants were guaranteed confidentiality and anonymity, so it was important for me to ensure these requirements before entering the field.

5.3.1 Ethical Considerations Before I conducted my research: ‘Indo-Fijian Students’ Reluctance to Study History: Perceptions and Influences Affecting Student Choice in six Nausori high schools’, I wrote a proposal document detailing the aims, research questions and research approaches, and literature related to my study. After gaining the approval from the School of Social Science and the Research Committee of the Faculty of Arts, Law and Education of The University of the South Pacific, I wrote a letter seeking the approval of the Ministry of Education to conduct my research at six schools in Nausori.211 After sighting the approval from the Ministry of Education and the Nausori Education Office, the school Principals of these six schools accepted the request to conduct this study at their schools.

5.3.1.1 Anonymity and Confidentially of the Participants All the participants were parents, teachers and students and their identity was to be kept confidential. All ethical issues such as confidentiality, ethnic equality and special needs were considered so that this would not harm any individual. The approval to carry out the research was given by the Ministry, the Divisional Education Officer Nausori and the principals of the six schools. The participants took part and answered the questionnaires voluntarily. Only those students who consented took part in the research. This rule also applied to teachers. Prior consent was gained from the participants before the survey was conducted when their anonymity was also guaranteed; each participant (the parents,

211 See Appendices 5, 6, 7 and 8. 91 teachers and students) was given a consent letter to show their agreement to be part of this research (see sample in Appendix 9). The names of the school were to be kept confidential as part of agreement when permission for the research was taken. In order to maintain their confidentiality, they are named as School 1, School 2, School 3, School 4, School 5 and School 6 (see Table 5.1).

5.3.2 Fieldwork and the Rationale for Choosing the Schools The field data collection phase of the study was carried out in weeks one to four of the first school Terms of 2013 and 2014.212 I paid random visits to these schools, after the approval was given by the Ministry of Education and the Principal of the respective schools, dividing the duration of my stay at each school evenly. Since all six of these schools have their enrollments completed by week four, this seemed an opportune time to conduct this survey. I also relied on assistance from teachers whom I knew to conduct oral interviews and survey with students. These students were more comfortable and this helped me to get a better perspective of the issues. The other two Terms were used to analyze and do the writing up for this research since I was doing this research on a part-time basis. I choose these six secondary schools because I had taught at these schools or have colleagues who have talked over the problem with me. This enabled me to be more at ease with the students and the parents so that I could collect the data from them easily; their rapport with me also facilitated maximum participation from the parents, teachers and the students. Three of the six schools were ones where I previously taught. I have spent about six years of my teaching career within these three schools, and the other three schools were known to me indirectly through my friends who are teaching in them. Given the nature of my study, this familiarity was an important factor in my selection. Other influential factors included: their different ethnic and religious composition, size and location, and context and management. The Ministry of Education provided data on the number of students who sat for the Fiji School

212 Fiji schools have three school Terms. First Term starts in January and ends at the end of April. Second Term runs from mid-May till mid-August, and the third Term starts in late August and ends at the end of November. 92

Leaving Certificate Examination and Fiji Seventh Form Certificate Examination as discussed earlier in chapters two and three. 527 Indo-Fijian students not taking History at Forms 5–7 levels in 2013 at the six schools of Nausori took part in this research project.213 Together with these students, 180 parents and 84 teachers also participated (See Table 5.2 and 5.3 for the composition of parents and teachers). Nausori is situated about 30 minutes’ drive from the capital city Suva. Nausori town is an urban area that makes up the hinterland for the workers and employers for the capital city and it acts as a residential and service center for the provinces of Tailevu, Naitasiri and Rewa. Table 5.1 gives a profile of the six schools. School 2 and School 6 are two of the largest schools in Fiji, while School 1 and School 5 are smaller schools whose numbers are increasing.214 School 4 and School 3 are smaller in student numbers. School 5 and School 2 are predominantly iTaukei schools while the others are predominantly Indo-Fijian schools. The government manages none of the schools is by; their respective religious communities managed them. The choice of the six schools for this survey should be adequate and appropriate for this survey as it has a mixed composition of iTaukei and Indo-Fijian students and teachers. The six schools were chosen because they are situated in a historical urban center in Fiji that had an interesting connection with the past for the Indo-Fijians.215 These six schools are part of the 178 secondary schools that presently operate in Fiji.

213 Refer to Table 1.1 for the ethnicity breakdown of student participants. 214 To see the location of the schools refer to Figure 2.2. 215 See Chapter 2 for a historical sketch of Nausori. 93

Table 5.1 Proposed Sites of Research: ( School Roll in 2013)

SCHOOL STUDENT ETHNICITY LOCATION/ CLASSIFICATION YEAR MANAGING AUTHORITY NAME DISTRIBUTION -- 2013 (ALL SCHOOLS ARE BASED IN ESTABLISHED : INDO- ITAUKEI TOTAL NAUSORI) FIJIAN School 1 218 214 432 Semi- Urban 1966 Hindu religious group School 2 44 1342 1386 Urban 1943 A major Christian denomination School 3 48 258 306 Rural 1971 Hindu religious group School 4 115 222 337 Semi - Urban 1975 A Muslim denomination School 5 71 516 587 Urban 1996 A major Christian denomination School 6 537 437 974 Urban 1971 Hindu religious group Source: The Principal of the respective schools.

Table 5.2 Composition of Parents

School Indo-Fijian Parents Indo-Fijian Parents Total whose children don’t whose children do take History History School 1 50 15 65 School 2 10 6 16 School 3 10 3 13 School 4 20 2 22 School 5 10 0 10 School 6 50 4 54 Total 150 30 180

Note: The parents were randomly selected based on Table 1.1 on ethnicity of students.

Table 5.3 Composition of Teachers School Ethnicity of Teachers Total Ethnicity of Teachers Total not Teaching History Teaching History Indo-Fijian iTaukei Indo-Fijian iTaukei School 1 9 6 15 0 1 1 School 2 10 5 15 0 2 2 School 3 6 4 10 0 1 1 School 4 3 7 10 0 1 1 School 5 5 5 10 1 1 2 School 6 8 7 15 1 1 2 Total 75 9

Note: The teachers were randomly selected.

As noted my length of service in and familiarity with the area facilitated my data collection and analysis. Results from this project should provide a basis for more in-depth research in Fiji and South Pacific countries.

5.4 Data Collection Techniques and Procedures The fieldwork used six data collection techniques: (i) survey questionnaires a. 480 Indo-Fijian students who chose not to study History b. 30 students who chose to study History, regardless of ethnicities c. 159 Indo-Fijian parents d. 72 teachers, regardless of the subjects (ii) semi-structured open-ended interviews, based on the survey a. 47 Indo-Fijian students who chose not to study History b. 21 Indo-Fijian parents c. 12 teachers These respondents did not take part in the survey, but answered the survey questions in the interviews, as well as supplementary questions. (iii)document analysis of prescribed syllabi and selected policy documents, (iv) using my own written experiences and reflections of being a student and teacher in the Fiji education system, (v) observation on the day of enrollment, and (vi) talanoa sessions with parents and teachers. This allowed for greater understanding of both my participants’ perspectives and contextual factors.

5.4.1 The Survey On the day of the survey, I made prior arrangement with the head of the school to allocate a place for students to sit and fill out the questionnaires. The survey was conducted using set questionnaires (See Appendices 1, 2, 3, and 4). The 30 Indo-Fijian students who were taking History in the six secondary schools were also part of the survey to obtain comparable results; while the 480 were the Indo- Fijian students who were not studying History. The survey was conducted and the data was collected during Term 1 in 2013 after the Form 5 made their subject choices for their higher secondary education. The participants were also requested to give rating and ranking in the questionnaires to provide me with the quantitative data.

There were no restrictions placed on the gender of the participants. Some personal interviews with parents were conducted on the day of the enrollment for their children. On the day of the enrollment, arrangements were made through invitation letters sent to parents. The students were given the consent letters and invitation letters for their parents to be part of the survey.

5.4.1.1 The Survey Composition 480 students irrespective of gender were surveyed using questionnaires (See Appendices 1, 2, 3 and 4). Also included in the survey were those students at the six schools taking History in Forms 5, 6 and 7 in 2013 regardless of their ethnicity and gender.216 72 teachers regardless of the subject at the six schools were also surveyed to find out their views on the problem and how the problem can be solved. Together with the teachers 159 parents were also surveyed to get their opinion on the subject of History in schools. I have also observed classes to see the effectiveness of teaching and the classroom environment. I have notified the students, parents and teachers earlier about the interview, and distributed a letter of consent. Due to issues of anonymity and confidentiality, I have withheld my description of the participants in this study. However, I described participants as teachers, students, parents and community members, only through their groups or assigned roles.

5.4.1.2 The Survey Settings The students’ survey was conducted using English in venues arranged by the appointed teacher. The questionnaires were answered by students during the recess, lunch and in the afternoons before the students left for home, so that their normal school work was not disrupted. The answering of questionnaires by the parents was conducted at venues agreed by both parties (the author and the parents).

5.4.2 Interviews The interviews were conducted on a day when all the participants of the particular school were present so that complete results could be obtained. I interviewed 47 Indo-Fijian students who chose not to study History, 21 Indo-Fijian parents and 12 teachers. I gave them the survey questionnaires on the days of the interviews. The respondents answered the questions as the interviews proceeded. However, we followed the semi-structured format. Wherever the occasion warranted, the

216 Refer to Table 1.1 for the breakdown of students’ ethnicities. 98 interviewees and I asked supplementary questions to each other, and we elaborated further details beyond the questions. With the interviewees following semi-structured questionnaires that had no restrictions placed on the way they were answering. That is, I ensured that the interviewees could and should feel free to speak informally. This was done so that the interviewees would be more comfortable and felt able to give their views without any restrictions. It also enabled the interviewees to converse naturally, thus enabling me to gather a great deal of information that survey alone could not gather. The data from interviews consisted of direct quotations from the interviewees about their experiences, opinions, feelings and knowledge about the area about which I questioned them during the conversation or interviews. All interviews were recorded in audio-recorder, with the interviewees’ consent.

5.4.3 Written and Policy Documents Document analysis was carried out to provide more descriptive and qualitative information. The types of documents used were: Forms 5, 6 and 7 History Prescription, Curriculum documents from Curriculum Development Unit (CDU), Education Reports by the Ministry of Education, the Fiji National Curriculum Framework, newspaper articles, educational literature, examiners’ reports and examinations analysis and list of schools in Fiji. Reports from respective schools were part of this research. As this research focused on more educational aspects, syllabus, subjects and the curriculum, the analysis of such documents was important. The analysis of these documents gave me more understanding of the situations in the six schools that are the focus of this research and the schools in Fiji as a whole.

5.4.4 Talanoa Sessions To complement the surveys and interviews, I conducted talanoa sessions at the six schools. The idea of talanoa sessions derived from the studies by Dakuidreketi in 1995 and 2004, and Otsuka in 2006. Both scholars used talanoa sessions to collect data, and used their findings. A talanoa session is considered to be an appropriate approach when considering educational and social issues of the people of the Pacific nations.217 Talanoa research rests on the principle of collaboration. It removes the distance between researchers and participants and provides respondents

217 Setsuo Otsuka, Cultural Influences on Academic Achievement in Fiji: Case Study in Nadroga/Navosa Province. Faculty of Education and Social Work. University of Sydney. New South Wales. 2006. p. 76. 99 with a human face they can relate to. Talanoa values story-telling and on face-to-face verbal interactions between researchers and participants. Over time, talanoa builds mutual respect and trust that renders meaningful data for the researcher. At the same time, the interviewees feel empowered to make vital contribution to the researcher’s data gathering process. For this present project, I conducted between two and three talanoa sessions at the halls of the six schools in the first two weeks of Term 1, 2013. A total of 82 parents and 56 teachers, regardless of gender and ethnicity, were randomly selected to take part in the talanoa sessions. The participants gathered in small groups and discussed the topics which I had designed (See Appendix 10, for talanoa session guide). Each talanoa session lasted up to three hours. During the sessions, I monitored the flows of the discussions and noted down their responses.

5.4.5 Observation My observations (for observation guide refer to Appendix 11) at the respective schools were made at the time when the Heads of Department of some schools were asked by their administration (the Principal and Vice-Principal) team to counsel Form 5 students in selecting their subjects.218 This helped me to see how teachers and the future career path influence students’ choice for a subject. As far as the curriculum and school policies were concerned, I mainly looked at the prescribed resources available in textbooks at schools, and the materials necessary for the enhancement of teaching History in their classrooms. The subject options in which History was grouped were also looked at thoroughly. For both, observations and interviews, prior arrangements were made with the principals of the respective schools concerning the population that would be observed and interviewed, and the time for the observations and interviews. The principals were very helpful in appointing a teacher with whom I should liaise for the data collection techniques. These teachers did all the arrangements such as giving out the consent letters, arranging for the venues for interviews and keeping me informed of the date and day on which I could go and observe the enrollment proceedings in their respective schools. After the counseling sessions that the Heads of Department had with the students, I approached them and the students to record their views on their perception

218 See Appendix 8 for letter of request to the Principal for interview, observation and school visit. 100 about different subjects at school. All the observations and the informal conversations were recorded in the observation and conversation sheet.

5.5 Data Analysis Data were analyzed using the tabular system. The system entails the researcher placing the responses in tables featuring a list of the factors under study. A comprehensive table was created to see which factor had the greatest influence so that recommendations could be made on separate factors that have been identified. Conclusions were also given by the participants and through the observations I carried out during the one-year period of the research. One of the features of qualitative research is that data analysis is an ongoing process.219 Ongoing data analysis as expressed by Robert Bogdan and Sari Biklen in 2005 leaves a researcher “in a good stead to do the final analysis after you leave the field”.220 I continued to analyze data while in the field so that if I needed any clarification then the participants were available. While doing this on field analysis, I had to adjust and adapt my questions and conversational techniques to suit the participants and make them comfortable so that they participated freely. After doing the field notes and observational data, I began by having the data entered in frequency count tables drawn in the computer. Also I had a separate spread sheet created to enter all the comments by the participants in regard to each factor studied. After doing the coding for each of these factors in the table, I had to print a copy and read through. During the process of going over the printouts, I made points and comments on the side of the interviewed and observed data to see that the factors that are researched made sense and at the same time compared the factors with similar comments or preferences. In this process, I discovered the analysis of data for both the observed and interviewed participants was far from an easy task. It required a lot of patience and observation so that accurate conclusions could be made. My analysis of data became easier once I had put the figures in tables to quantify some of the qualitative data gathered from the observations and interviews. For each factor investigated, a table was created to show the qualitative response to the respective data. Throughout the duration of my data analysis, I was in discussion

219 Dakuidreketi. 2004: 184. 220 Robert Bogdan and Sari Biklen, Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to Theories and Methods. Pearson Higher Education. White Plains. New York. 2005. p. 154. 101 with my two supervisors, who helped to organize the data and tables. At the same time I re-examined my assumptions by revisiting my observer comments and reflecting on these during all steps of my data analysis. This chapter has elaborated the methods I used to collect data and the way I analyzed the data to draw my conclusions for this study. I used a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods in order to have both breadth and depth in study. The findings are based on participants’ questionnaire responses and focus groups interviews from the six schools. The next three chapters present the findings of this research and discuss the responses from the participants according to reasons for the reluctance of Indo-Fijian students to take History at secondary schools.

102

DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA: PREAMBLE

The thesis now moves to discussion of the data collected and looks at the factors that have been major influences on Indo-Fijian students’ avoidance of History. In fact, Indo-Fijian students’ perceptions of History at secondary schools are affected by various issues surrounding students at school. Discussion is divided into three chapters: Chapter Six – Parents’ influence and opinion about History Chapter Seven – Students’ and Peers’ influence and opinion about History Chapter Eight – Teachers’ influence and opinion about History. Also included in these chapters are the conclusions or arguments put forward by some scholars, researchers, historians and educators about the potential factors that help my analysis. I will draw on mainly literature from Fiji but will pay attention to relevant works by international scholars where necessary. Examples listed here are, sufficient to indicate the breadth of the recognition of such factors in the literature. This is to compare and contrast the validity of the findings of my research with similar research on either the same subject or a similar subject. As a result, this will help me to draw better conclusions and recommendations. The significant factors that were identified and tested in this investigation were: parental influence, peer pressure, role of teachers, the curriculum, school policies and the subject validity.

103

CHAPTER SIX

PARENTAL INFLUENCE AND OPINION ABOUT HISTORY

6.1 Introduction This chapter presents my interpretation of data that I collected on parental influence on students’ preference for History at the six secondary schools in Nausori. The data presented in this chapter is through observations, interviews with the participants and talanoa sessions. During the course of my interpretations, at times I will also refer to conclusions made by local and foreign scholars on the factor discussed in this chapter. Ideas from interviews, documents collected and my own experience are brought in to support my data interpretations and data analysis. In section 6.2, ‘Local and Overseas Case Studies in Influence of Parents’, I will highlight some of the conclusions and ideas mentioned by some local and foreign scholars, educationalists, historians and researchers about the influence of parents on students’ choice of subjects at secondary schools. This adds more depth and for making the data I have collected comparable with other case studies. This will help me in drawing up better and valid conclusions. Section 6.3, ‘Data Discussion’, presents my interpretation of the data I have collected on parental opinions about the value of the study of History and their influence on their children’s subject choices. This section analyzes the views and opinions of students on how their parents influenced them not to take up History as an academic subject at school.

6.2 Local and Overseas Case Studies in Influence of Parents. Overall when measured against Western and liberal assumptions, Fiji will come across as a conservative society. The historical legacy of British colonialism has lasted well beyond Fiji’s formal independence in 1970. Fiji is still a developing nation with substantial informal and primary sectors. The human relations, be they iTaukei or Indo-Fijians, tend to be kinship-based. It is not surprising that parents exert considerable influence on their children’s choice of school subjects and careers. Mesake Dakuidreketi, a Fijian educationalist, researched the iTaukei students’ underperformance in Science. His study, dated 2004, found that the way students

104 were brought up contributed to their underperformance in schools.221 A study by Otsuka, in 2006, sought to determine cultural influence on academic achievement, and conducted surveys on Indo-Fijian students in Nadroga–Navosa. He suggested that iTaukei students were more committed to maintaining their communal life style and their parents preferred devoting more time and finance to cultural activities and less time and money to the education of their children.222 Indo-Fijian students may not have as many communal obligations as their iTaukei counterparts. Indeed, on the surface, it would seem that the Indo-Fijian parents give more time and financial support for their children. However, Otsuka found the Indo-Fijian students were under direct parental control to fulfill their parents’ aspirations. He commented: Over 90 percent of ethnic iTaukei students’ across secondary schools and gender perceive that typical Indo-Fijian parents are strict about their children’s studies. Nearly 85 percent of the ethnic iTaukei students perceive that Indo-Fijian students concentrate on their studies, put a lot of effort in school work, or basically they are very good at studies.223 Otsuka saw that, in the lives of Indo-Fijian students, their parents played an important role. The parents are investing heavily in the education of their children so they also play an integral part in determining the subjects that their children are to take in schools. With the support that parents provide, students in return feel obliged to obey the decisions made by their parents. Thus, the students’ liberty to select subjects is very limited. Otsuka’s comment on Fiji may seem striking for industrialized developed nations. However, parental desire for their children to be ‘better off’ is a strong imperative in other developing nations. Amalachukwu Okeke a Nigerian educationalist conducted an investigation in West Africa in 2000 and revealed that parents have a significant effect on students’ choice of subjects and careers.224 He argued that if:

221 Mesake Dakuidreketi, Contexts of Science Teaching and Learning in Fiji Primary Schools: A Comparative Study of Ethnic Fijian and Indo-Fijian Communities. Ph.D. Thesis. The University of Canterbury. Christchurch, New Zealand. 2004. p. 30. 222 Setsuo Otsuka, Cultural Influences on Academic Achievement in Fiji: A Case Study in Nadroga/Navosa Province. Faculty of Education and Social Work. University of Sydney. Sydney. 2006. p. 23. 223 Ibid., p. 56. 224 Amalachukwu Okeke, “The Impact of School Subjects on the Choice of Careers bound Profession”. West African Journal of Education. 17: 5, 2000. pp. 5–11. 105

We want to encourage more young students into Science, and then students need rich opportunities to find out the way Science can be used in an interesting career. And most of the students have not been helped by their parents when making subject choice.225 Okeke, further, stressed that the parents with skilled professions would want their children to be doctors or engineers without considering what the child wants to become.226 The influence of parents in the development of students’ interest in subjects cannot be over-emphasized. The socio-economic status of parents also appears to determine the type of career a child chooses. In 2011, Ozioma Azubuike, a Nigerian educator, argued that, “some parents have biased and rigid thoughts regarding the occupational choice of students”.227 That is, parents tended to value some jobs highly and disregarded the rest. They might not even know the link between subjects and jobs nor realize that every type of work can be beneficial to the individual and society, and therefore be worthy and noble. An Indo-Fijian female student of School 4 shared a similar sentiment: “because my parents wanted me to take Science. I also did not want to take it because I was not interested in it. Also my aim is to be a doctor so History is really not in my interest”.228 Another Indo-Fijian male of School 2 voiced his opinion strongly: “I’m not interested in History because my parents did not take it and according to them there are very limited career choice or job opportunities that would make me be interested in it”.229 M. A. Mkpa, a Nigerian educationalist, argued that the family into which a child is born “exerts a profound influence on the child’s career, because his occupational life is conditioned by the child’s education, which depends to a considerable extent on the family”.230 A survey he conducted in Nigeria showed that the position of parents in society influences the child’s interest in the subject chosen.231 We find a similar trend across the six schools in Nausori. This was highlighted by an Indo-Fijian student of School 4:

225 Ibid. 226 Ibid. 227 Ozioma Azubuike, “Influential Factors Affecting the Attitude of Students towards Vocational/ Technical Subjects in Secondary Schools in Southeastern Nigeria”. Journal of Educational and Social Research. 1: 2, September. 2011. p. 50. 228 Student 1, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 229 Student 2, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 230 M. A. Mkpa, “Parents’ Attitude towards Their Children’s taking Up a Career in Vocational Trades”. Nigeria Educational Research. 4: 3, 1986. p. 23. 231 Azubuike. 2011: 50. 106

My father is a well-known businessman in Nausori, so he wanted me to join him in our family business after my secondary school. He advised me that I need to do Accounting and Computer as these two subjects will be helping in looking after the business, and not History.232 Azubuike, further concluded, “Illiterate parents did not consider any subject more important than another, and the child from such parents could not be influenced to choose any particular course of study”.233 The study by Nigerian scholars was important as the country has a colonial history similar to Fiji and also had an indigenous population and an immigrant community. The studies conducted in Nigeria provided more information and an insight into what can be expected in this study. A similar sentiment to Mkpa and Azubuike was echoed by an Indo-Fijian parent of School 1: I am just a farmer and I studied only till class 4. I do not know what subjects my child is taking, but I did advise him to take subjects which will help in to have a better life in future and he doesn’t have to struggle in the farms like what I do.234 A study in Queensland by Sonja Whiteley and Janet Porter, two Australian educators, highlighted the different views on parental influence. They concluded that families are helpful when students are selecting their subjects by suggesting careers to their children.235 An Indo-Fijian female of School 1 highlighted that, “since none of my family members took History so I preferred not to”.236 Another Indo-Fijian student pointed on out in similar vein, “as no one in my family took History so I do not have any idea on what kind of subject it is”.237 In contrast, in England, a study by the Engineering and Technology Board has examined parental influence on students’ subject choices. It revealed that parents felt that teachers or friends had a more direct influence on students’’ subject

232 Student 3, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 233 Azubuike. 2011: 50. 234 Student 4, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 235 Sonja Whiteley and Janet Porter, Student Perception of Subject Selection: Longitudinal Perspectives from Queensland Schools. Tertiary Entrance Procedures Authority. Brisbane. 1997. p. 17. 236 Student 5, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 237 Student 6, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author 107 choice.238 Similar dynamics were at play in Indo-Fijian students interviewed. A male student from School 4 stated: For Indo-Fijians in Fiji, respect for parents is next to god, so students pay attention to their parents. Children follow and obey things said by the parents. Parents do influence the subjects that a child takes because the parents are the ones who pay for the school fees and other educational needs of the child. In return the child has a social obligation to listen to the parents and follow their commands.239 Another Indo-Fijian male student from School 6 raised similar concerns, “since my parents are paying the school fees and for my other educational needs so they are to decide on the subjects that I have to do and they told me not to take History”.240 On the other hand an Indo-Fijian female of School 6 pointed out, “It was all up to me but I didn’t take History because I wanted to do Science like most people in my family”.241 Thus the views and opinions outlined in Section 6.2 suggest that parents play an important role in lives of their children, an Indo-Fijian parents are no exception. The next section, I will elaborate more on the parental influence and their (parents) opinion about History, as will be analyzing my data on the influence of parents on their child’s choice of subject. There is no doubting the power of parental advice against History study is suggestive of a long tradition of undervaluing the academic study of History by Indo-Fijian students.

6.3 Data Discussion The data in Table 6.1 show that eight Indo-Fijian students from School 1 are taking History as their parents told them to. In School 2 (3 Indo-Fijian students), School 3 (1 Indo-Fijian student) and School 6 (2 Indo-Fijian students) follow their parents advice in studying History, while in Schools 4 and 5 none of the students are following their parents in selecting History as an academic subject. In total 14 out 30 Indo-Fijian students were studying History due to their parental influence. On the other hand, 57 Indo-Fijian students in School 1 are also following their parents’ advice not to take History. 12 of the Indo-Fijian students at School 5 were not taking

238 Engineering and Technology Board, “Parents Perception of SET based Careers”, http//www.engineeringuk.um/viewitem.com, 2010, accessed on 23rd February, 2013. 239 Student 7, 6th J February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 240 Student 8, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 241 Student 9, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 108

History because of their parents’ advice. Furthermore, Table 6.1 shows that at School 2 (14 Indo-Fijian students), School 3 (13 Indo-Fijian students), School 4 (25 Indo- Fijian students) and School 6 (123 Indo-Fijian students) students were not taking History due to parental influence. Across the six schools surveyed, 244 out of the 527 Indo-Fijian students who are not doing History at the six schools, students identified parental pressure as a reason for their not choosing History, whereas only 14 cited parental opinion and wishes as an influential factor in their decision to study History as one of their electives. It is clear that parental influence is categorical; the male student from School 4 and other students remind us of the power the parents wield on to their children’s subject choice. These statements and the data presented here point to the long tradition of placing less value to studying History. A small sample of student comments illustrates this tradition is well and alive. As highlighted by an Indo-Fijian student from School 3, that, “everyone in my family pressured me to take Accounting rather than History. They all said that I will have a secured job and future as chances of promotions is high in Accounting firms”.242 Another student of the same school pointed out, “I’m not taking History because my parents discouraged me”.243 An Indo-Fijian female student of School 1 added: In my family everyone has done either Science or Commerce, so I was told if I take either Science or Commerce subjects I will be helped my family but if I take History then no one at home will be able to help or assist me in doing my History work like homework.244

242 Student 10, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 243 Student 11, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 244 Student 12, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 109

Table 6.1 Parental influence on Choice of History at the six schools (527 students surveyed) Schools School School School School School School Total Total Number of Indo- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fijian Students Surveyed Indo-Fijian students taking History due 8 3 1 0 0 2 14 30 by Parents’ or Guardians’ (27%) (10%) (3%) (0%) (0%) (6%) (46%) recommendation Indo-Fijian students not taking History 57 14 13 25 12 123 244 527 by Parents’ or Guardians’ (11%) (3%) (2%) (5%) (2%) (23%) (46%) recommendation

110

Table 6.2 Parents’ opinions on History to the question ‘what do you think about History as an academic subject on the following bases’? (Total of 180 parents surveyed) Appropriate Inappropriate School School School School School School School School School School School School 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 History as a subject (History 4 2 3 2 0 2 20 3 3 6 4 25 curriculum and content- on History syllabi) School policy (options with History 2 0 0 0 0 2 6 0 2 7 1 10 and subject counseling) Subject viability and career path 4 2 0 0 0 0 9 4 4 5 3 8

History textbooks and resources 5 2 0 0 0 0 15 3 1 2 2 7

15 6 3 2 0 4 50 10 10 20 10 50 Total 30 150

111

School 6, which is a predominantly Indo-Fijian school, has the highest number of Indo-Fijian students not taking History due to their parents’ advice. School 1, another predominantly Indo-Fijian school has the second highest. These Indo-Fijian parents are mainly working parents who believe that History as an academic subject would not be beneficial to their children as it would not provide them with a secure future. This was supported by an Indo-Fijian male of School 1, “my father is a doctor, and he wants me to be a doctor like him. So I have taken up Science subjects”.245 Furthermore, a female Indo-Fijian student of School 6 answered during the interview: My brother did Accounting and he is earning around $45,000 [a year] and he owns a property and has his own family. My father asked me to follow my brother’s footsteps and do Commerce subjects so that I also can have a secured future.246 Just like any parent of any ethnicity, Indo-Fijian parents have always wanted a better future for their children. A total of 246 students said they did not take History because their parents had advised them not to take the subject while 14 students in total were taking it because their parents recommended it. These were parents who had taken History themselves while at secondary school. A student of School 3 said, “My father is working in a law firm, so he wants me to be a lawyer. Upon his investigation he found out that in order to study law, History is a prerequisite. So he advised me to do History”.247 Some parents even mentioned that it was their child’s choice. About 60 percent of the parents from School 6 believed that the career that their child has chosen did not require History as a prerequisite for further studies in tertiary institutions. For example, an Indo-Fijian parent from School 2, said, “Since her child wanted to become a pilot; the child would need to do Science subjects so she recommended to her child to take science subjects rather than Arts including History”.248 Another Indo-Fijian parent from School 4, “My son wants to be an accountant and in order to be an accountant History was not necessary”.249 So that it looks like

245 Student 13, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 246 Student 14, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 247 Student 15, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 248 Parent 1, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 249 Parent 2, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 112 once parents know that for History is not required for certain jobs, they discourage their children from taking History. As one parent stated, “Why shall I allow my child to do a subject which is not required”.250 This parent’s attitude of ‘allowing’ shows a strong hierarchy in which the parent assumes control over the child. Moreover, ‘not required’ tell us the parent already decides what is best for the child without respect for the child’s individuality, talents or aspirations. School 1 had eight students said they followed parental recommendation to select History. They believe that History will provide their child with the basics knowledge of daily life happenings and would make their child be an informed citizen of the country. The parents in School 6 and School 3 and also School 2 allowed their children to make their choice for History. Twenty-five Indo-Fijian parents from School 6 believed that the History content is not appropriate. This was a not so uncommon response. Based on the information they have gathered from other teachers, students and schools, they saw that the content of Form 6 and Form 7 old History curriculum includes foreign topics that are not interesting and bear no importance to their community or Fiji as a whole. Parents also feel that subject choice for Form 5 should be made in Form 4 and students be given the right subject combinations and the prerequisites for the future subjects. This opinion suggests parents want schools and teachers to provide proper academic counseling to students. One parent from School 4 raised this issue: During the enrollment day I saw a Science teacher keep on pressuring my son to take Science subjects because he scored marks in his Year 10 examination. I wanted him to do Commerce but the teacher forced him to take up Science.251 Schools offering of History come in combination with other subjects. So that if a student takes History, she or he may not be able to take a subject deemed necessary for their future career. Conversely, if a student takes another subject outside the preferred combination, the student cannot choose History. The parents want to see History to be placed with the appropriate combination so that students who are thinking of taking the subject can take History. Parent 5 of School2 stated the teachers decided the subject choice for the students:

250 Parent 3, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 251 Parent 4, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 113

Students should have the liberty to choose his or her subject. But I heard that the teachers at my daughter’s school are categorizing the students based on their external examination marks and then allocating them their subjects. This is so unfair.252 Another parent whose child attends the same school voiced, “My son was forced by the level coordinator to take History as his marks were not that good and he is [categorized as] a low achiever”.253 This comment says a lot about the common perception of History. Parents from predominantly Indo-Fijian schools also stressed that History has an image of being a theoretical subject where note-taking and rote learning are all that students need to pass. They said that the Ministry of Education should provide the necessary resources and the notes and other materials related to the content to be uniform so that all students are studying the same or similar notes. Parents recommended that the provision of standardized notes and resources, local content and proper counseling might change the perception of parents about History in the future. If all these were carried out there could be a chance for more Indo-Fijian students to take up History. The data in Table 6.2 come from the interviews with the 180 Indo-Fijian parents whose children were part of the survey for this research. Table 6.1 shows that about 46 percent (244 out of 527) of the Indo-Fijian students in the six schools are not taking History because their parents have advised them not to take History. Those taking History had a similar cohort of 46 percent (14 out of 30) who took the subject because their parents respected their children’s wish to choose History. This shows that Indo-Fijian parents do play an important role in the education of their children. As pointed by a teacher in School 1, “over the years I have experience that we have a high percent of Indian [Indo-Fijian] parents coming during the parent- teacher conference then the Fijian [iTaukei] parents”.254 Another, teacher of the same school pointed that, he has noticed that, “Indian [Indo-Fijian] parents usually accompany their children during the first day of school of Term 1 to discuss with the teachers about the subjects their child will be taking in Year 11 [Form 5]”.255 As highlighted by another teacher of School 1, “not only we will have high Indian

252 Parent 5, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 253 Parent 6, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 254 Teacher 1, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 255 Teacher 2, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 114 parental turnout during parent’s day but the Indian parents will be seeing all subject teachers of their child to discuss about the performance of their child”.256 The survey revealed the predominant reason for children to listen to their parents is meeting the social obligation. As an Indo-Fijian male student of School 6 pointed out, “My parents wanted me to become a pilot, and History is not the core requirement for [a course to train as a] pilot”.257 On the same note the children had to obey to their parents, who paid for their schooling, as one female Indo-Fijian student of School 2 stated, “I have to respect the decisions made by my parents as they are paying my school fees”.258 In one of the observations I did in School 6 during the enrollment day it’s obvious that Indo-Fijian parents control and advice their children on what subjects to be studied at schools. For example: Father: “Kiya subjects choose kara [“Which subjects have you chosen”]. Son: “Ji History” [“Yes, History”]. Father: “Woh kiya hai?” [“What’s that?”]. Son: “History, History, Itihaas pita ji. Tumhe nahi pata” [“History, History, about the past father. You don’t know?”]. Father: “Woh pad kar kiya karoge? Bekaar ka desh bhar ka kacra dimmag mei bhar rahe ho” [“What you want to become by studying History? It is all waste of time by studying history of other countries”]. Son: “Tik hai pita ji, jaisa tum kahoe. Mei wohi subjects lunga jho tum kahoe” [“Ok dad, as you say. I’ll take the subjects that you want me to do”].259 This conversation shows that Indo-Fijian parents already know that History is not a worthwhile subject and they stop their children from studying it. While on the same note the child is obliged to listen to the father. It is also worth noting that at two schools (School 4 and School 5) none of the Indo-Fijian students taking History said their parents had influenced their decision. This means for students in these schools, the parents do not control the students’ preference for the subject. The students’ comments agree with parents’ remarks, as highlighted by one Indo-Fijian parent from School 5: “I leave the subject choice to

256 Teacher 3, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 257 Student 16, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 258 Student 17, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 259 Conservation between an Indo-Fijian parent and the son at School 6 on 12th February, 2013. This and subsequent translation from Hindi to English in this thesis is in my own translation. 115 my child to decide [sic], since they need to be independent and take subjects that they are interested in so that they will give 100 percent in the subject and can do well”.260 The survey results and interview comments suggest parental influence makes the most significant reason, if not the only one, for the children’s subject choice. Parents who let their children choose their subjects form a minority. It is noticeable, however, that the negative attitude of parents towards History is a major factor in students’ choice. Moreover, Table 6.2 shows what the parents feel about the subject of History itself and why they want their children either to study History or not to study History. Interviews were held with 180 parents in talanoa sessions and personal interviews using questionnaires. 30 parents of Indo-Fijian students who were taking History and 150 parents of Indo-Fijian students who were not taking History were randomly chosen. The parents were asked about their opinion on: the curriculum and content of the subject History the school options with History and the Subject counseling the subject viability and the career path the available resources at schools. The composition of the parents broadly corresponds to the present profile of Nausori as discussed in Chapter 2. About 70 percent of the parents of the students who were part of this research are in paid employment, either as manual labor or skilled and some even in white collar work, while the remaining 30 percent of the parents are self-employed in the agricultural sector of Nausori, some in their own farms. Overall, 65 percent of them have completed secondary school education, of which about 50 percent have a tertiary qualification. The other 35 percent have had least some primary education; 5 percent of this 35 percent have their own businesses to look after so they did not bother to continue their education. From talanoa sessions with the parents it was found that a high percentage of the parents are in paid employment and therefore, they also look forward to a better future for their children. As shared by a parent of School 1: “I am a doctor by profession and want my child to prosper in her life as well”.261

260 Student 18, 8th February 2013, School 5, personal communication with the author. 261 Parent 7, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 116

Another parent of School 2 echoed that “since they have been in farming throughout their life time, they have seen the struggles a farmer goes through. As such he does not want his son to go through the same struggles as well”.262 As for a parent in School 6: We [Indians] have suffered a lot in this country over the years and the only way out of these struggles here is through education. So I have told my daughter to only take the subjects that will provide her with many job opportunities in the future.263 Some 70 percent of the parents have not studied History at high school so they also do not want their children to take History. A parent of School 4 stated that, “since he has not done History at school and does not have any knowledge about the subject, he does not want his only son to do History, as he will not be able to assist him or advise him on his career path”.264 Of the remaining 30 percent who have studied History, 20 percent stated that the subject History was not a valuable subject for their children at school or in their future. They felt that since they took the subject and today were not in better work, they want their children to choose another subject that would prepare them for a secure job and career. They feel that the teachers have misinformed them and their children about the subject choice. One of the issues parents have noted was the poor advice teachers give to parents. The reviews have revealed that in most of the schools, teachers did not, on the enrollment day, advice the parents about the subjects and options. The teachers of the concerned schools, explained that this was because they had already had spoken with the students and on the enrollment day they were just doing the registration and checking the documents. In addition, the Indo-Fijian parents who had taken History while at high school felt that a high proportion of the curriculum on Fiji History pertained to the iTaukei and very little to the Indo-Fijians. They alleged that this disparity in the curriculum made the Indo-Fijian students realize that they were not regarded as part of Fiji’s history, ‘so why study History’? That is, they (Indo-Fijian parents) felt that since the arrival of the first indentured laborers from India to work in the sugar cane farms in 1879, Indo-Fijians have contributed substantially to the

262 Parent 8, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 263 Parent 9, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 264Parent 10, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 117 economy and the country, in politics, trade and education and need to be mentioned in the history of Fiji. Inclusion of Indo-Fijians in the curriculum would give Indo-Fijian students a sense of belonging to Fiji’s history and this will motivate them to take the subject as well as perform to the expectation. As an Indo-Fijian parent of School 1 said: “The liking of the subject will enable the child to do well in examinations and have a better future and secure a good job”.265 One parent from School 6 maintained that the foreign topics in the current History curriculum need to be revised as these topics have now become irrelevant to the current generation. One of the Indo-Fijian students, who are taking History at School 1, said: One day his parents asked him, ‘Why are you studying history of foreign countries when you do not know very much about Fiji’s history?’ His only reply was that since that is the way curriculum is he has no choice.266 Another Indo-Fijian parent, from School 3, asserted: “the subject teachers need to play a pro-active role in disseminating subject information to the parents and students so that they can make correct and wise decisions”.267 Some parents noted they were not well informed about the subjects that their children could do until they came for the Parent-Teacher Interview. Some also felt that on the enrollment day, correct information was not provided. In the 2015 budget for Fiji, the Minister for Education announced that Government would provide all the textbooks to the schools for students’ use so that they will all have access to textbooks for free. But as reported, some schools do not have the required History textbooks in sufficient numbers, which discourages the students from taking the subject. A parent from School 6 stated: His children had told him that the teacher has asked them to print out the textbooks themselves by downloading from the Ministry of Education’s website, which they believe is an expensive affair so I told my son not to take History since the books are not available and I am not in a state to buy them.268

265 Parent 11, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 266 Student 19, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 267 Parent 12, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 268 Parent 13, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 118

It is argued generally that in education, “learning can be achieved if more active approaches, requiring more student talk, reading and writing are used”.269 Kamal Chaudhary, a historian and educator from India, claimed that the immediate environment of the child should be considered generally as much as or more than general national and world history. That at least certain aspects of the local history should be directly experienced by the learner.270 The events that occurred in the students’’ life-time and in the students’ locales may be regarded as easier to comprehend. Also, past events with direct association with present problems and environment of the students appear to be easier for students. The argument by Chaudary was supported by an Indo-Fijian parent of School 2, “Offering illustrations from the experience of the child and telling related stories for elucidating the ideas presented may make the study of History easier”.271 This was highlighted by the Indo-Fijian mother of School 4 who commented: That whenever she asks her son why he is not revising his stuff on History, he replies that there’s too much of memorizing and cramming so he will do the revision just before the examination so that it remains in his head.272 As Priscilla Puamau, a Fijian educationalist in 1999, highlighted that the curriculum, pedagogical methods and assessment do not value the cultural knowledge, expertise and wisdom that Fijian students bring to the classrooms.273 That is, the curriculum and the ensuing pedagogies and assessment system, especially for Forms 5, 6 and 7 in Fiji, are still Western in focus and are in many cases, considered too foreign, inappropriate, irrelevant and impractical for the students and Indo-Fijian students are no exception. This citation is relevant to the Form 6 History curriculum, where students study topics that are based on case studies of European countries and bear no immediate relevance to Fiji or the Pacific. One parent from School 1 said: The approach where the History curriculum is inclusive of a child’s social and economic environment may enable pupils to make sense of their experience of living in a historical environment. This will increase their

269 Nancy Niemi and James Smith, “Learning History in Schools: The Impact of Course Work and Instructional Practices in Achievements”. Theory and Research in Social Education. 2:1, 2001. pp. 21. 270 Kamal Chaudhary, The Effective Teaching of History in India. National Council of Educational Research and Training. New Delhi. 1975. p. 19. 271 Parent 14, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 272 Parent 15, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 273 Priscilla Puamau, “Understanding Fijian Under achievement: An Integrated Perspective”. In Directions: Journal of Educational Studies. 21: 2, December, 1999. p. 107. 119

understanding of themselves and others. History in schools can all too easily be a pointless experience for the pupils.274 Another parent from School 3 complained: That the shortage or absence of qualified counselors in schools also influenced the subject choice by students. In schools that do not have a careers advisor or counselors, the students are not guided properly on the subjects to be taken, based on their skills and ability”.275 Hence, 246 out of 527 parents influenced their children not to take History at the six schools under study in this research. This shows that nearly 50 percent of the Indo- Fijian students are neglecting History because of the advice from their parents. One of the major causes for such attitude by the parents towards History is that the Indo- Fijian parents always wanted a better and secured future for their children as outlined by many parents either in the interviews or during the talanoa sessions. For some of the Indo-Fijian parents, who have studied History at secondary schools, believed that a change in the curriculum and content would make the subject interesting, will enhance their child’s learning and it will be better and worthwhile for them to study. Therefore, the results tell us that Indo-Fijian parents are guiding their children away from History. As such, parents become one of the factors that lead to few Indo-Fijian students doing History at the six secondary schools in Nausori. The next two chapters will look at the other two factors; ‘peers’ and siblings’ influence’ and the ‘influence of teachers’ on the choice of History by the Indo-Fijian students.

274 Parent 16, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 275 Parent 17, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author.

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CHAPTER SEVEN

STUDENTS’ AND PEERS’ INFLUENCE AND OPINIONS ABOUT HISTORY

7.1 Introduction A research report in 2008 by Iain Springate, a British educationalist, and co- researchers demonstrated that an individual child is motivated not only by his basic needs and desires, but also by the stimulation provided by his peer groups, “outside the classroom, one factor that seems to affect students’ interactions is the effect of social clan satisfaction”.276 Each child in our society has a certain social position by ascription. They are born into a particular family, in a particular place and environment, and are affected by being male or female. This chapter analyzes the influence of peers (friends and other students) on students’ perception of History in the case study schools. That is, did peers affect Indo-Fijian students’ perception about History? Did they think the current History curriculum needed any changes? The students also made comments on the kind of changes they wanted. The data built up an overall view of History held by the Indo-Fijian students. This chapter presents my analysis of data that I collected on students’ and their peers’ discouragement of students’ liking for History at the six secondary schools in Nausori. The data analyzed in this chapter were derived through observations, interviews with the participants and talanoa sessions. During the progress of my analysis, at times I will also deliberate on inferences made by local and foreign scholars. Views from interviews, documents collected and my own experience are brought in to support my data interpretations and data analysis. In section 7.2, ‘Theoretical Literature on Influence of Peers and Siblings on Students’ Choice of Subject’, I will highlight some of the conclusions and ideas put forward by some local and foreign scholars about the influence of parents on students’ choice of subjects. Included in this section are other factors that also influence students’ subject choice. These include influence of: curriculum and content, school policy and classroom environment, availability of textbooks and resources, and subject viability and career path. This discussion will add more depth

276 Iain Springate, Jennie Harland, Pippa Lord, and Anne Wilk, Why Choose Physics and Chemistry? The Influences on Physics and Chemistry Subject Choices of Black and Minority Ethnic Students. Summary Report. The Institute of Physics and Royal Society of Chemistry. London. 2008. pp. 25–26. 121 and for making the data I have collected comparable with other case studies. This will help me in drawing up valid conclusions. Section 7.3, ‘Data Discussion on Peers’ and Siblings’ Influence on Students’ Choice of History’, presents my interpretation of the data on peers’ and siblings’ influence and their opinions about History, analyzing the views and opinions of students on how their peers and siblings influenced them not to take up History as an academic subject at school. In addition the section includes views and opinions of the Indo-Fijian students, parents and teachers on the factor analyzed in this chapter.

7.2 Theoretical Literature on Influence of Peers and Siblings on Students’ Choice of Subject This section looks at some educational literature relevant to data analysis. Herein, I have provided comments and conclusions by foreign researchers on how peers and school surroundings can affect choice of a subject, particularly in the case of History.

7.2.1 Influence of Peers and Siblings Ivor Goodson, a British educationalist, in 1988, highlighted that, “the very price of success in achieving high status in an academic discipline is to renounce practical connections and relevance to the personal and to the industrial and commercial world”.277 In 2001 Kenneth Adey and Mary Biddulph pointed out that many secondary school pupils did not appear to understand “why they were doing History”.278 Adey and Biddulph again conducted a survey in 2003 in Britain, reporting that of 2151 Year Eight pupils across 103 secondary schools in England, only 3 percent of pupils cited History as their favorite subject, against 8 percent who said it was the subject they enjoyed the least.279 In their 2004 survey of about 3,300 students in England, Kathryn Riley and Jim Docking showed that 19 percent of Year Eight students and 27 percent of year 10 pupils claim to be generally bored at school.280 According to Kathryn Riley ad Jim Docking’s research in 2004, students’ attitude towards a given

277 Ivor Goodson, International Perspective in History Teaching. Croom Helm. London. 1988. p. 307. 278 Kenneth Adey and Mary Biddulph, “The Influence of Pupil Perceptions on Subject Choice at 14+ in Geography and History”. In Educational Studies. 274, 2001. pp. 439–447. 279 Kenneth Adey and Mary Biddulph, (2003). Quoted in Terry Haydn, Martin Hint, James Arthur and Alison Stephen. (3rd Ed.), Learning to Teach History in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. Routledge. New York. 2008. p. 56. 280 Kathryn Riley and Jim Docking, (2004). Quoted in Terry Haydn, Martin Hint, James Arthur and Alison Stephen. (3rd Ed.), Learning to Teach History in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. Routledge. New York. 2008. p. 62. 122 subject affects their choice of subject. A negative attitude towards a given subject leads to lack of interest and when the subjects are to be selected, it led to avoiding the subject. On the other hand, a virtuous cycle occurs: when students enjoyed the subject, they held positive attitude and maintain committed to the subject.281 Additionally, Tim Lomas, an English researcher in 2008, stated that “in spite of much good practice in the subject, there is still for many pupils, the ‘so what?’ question”.282 Many students either get bored with the subject, or fail to see any value or purpose to the general enterprise of studying History in schools. James Loewen claimed in 2010, that high school students hated History; when they list their favorite subjects History always came in last. They considered it the most irrelevant of the school subjects, “not applicable to life today”.283 He made a point of noting that ‘boring’ was the adjective they applied to it. “When they can they avoid it, even though most students get higher grades in History than in Mathematics, Science or English. Even when students are forced to take History, students repress it”.284 These comments and findings amply show History has a poor reputation among English pupils.

7.2.2 Influence of Curriculum and Content Christopher Portal, an American History teacher, in 1987, claimed: School History has been slow to respond to the challenges of social and curriculum change. In the light of reduced numbers and new competition from more fashionable subjects and vocational courses, it would seem perilous not to renew History’s position.285 He argued that the traditional syllabus and examinations tended to inhibit rather than encourage good classroom practice. A relatively narrow range of teaching method is practiced and adequate to achieve examination passes but their authoritarian nature is unlikely to produce the level of inherent curiosity and independent critical thought

281 Simpson Ronald and Steve Oliver, “A Summary of Major Influence on Attitude toward and Achievement in Science among Adolescent Students”. In Science Education Journal. 74: 1, January, 1990. pp.1–18. 282 Tim Lomas, (2008:7). Quoted in Terry Haydn, Martin Hint, James Arthur and Alison Stephen. (3rd Ed.). Learning to Teach History in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. Routledge. New York. 2008. 283 James Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. The New Press. New York. 1995. p. 56. 284 Ibid. 285 Christopher Portal, The History Curriculum for Teachers. Falmer Press. London. 1987. p. 158. 123 that Historians value so highly about their discipline.286 In 1998, Gladys Bozimo, an African educator, argued that the syllabus is drawn up and all that is required of the History teacher is to make sure that items are covered irrespective of how, since questions to be set will only be testing sound knowledge of Historical facts.287 Therefore students must commit themselves to memorizing facts, which they must repeat in order to satisfy the syllabus maker. David Robbins, an American History Teacher, in 2004 also pointed to lack of curriculum time as a factor which reduces the opportunities for History teachers to develop overview approaches and explore links between past and present.288 Terry Haydn of England was another who in 2005 highlighted that “a number of pupils feel that the subject [History] is boring and useless”.289 Explicitly, pupils’ performance will not be as expected in the subject, since they are not committed to learning History. Likewise in 2005, Keith Ribben, a Dutch high school History teacher, pointed to research in the Netherlands, which suggested that fewer than 10 percent of the Dutch pupils felt that national History was important to them, against approximately 75 percent who indicated that finding out about their own families was important to them.290 He further suggested that learning outcomes are likely to improve if History can be, in the words of English researcher Lomas, in 2005, “linked with their own life and experiences”.291 As such, schools are also responsible for timetabling and prioritizing the subjects that the child does at school. The classroom is equal in influence to peer advice; despite many curriculum reforms in the past four decades, the curriculum in Fiji has remained teacher oriented and prescriptive in nature.

7.2.3 School Policy and Classroom Environment John Ainley, an Australian scholar, and co-authors Lyn Robinson, Harvey– Beavies, and Gerald Elsworth, in 1994, have identified factors such as diminished subject availability, limited time frame for subject selection, timetabling restrictions,

286 Ibid. 287 Gladys Bozimo, “Reflective/Inquiry Approach to Learning/Teaching of History in Nigerian Secondary Schools, Some Basic Issues”. In Nigeria Journal of Education, Health and Technology Research. 7: November, 2015, pp. 55–60. 288 David Robbins, (2004). Quoted in Terry Haydn, Pupil Perception of History at Key Stage 3: Final Report for October. University of East Anglia. Norwich. 2005. p. 35. 289 Terry Haydn, Pupil Perception of History at Key Stage 3: Final Report for October. University of East Anglia. Norwich. 2005. p. 14. 290 Keith Ribben, (2005). Quoted in Terry Haydn, Pupil Perception of History at Key Stage 3: Final Report for October. University of East Anglia. Norwich. 2005. p. 39. 291 Ibid., p. 8. 124 compulsory subjects, tertiary prerequisites and eligibility for entry to tertiary courses as constraints for subject selections.292 In the context of Australia, Pamela Warton and George Cooney, in 1997, feared that “subject choice by school students was considered an unplanned exercise”.293 According to their results 30 percent of students indicated they had not received an information booklet about subject choice. Five British researchers in 1998, who studied students’ preference for school subjects in Britain, observed that the majority of students chose subjects that they liked, facilitated progression to future careers, were compulsory or were subjects where there were no other desirable options.294 That is, students often receive conflicting advice from parents, teachers, friends and career advisers and upon entering secondary schools there can be a miss-match between expectations and actual experiences. As a result, the difficulty students may have in obtaining informed advice can influence their choice of subjects. The majority of students tend to make the subject choice from a narrow view point with a short-term focus, often failing to consider fully their options beyond school. Amalachukwu Okeke concluded in 2000, that the “schools have a great role to play in influencing students’ choice of subjects particularly in Africa”.295 He argued for schools to support subjects and students’ career decision making. Explicitly, in 2001, Nancy Niemi and James Smith, both American educators, identified that an increase in mandatory or required classes will increase students’ “opportunities to learn and thereby increase students’ learning”.296

7.2.4 Availability of Textbooks and Resources Kamal Chaudhary, an Indian teacher from India, in a study in 1975, about the History curriculum in India, argued that, “If History textbooks are written without

292 John Ainley, Lyn Robinson , Adrian Harvey–Beavies and Gerald Elsworth, Subject Choice in Years 11 and 12. Australian Government Publishing Services. Canberra. 1994. p. 34. 293Pamela Warton and George Cooney, (1997). Quoted in Gerda Siann, Pauline Lightbody, Stephen Nicholson, Louise Tait and Dave Walsh, “Talking about Subject Choice at Secondary School and Career Aspirations: Conversation with Students of Chinese Background”. In British Journal of Guidance and Counseling. 26: 2, 1998. pp. 195–207. 294 Gerda Siann, Pauline Lightbody, Stephen Nicholson, Louise Tait & Dave Walsh, “Talking about Subject Choice at Secondary School and Career Aspirations: Conversation with Students of Chinese Background”. In British Journal of Guidance and Counseling. 26: 2, 1998. pp. 195–207.

295 Amalachukwu Okeke, “The Impact of School Subjects on the Choice of Careers bound Profession”. West African Journal of Education. 17: 5, 2000. p. 8. 296 Nancy Niemi and James Smith, “Learning History in Schools: The Impact of Course Work and Instructional Practices on Achievements”. In Theory and Research in Social Education. 29:1, 2001. p. 20. 125 proper perspective, this will make History a directory of political events, which becomes naturally dull and uninteresting as a subject for study”.297 What he meant was that if the History curriculum and the textbooks on History are not designed properly and are not suited for students then History becomes meaningless to students and they feel bored and will develop a dislike for the subject. As a result, he asserted, “because of reading ability most pupils dislike History and avoid taking the subject”.298 Chaudhary’s general criticism is that textbooks in History might become obsolete. He stated that “neither teacher nor students are concerned about the History syllabus. Textbooks which not only dictate the facts to be learnt but also the manner of learning followed are slavish”.299 Chaudhary, writing in the pre-computer and Internet era, identified one of the major drawbacks keeping students from doing well in History was the lack of resources. Students keep on memorizing and writing notes in History without access to a wide variety of textbooks or reference books, and as a result students’ performance is below expectation. As Haydn argued later: Pupils’ perception that GCSE History would be dominated by written work was seen as one of the major deterrents to taking the subject, even by pupils who had enjoyed History at Key Stage 3.300 Robert Phillips, an English educator, argued in 1975, described that History as “content based, chronologically arranged, nationally biased, politically oriented, formal in learning method and limited in resources”.301 In 1994, Gaea Leinhardt, an American educationalist, was pushing a similar line: that “the History curriculum is mostly text based and the textbooks are not serving students well”.302 Indeed, “much of what students learn about History comes from reading texts”.303 To learn from History textbooks, students must possess not only general reading and learning skills but also technical knowledge about how information is organized in textbooks. On the other hand, Chris Husbands in 2001 reminded us that History has always been a controversial subject in the school curriculum. “When we teach History, we choose

297 Kamal Chaudhary, The Effective Teaching of History in India. National Council of Educational Research and Training. New Delhi. 1975. p. 63. 298 Ibid., p. 183. 299 Ibid., p. 66. 300 Terry Haydn. 2005: 3. 301 Robert Phillips, History Teaching Nationhood and the State: A Study in Educational Politics. Heradon VA Cassel. London. 1998. p. 114. 302 Gaea Leinhardt, (1994). Quoted in Gaea Leinhardt, Isabel Beck and Catherine Stainton, Teaching and Learning in History. Lawrence Erlbawn Associated Publishers. New Jersey. 1994. p. 20. 303 Ibid., p. 47. 126 some content and leave out others, we choose textbooks with perspectives and we neglect others”.304 Margret Chenney, an American educationalist in 2010, commented that textbooks also keep students informed about the nature of History. “History is a furious debate informed by evidence and reason, not just answers to be learned”.305 In Fiji, too, teachers’ completion of the curriculum detail becomes their main task. In 2010, Hem Chand, an Indo-Fijian school teacher, in a letter in the Fiji Times, criticized that “the current curriculum supports material which is inappropriate and in some areas outdated”.306 He further claimed that the current school curriculum is directed towards memorizing and reading what they heard and learning it for the examinations. The example of Fiji is not a rare case. As Alice Arinlade Jekayinfa, in 2013, said of school History in Nigeria, the connection between the curriculum in schooling and the external world is substantially missing because of the importance attached to success in the public examinations.307 The meaning and the status pupils attach to school subjects act as a very significant constraint upon teachers and more generally limits the realization of certain areas of the curriculum. While teachers may wish to teach History in creative, innovative and engaging ways, various constraints clip the teachers’ wings and force them into relying on textbooks. It is hardly surprising that students in many countries perceive textbooks dominate History teaching more than in any other subject. Fiji’s new Form 5 and 6 History textbooks written by an editorial collective challenge this negative legacy and are calling for an innovative approach and interactive learning in the classroom.308

7.2.5 Subject Viability and Career Path A further significant aspect that exerts influence on subject choice at senior high schools relates to perceptions about the relationship between education and subsequent employment. Portal, in 1987, observed that “an increased emphasis is

304 Chris Husbands, Alison Kitson and Anna Pendry, What is History Teaching? Language, Ideas and Meaning in Learning about the Past. Open University Press. Philadelphia. 2001. p. 56. 305 Loewen. 1995: 21. 306 Hem Chand, “Teaching Methods Outdated”. The Fiji Times, 26th November, 2010. p. 9. 307 Alice Arinlade Jekayinfa, “A Story of Factors Associated with Student’s Interest in History in Nigeria”. www.unilorin.edu.ng/publications/jekayino/uwa/4.%20A%20STUDY%20OF%20FACTORS%20Ass ociated.html . n.d., Accessed on 14th February, 2013. 308 The new syllabi for Forms 5 and 6 are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3. For further details see Appendix 12 where the new and combined Form 5 and 6 syllabus is attached. 127 being placed throughout education on courses and subjects that form the basis for directly gaining employment or proceeding to higher education”.309 Regardless of gender, research has suggested there is a relationship between early career aspirations and subsequent decisions. According to research by Sonja Whiteley and Janet Porter in 1997, “students expressed that while career books informed them about subject areas at times, these were not specific about appropriate subject options at lower levels”.310 Therefore, the lack of explicit linkage between school subjects and career pathways forms a disadvantage when attempting to select subjects. Such students’ attitudes were endorsed in 2001 by Adey and Biddulph, when they investigated British students’’ attitude: Students’ understanding of the relative usefulness of both History and Geography in their future lives becomes limited, for instance with forms of employment available, has led many young people to leave these subjects at any early age at high schools.311 In 2006, Rosemary Hipkins, a New Zealand educator and chief researcher for the New Zealand Council for Educational Research (NZCER) has suggested that students now make more decisions about subject pathways and qualifications than before.312 For example, Robert Tai, Christine Qi Lui, Adam Maltese and Xitao Fan’s, the senior lecturers at the USA’s National Institute of Health in 2006 during a 12- year longitudinal study of the work and study connection of American high school students showed that 13-year-old students who said “they anticipated taking Science related work when they will be 30 years old, were twice as likely to have completed a Science degree in comparison with those who had not claimed such aspirations”.313 Such views were further supported by Tai, Liu, Maltese and Fan in their longitudinal study in 2006. They found that females form career aspirations before their male counterparts at high schools and these early aspirations form a close relationship later

309 Portal. 1987: 156. 310 Sonja Whiteley and Janet Porter. Student Perceptions of Subject Selection: Longitudinal Perspectives from Queensland Schools. Tertiary Entrance Procedures Authority. Brisbane. 1997. p. 45. 311 Adey and Biddulph. 2001: 439. 312 Rosemary Hipkins, Josie Roberts, Rachael Bolstad & Hilary Fernal, “Staying Science @ Transition to Tertiary Study from the Perspective of New Zealand Year 13 Science Students”. Report prepared by NZCER Ministry of Research, Science and Technology. Wellington. 2006. www.nzcer.or.nz/pdfs/14605.pdf, accessed on 12th February, 2013. 313 Robert Tai, Christine Qi Liu, Adam Maltese and Xitao Fan, “Planning Early for Career in Science”. In Science. 312: 5777, May, 2006. pp. 1143–1144. 128 with their occupations.314 History then falls out of favor as many students see very little relevance for their future.

7.2.6 Postulating the Literatures to Fiji’s Situation The Fiji curriculum has generally been examination-oriented; students needed to pass examinations to be promoted to the next Form. Under the reform by the present government in 2013, the Ministry of Education generally labeled schools as underperforming if their pass rates in the Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination (FSLCE or Fiji Year 12 Certificate Examination) were below 50 percent. As a result, to improve the performance of students, the teachers used the first two Terms of the academic year at Forms 6 and 7 (Years 12 and 13) to complete the syllabi so that the third and final Term was used for revision only, as required by the current policy of Ministry of Education. Because of the breadth of the History curriculum and syllabus, teachers with limited expertise and resources found the subject coverage too difficult. Teachers then had to search for materials or borrow from other schools, which were at times inappropriate to the age and capabilities of their students, to complete their coverage. Students share such complaints with their peers and word of mouth can be rapid and devastating. Less localized discourse also throws up useful leads for the identification of contributing factors impinging on student’s choices. For example, an Indo-Fijian female student from School 6 said since ‘majority of her friends are taking Science so she decided to take up Science’. In 2010, the workgroup which was formed by the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) to review and revise the History curriculum was also tasked to compile textbooks for the new curriculum. The authors of the textbooks came from the working group. After weeks of vetting and scrutinizing the books were presented to the Ministry of Education officials, subsequently a copy was sent to all schools to make their suggestions and recommendations. Once the CDU received the comments, the CDU directed the working group to revise the textbook. The revised textbooks would go to the Ministry of Education. Upon its approval, the textbook would go to the government printery. In 2014, after the revision of the Year 11 (Form 5) History curriculum, schools were receiving textbooks for teachers for

314 Ibid. 129 reference and making the subject more interesting.315 The Year 12 (Form 6) History curriculum was revised and new textbooks written and given to schools in 2015 while for Year 13 (Form 7), the History curriculum had also been revised and the textbook was written in 2015 but it has not been implemented. The directive from the CDU was that they would be implementing it in this year with some other subjects whose curriculum was also been revised. In earlier years before the syllabus was revised, in order to cover the syllabus teachers borrowed the materials from other schools for their students. These materials may not suit the all students and will cause problems because the students’ scholastic aptitude and knowledge differ in schools. So the teaching materials used by one school may be designed by the teacher to suit the level of understanding of the students. Once the materials are borrowed, teachers of the next school rarely change the content of the materials to suit the needs of their students. This becomes a major problem as the students as the students find difficulty in understanding the concepts as they are not suited to their intellectual development. This is one of the reasons for poor performance of students in History. To make matters worse, there are very few workshops organized by either the Ministry of Education or the CDU for History teachers. Teachers meet only, perhaps, once a year if there are new announcements or initiations.

7.3 Data Discussion on Peers’ and Siblings’ Influence on Students’ Choice of History Eighty-five Indo-Fijian students who are not taking History at School 6 and School 1 respectively were influenced by their peers, while one from School 6 and none from School 1, among Indo-Fijian students, and were influenced by friends to take up the subject at the same schools. Overall 21 percent (110 out of 527) of the Indo-Fijian students surveyed said that they were not taking History because comments by their peers about History made it sound like something they would not like, or because their friends were not going to be taking it, or because their friends told them not to. As pointed out by an Indo-Fijian male student of School 1: “My friends told me that History is a boring subject and lots of notes are to be written and I hate

315 Personal interview by the author with the Senior Education Officer for History at Curriculum Development Unit of Ministry of Education (Fiji), 25th January, 2013. 130 writing notes”.316 Furthermore an Indo-Fijian female from School 6 voiced what her sister’s friend who is studying History told her, that, “History has a lot of theory work and we have to remember events and be able to recall dates”.317 Moreover, another Indo-Fijian male of School 3 said: It was not because of me. It was my sister. She wanted me to choose Commerce subjects because she was good at Accounting and Economics at high school, so she thinks I will also be good at Commerce with her assistance.318 Only eight Indo-Fijian students overall are taking History because their friends have either advised them or are taking the subject. One of them from School 2 shared: “I am taking History because my friend is doing and it will be easy for me take his assistance and we can help each other to perform well in this subject”.319 Table 7.1 summarizes the responses of the participants. Table 7.1 reveals that in School 1, School 4 and School 6, which predominantly have Indo-Fijian students, peers seem quite influential against taking History as their academic subject. In School 2 and School 5, which have more iTaukei students, peers have less impact on the choice of History. Table 7.2 shows the views of the 30 Indo-Fijian students who are taking History and the 527 Indo-Fijian students who are not taking History about the subject of History and what they think is appropriate and inappropriate in History. Furthermore, about 105 Indo-Fijian students of School 6 believed that the content is not appropriate as they have more foreign topics, while at the same school 3 students believe it is appropriate and as a result they are taking the subject. At School 1, about 52 Indo-Fijian students are also thinking that the content and curriculum is inappropriate. In addition, these two schools, which are predominantly Indo-Fijian have the highest number of students thinking that History as a subject is not viable and does not lead them to have a good career path. They have highlighted that if they choose History, there are fewer job opportunities available in Fiji that require History as a prerequisite. Consequently, the numbers are low at iTaukei dominated schools where Indo-Fijian students are fewer as in School 2, School 3 and School 5.

316 Student 20, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 317 Student 21, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 318 Student 22, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 319 Student 23, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 131

Table 7.1 Peer influence on Choice of History at the six schools (527 students surveyed) Schools School School School School School School Total Indo- Total Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fijian Indo-Fijian Students Students Surveyed acknowledged peer and sibling influence Indo-Fijian students taking 3 1 1 2 0 1 8 30 History due to Peer (10%) (3.3%) (3.3%) (6.6%) (0%) (3.3%) (26.7%) influence (in favor of) Indo-Fijian students not 33 4 4 12 5 52 110 527 taking History due to Peer (6.3%) (0.8%) (0.8%) (2.3%) (0.9%) (9.9%) (20.9%) influence (against it)

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Table 7.2 Indo-Fijian students’ opinions on History. That is, what do students think about History as an academic subject on the following bases? Appropriate Inappropriate School School 2 School School School School School School School School School School 1 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 Curriculum and content of History 8 3 3 2 0 3 52 10 7 24 12 105 School policy: options with History 0 3 0 0 0 0 26 6 8 11 5 47 and subject counseling Subject viability and career path: 2 1 0 0 0 0 30 3 6 12 8 53 (Does the school promote History) Availability of History textbooks 1 2 0 0 0 1 26 5 4 6 2 59 and resources Total 11 9 3 2 0 5 134 24 25 53 27 264 30 527

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Overall, 110 out of 527 students are not taking the subject, because of their peers’ influence and advice. In School 6 and School 1, in which Indo-Fijian students predominate, peer pressure has a huge impact on the choice of subject while in a school that has a mixture of students such, as School 3, the influence is not so significant. As highlighted by an Indo-Fijian female student of School 6: No one in my family has done History thus I am not having any idea what kind of subject it is. Also since no one in my family had done History, it will be hard for me to complete my History homework because there will be no one at home to assist me.320 Friends are seen as more likely to suggest careers that would suit each other’s personality. Therefore peer pressure is one factor that influences the perception of students in selecting an academic subject at school. This was pointed by an Indo- Fijian parent of School 1: “I didn’t want my daughter to study History but since her childhood friend is doing it, she joined her”.321 As an old adage has it, ‘friends in need are friends indeed’, peers are consulted when the going gets tough at schools. Apart from siblings and parents, peers are another group of people with whom students are comfortable and find it easy to share their feelings. In schools, where parents and siblings are not present, peers take up their place and help friends make decisions. In deciding to take up a subject, students tend to liaise with their peers on subject choice. This was supported by another Indo-Fijian student of School 4: “I am very lucky to have Albert (not the real name) as my friend who’s always there for me when I need. He was the one who assisted me in choosing my subjects”.322 At times students choose to study subjects that their peers are taking since they know they will have someone with them who will help them in difficult situations. As a result, the Indo-Fijian students at the six schools prefer to listen to their peers or take the same subject as their friends. Peers’ advice means that students will choose a subject that the majority of other Indo-Fijian students are taking so that it is more comfortable and easy for them to communicate. The majority of these students listen to their peers on the day of the enrollment. One of the students from

320 Student 24, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 321 Parent 18, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 322 Student 25, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 134

School 1 said, “Since his friend is quite intelligent and had promised to help him in Accounting, he opted for Accounting instead of History”.323 At School 6, in contrast, an Indo-Fijian student opted for History despite his friend telling him not to take it since he was informed that the subject involves lot of reading. But he took it because he likes reading historical literature. Peers receive the information about subjects from their siblings or teachers with whom they are comfortable. Peer pressure in the six schools has a low influence overall because schools like School 2, School 3, School 4 and School 5 are predominantly iTaukei. The Indo-Fijian students in these schools are opting for subjects that their friends are taking since they are a minority and they want to be with their peers, while in predominately Indo-Fijian schools such as School 1 and School 6, peers have less influence since Indo-Fijians are in large groups and it is possible to go against peers’ advice, and still have friends to study with. For Forms 3 and 4 Social Science there are prescribed textbooks available, while for other subjects such as Science and Commerce prescribed textbooks are available (for example, Science Lab manuals and FSLC Accounting Book 1 & 2) and some of them are provided and recommended by the Ministry of Education. The way Ministry of Education has reorganized the History syllabus entails success in acquiring knowledge of History requires wide study so it is rote learning. Poor reading ability may be responsible for not being able to acquire a satisfactory amount of knowledge in History. The performances of students and teachers in Fiji are judged by the results in the external examinations. For FSLC before 2015, students study for two years (Forms 5 and 6) and sit an examination of three hours with the content of the examination covering two years coverage (Forms 5 and 6). In this way the curriculum is not preparing students for life beyond school but rather just for the examination, this was easily seen as by an Indo-Fijian male student of School 4: “The content of the subject is too broad and general according to my friends, so I decided not to take the subject”.324 The current FSLC prescription used by the secondary schools was written in 1987, with only three of the eight themes including topics on Fiji, while the other

323 Student 26, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 324 Student 27, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 135 five themes are based on either Asian or European countries. By saying that the topics are ‘broad’, the student meant that the students are finding difficulty in understanding the subject, as argued by a female Indo-Fijian student of School 3: “History includes a lot of theory (reading) and I like practical subjects”.325 Another student from the same school complained: “History has a lot of timeline to remember. So I cannot understand”.326 At School 1 only one student is studying History, since he likes historical literature, but 12 percent (65 out of 527) are not doing History because of its foreign content and difficult language. An Indo-Fijian female student from School 6 asserted, that, “I have a dislike towards studying about the past and hate cramming of dates and events”.327 Thus, it can be concluded that the language of textbooks and its teaching, and the content of a subject ensures that there is some influence on the Indo-Fijian students’ choice of a subject at the six secondary schools in Nausori. Priscilla Puamau highlighted that although Fiji has become independent it is still following the colonial education system and English is still the medium of communication.328 A number of subjects experienced difficulty in attracting students during enrollment period when students decide on subjects because they clash with other choices. When students want to change their chosen subjects, the timetable will be the constraint and make it difficult. While a number of students had considered changing subjects early in the year at Form 5 level, this was because the school timetable were perceived to make this difficult. Students claimed they were unable to choose History even if they wanted to. This stemmed from the design of school timetables. At three schools, History clashed with other subjects. Other schools simply do not offer History, as this example illustrates: “The subject combination offered by the school did not enable me to take History as it clashed with my favorite subject – Economics”.329

325 Student 28, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 326 Student 29, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 327 Student 30, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 328 Priscilla Puamau, “Understanding Fijian Under achievement: An Integrated Perspective”. In Directions: Journal of Educational Studies. 21: 2, December. 1999. p. 104. 329 Student 33, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 136

School policies such as number of students in each subject, the timetable and subject combinations are some of the reasons that influence Indo-Fijian students’ choice of History. This is illustrated in the following examples: “The class for History was already full. So my teacher told me to take Accounting instead”.330 “The school I was in last year did not offer History at Form 5, so I had no choice but to take up Computer”.331 “In my school high achievers at Form 4 are to take Science to improve the Science results of the school, so I was not able to take History”.332 This makes school policy a factor that influences the students’ choice of a subject. The continuing dominance and high status of some academic subjects is grounded in their acceptance as qualification for so-called desirable professions. Students become increasingly aware of career opportunities and the availability of vocational pathways during their final years of senior school. In Fiji, History is not offered to students till they join Form 3 (Year 9). The subject of History in Forms 3 and 4 is based on Fiji and is incorporated in the Social Science curriculum. Later, in Form 5, Social Science is divided in two strands, Geography and History, which are subjects in their own right and are treated as separate and having their separate syllabi. It is important to note that there have always been large numbers of students who have found school History to be neither interesting nor useful. As the following voices illustrate: “It is a boring subject”.333 “History has nothing new and interesting”.334 “I cannot remember the dates of the historical events that took place”.335 “I don’t have any interest in the subject”.336 “History has too many dates and places and people and I will not be able to remember them all as it”.337

330 Student 31, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 331 Student 32, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 332 Student 34, 8th February 2013, School 5, personal communication with the author. 333 Student 36, 8th February 2013, School 5, personal communication with the author. 334 Student 37, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 335 Student 38, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 336 Student 39, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 337 Student 40, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 137

All the six schools in this research project have either a counselor or a careers adviser whose duties include career guidance. The majority of students reported that they had gained little useful advice from these personnel. Those students who had some idea about their future directions appeared to gain more from their meeting with the subject teachers or other teachers with whom they felt comfortable. Some students also mentioned that the lack of explicit linkage between school subjects and career pathways was a disadvantage when attempting to select subjects. In addition, some students expressed the view, that while books on career choices (in the library) informed them about the subject areas, at times they were not specific about the appropriate subject options at Form 5 level. Some schools had provided their students with talks on subject content by the Heads of Department (HOD) at Form 5 level. While for some these had been helpful, some issues arose with regard to limited time frames, a selling bias on certain subjects and the inability of some HODs to link subjects to types of careers available for the students. On the same note, students stressed that there is urgent need for the CDU to re-look at the History syllabus and the textbooks with resources included. The majority of the students said that they want CDU to prepare textbooks and have the same content throughout all secondary schools in Fiji so that all students taking the subject at different schools have access to the same notes since they all will be sitting for the same external examination paper on the subject. Accessibility to textbooks will mean more researching by the students since the textbooks will be available. Moreover, in schools like School 1, School 3, School 4, School 5, and School 6, no students feel that school policy including options with History and counseling, subject viability and career path and History resources are appropriate. A number of students pointed out that school heads and History teachers with careers teachers need to be more proactive and carryout appropriate academic counseling. They noticed that even teachers of other subject majors also have a negative view about the subject so during academic counseling sessions these teachers manipulate the students not to take History. Students thought that appropriate academic counseling is necessary at Form 4 level for different subjects so that students make the right choice at Form 5 levels. Heads of the institutions should also play an active role in motivating the students to take up the subject, especially when there are other subjects having higher

138 student numbers and the teacher–student ratio is high and teachers find it difficult to concentrate on all students. So the careers teacher and Principal or the History teachers can encourage students from subjects that have high numbers to switch to History, this does not happen and the subject of History gets neglected by the Indo- Fijian students. Textbooks have been, and in Fiji still are, vital tools for students to excel academically. They provide teachers and students with a guide to carry out the purpose of schooling and the subject thoroughly. Students need the textbook to perform better throughout the year and in the final examination. The majority of the necessary History textbooks are sold in book shops at high costs. Some schools find them too expensive to buy. As a result they discourage the purchase of such books as class sets but rather they will buy them as reference books for the teachers. This phenomenon was highlighted by a male Indo-Fijian student of School 1: My friends in Form 6 told me that we have fewer resources at the school in History and the teachers ask the students to do a lot of Internet research. Although it is interesting to use the Internet and there are a lot of resources available, but the thing is that I am not exactly sure what is required as teachers do not tell us what they need.338 At three schools, no student found the textbook and resources supply appropriate. At the other three schools, only four students rated the supply as appropriate. Numbers rating these as inappropriate pealed at 26 (School 1), 59 (School 6) and thereafter not breaking single figures. The students were well aware that resources are not available or are limited in their schools. It was observed that most of the time students had to organize things such as research, getting notes and other resources on the topics by themselves, which might make the subject boring for them. This approach was prevalent in classes that were taught by teachers who were not qualified History graduates. According to the students of School 5 and School 6, the teacher will take students to the computer lab and ask them to conduct research on the topics of the coverage. At School 3, the teacher just got issued notes straight from the Internet for the students to write and discuss in groups. The reason given by the teacher was that since the resources especially the textbooks were not available, the teacher does

338 Student 43, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 139

Internet research and prints out for the students to use. This inevitably undermines the quality of History teaching, because no one is receiving guidance or tuition on how to negotiate the resources. So in such cases students bring many irrelevant resources and materials that are not required and in return get scolding from the teachers for not bringing the appropriate materials. Consequently, School 6 is an urban school with more than 1,000 students; 59 Indo-Fijian students avoided taking History because of the unavailability of resources (textbooks). In the current century, the Internet has made gathering information so much easier. But not all these websites are appropriate. Teachers help students to organize and get the information but they do not provide students with mechanisms to understand the concepts. For example, the student gets the information from Google by typing in the question. Google may give the answer but does not teach how to understand the concept. So during the examination the student will find it difficult to answer questions. He or she only knows the terminology but is not aware of how to apply the concept. As a result, the performance of the student may be below acceptable standards. Peer group comments suggest that the subject is too challenging or that critical thinking skills have not been developed in the learning process. Therefore, the data revealed that 102 out of the 527 Indo-Fijian students are not taking the subject (History) because they received no information about the types of skills History can develop or the professions History can prepare in post-school or university life inside and outside Fiji. In total, 53 Indo-Fijian students at School 6 are not taking History due to lack of job opportunities and lack of career advice. As for School 1, 30 Indo-Fijian students shared similar sentiments for not taking up History. Out of all the factors investigated, career path and subject viability has the highest number (136 out of 527) of responses from the Indo-Fijian students as the reason for not taking History. And 110 out of 527 (21 percent) of Indo-Fijian students had been influenced by their friends not to study History at the six secondary schools. This suggests that a downturn in the economy and fewer job opportunities available in Fiji and a lack of career advice at schools are discouraging the Indo-Fijian students from taking History at the six secondary schools. In the next chapter the final factor (Role of Teachers) which influences a student’s choice of History at secondary schools will be discussed.

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CHAPTER EIGHT

ROLE OF TEACHERS IN STUDENT CHOICE FOR HISTORY

8.1 Introduction Herein I continue my interpretation of data that I collected on teachers’ influence on students’ preference for History at the six secondary schools in Nausori. The data presented in this chapter were collected through observations during the day of enrollment, interviews with the participants and talanoa sessions. In the course of my interpretations, I will also talk about the conclusions made by local and foreign scholars on the factor focused on this chapter. Ideas from interviews, documents collected and my own experience are brought in to support my data interpretations and data analysis. Participants’ quotes and verbatim accounts are presented to provide a qualitative layer. In section 8.2, ‘Theoretical Literature on Teachers’ influence on Indo-Fijian students’ choice for History’, I will highlight some of the conclusions and ideas mentioned by some local and foreign scholars about the influence of teachers’ on students’ choice of subjects at secondary schools. This is theoretical literature will add more profundity and for making the data I have collected comparable with other case studies. This will help me in drawing up better and valid conclusions. Section 8.3, ‘Data Discussion on Teachers’ Influence on Students’ Choice of History’, presents my interpretation of the data I have collected on teachers’ opinions about the value of the study of History and their influence on their students’ subject choices. This section analyzes the views and opinions of students on how their teachers influenced them not to take up History as an academic subject at school.

8.2 Theoretical Literature on Teachers’ influence on Indo-Fijian students’ choice for History Teachers use a number of teaching approaches to disseminate the historical information to students. At times, they make their classroom student-centered so that students can complete most of the activities in a History class either individually or in groups. Teachers need to transmit appropriate knowledge about the past in the most appropriate way and help students to identify and interpret evidence so that they can form their own opinions about how and why things happened. Throughout this thesis I have argued that we want them to develop these skills so that they become 141 informed, enquiring and responsible citizens. So the people of Fiji have to start taking small steps. Taking History as an academic subject will enable students to acknowledge, appreciate and evaluate the past about themselves, their communities and the nation. This will prepare our children to become responsible citizens of the nation who can guide the country towards prosperity. The subject of History, just like any other school subject, aims to prepare students for success in life. Particularly, it is necessary for ‘future leaders’ to know the past well so that they can take the country forward.339 For them to be effective and efficient leaders, voters and citizens in the future they need to study History as a subject, and across the curriculum at secondary school level. History can help students to reflect and appreciate their cultural values. If teachers and students understand the factors that stimulate the growth of interest in History, such understanding may provide the basics not only to make History popular, but also to improve the teaching of History.340 Hence, it becomes the duty of the History teachers and History personnel in the Ministry of Education to disseminate such advantages of History to the parents so that they can direct their children towards History. They can organize this by creating awareness during Careers Expos, Parent-Teacher interviews, through public forums and through prepared pamphlets. Another critical influence on subject choices students make is, of course, teachers of History, whether in the content choices they are able to make, their power to motivate, in their own enthusiasm for the subject, in their relationship with their students, and so on. In 1973, James Chaffer, a British History teacher, in his book What History Should We Teach, had argued, History teachers need to think seriously and explicitly about the rationale for choosing to teach certain Historical events. He maintained: “Content should be selected on the basis of relevance to the pupils, so teachers have to be pioneers in the curriculum development”.341 In 1975, Kamal Chaudhary concluded that “the History teacher must be the master of his subject and without

339 Personal Communication by the author with the Senior Education Officer at the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) for History at Ministry of Education on 6th February, 2013. At the time of the interview he was responsible for designing the History curriculum and monitoring at the implementation of the subject at secondary schools in Fiji. He was also in charge of reviewing and revising the History syllabus and conducting research on the teaching of the subject as well. 340 Kamal Chaudhary, The Effective Teaching of History in India. National Council of Educational Research and Training. New Delhi. 1975. p. 2. 341 James Chaffer, (1973). Quoted in Robert Phillips, History Teaching Nationhood and the State: A Study in Educational Politics. Heradon VA Cassell. London. 1998. p. 114. 142 deep understanding of the subject matter of History, a teacher cannot have an understanding of the aims of the lesson delivered”.342 So that the teacher can and should assume professional responsibility in exercising these critical judgments. Ian Steele warned in 1976 against underestimating the teacher’s role because in “the attitude and knowledge of the individuals, teachers hold the key to their future”.343 Ronald Evans’s research in 1988 reflected that “school, family media and visits to historical sites affected students’ perception of History although they are not single players, “History teachers play a major role in the shaping of students’ perceptions”.344 He noted that students were not only able to identify their teachers’ conceptions but also the majority appeared to share them. If the teacher fails to instill in the student the love and passion for History, the student will walk away from History later in schools. Worse still, depending on how well the teacher teaches the subject, word-of-mouth can be a potent weapon for or against the popularity of History–or any other elective subject for that matter. Sharing the same sentiments in 1994 were the findings from Eric Hootstein, a high school teacher in Britain. He showed that many teachers believed that their endeavors to stimulate student interest by using numerous motivational strategies are more important than their actual subject matter.345 Teacher effectiveness in facilitating learning is influenced not only by the educators’ knowledge and training experiences but also by the style of teaching and the content and the resources a teacher can employ in the classroom.346 Another, high school History teacher, Colin Baker, in 2001, stated bluntly “without secure knowledge and understanding of the concepts and skills in their specialist subject, the quality of teaching and learning in the classrooms suffers”.347 Baker’s assertion is not so novel. Back in 1974, Eva Sylvester, a British educationalist, specified that the History teacher’s role is ‘didactically active’; as it was to give students the series of

342 Chaudhary. 1975: 191. 343 Ian Steele, (1976: 5). Quoted in Robert Phillips, History Teaching Nationhood and the State: A Study in Educational Politics. Heradon VA Cassell. London. 1998. p. 7. 344 Ronald Evans, “Lessons from History: Teachers and Students Concepts of the Meaning of History”. In Theory and Research in School Education.16:3, 1988, pp. 203–224. 345 Eric Hootstein, “Motivating students to Learn”. In Cleaning House Journal. 67:4, 1994, pp. 213– 216. 346 James Voss, “Issues in the Learning of History”. In Issues in Education.4:2, 1998, pp. 163–210. 347 Colin Baker, (2000). Quoted in Terry Haydn, James Arthur, Martin Hint and Alison Stephen (3rd Ed.), Learning to Teach History in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. Routledge. New York. 2008. 143 interpretations about what seems to have been going on in the past, and through repeated short tests the teachers ensure that students had learned them.348 I find the approaches Baker and Sylvester advocated problematic. They seem to privilege the rote learning as opposed to developing students’ intellectual skills. Kenneth Adey and Marry Biddulph said “it is the learning process that makes the subject interesting or dull, not the subject content. Pupils enjoy the subject and how it is taught”.349 They both highlighted that students are more likely to opt for subjects in which the teacher demonstrates a favorable attitude towards the subject.350 The problem for historians and the History teacher as Terry Haydn in 2008 saw it is “how to demonstrate the relevance of History to the present in a sufficiently convincing manner to gain the interest of the pupils”.351 Teachers must look for opportunities to relate the past to the present and the future, so that students can see the point of learning about the past. Teachers are unlikely to inspire confidence in their pupils if they (the teachers) themselves are not having the subject knowledge which is substantially beyond that which is available to them in textbooks.

8.2.1 Relevance of Theoretical Literature to Fiji In Fiji, teachers are responsible for disseminating the required curriculum and for nurturing students to excel academically, and contribute towards nation building. In Fiji, a very large part of teachers’ role is to guide students to develop the habit, ability for thinking critically about all the input and building up some coherence and understanding about it and what we can absorb and use from it. Teachers also bear the responsibility for making sure that students are provided with all the necessary learning tools to develop them holistically. Elsewhere too, the quality of instruction by the History teacher, the popularity and personality of a teacher, and the respect the teacher can command in the students, are key factors in subject selection. The History teacher is in an “unenviable position because he/she controls the syllabus provided by the Ministry of Education for each subject and transfers the syllabi to students by using different teaching

348 Eva Sylvester, (1974). Quoted in Brian Holley, A Level Syllabus Studies: History and Physics. MacMillan Press. London. 1995. p. 24. 349 Kenneth Adey and Marry Biddulph, “Pupils’ Perception of Effective Teaching and Subject Relevance in History and Geography at Key Stage 3”. In Research in Education. 11, 2002, pp. 1–18. 350 Ibid. 351 Terry Haydn, (2008: 14). Quoted in Terry Haydn, Martin Hint, James Arthur and Alison Stephen (3rd Ed.), Learning to Teach History in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. Routledge. New York. 2008. p. 62. 144 methods with few external constraints”.352 So the History teachers should encourage students to explore the world around them and should fulfill their quest for self- identity. How do teachers perform? Back in 1982 Kishore Nand, a Ministry of Education official, pointed out within the iTaukei context, the teacher as a role model inspires the iTaukei students to perform better. Teachers are to provide the necessary motivation and assistance for the students to excel.353 Similarly, in 1995 Mesake Dakuidreketi, a Fijian educationalist, conducted his research on first year Fijian Science students’ achievement at the University of the South Pacific. He, highlighted, that inexperienced teachers also contribute towards academic failure of the Fijian students.354 Teachers play an important role in the lives of students, especially in a subject like History which is mostly theory. So the role of teachers becomes vital, as they are to make the classroom more interesting and interactive so that students’ boredom in the class is over and they start to like the subject. Throughout my 14 years of teaching experience I have noticed that History as a school subject often falls into the hands of a teacher who takes no special interest in History. As, Ozioma Azubuike , in 2011, pointed out the way a teacher presents the subject matter to the learner may make a student like or dislike a subject.355 He highlighted that in the blending of: Theoretical and practical work in teaching of subjects which stimulates students’ interest in teaching-learning the greatest single factor is a teacher, adding that no techniques, no method, no device, no gadget can generate success, but only an effective qualified teacher can adequately motivate students’ perception about a subject.356 The Senior Education Officer for History at Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) in 2013 noted that in Fiji there are very few History graduates who are teaching

352 Ibid., p. 7. 353 Kishore Nand, “Factors Affecting Academic Performance”. In Fiji’s Ministry of Education Second Term Gazette. VII: 2. Ministry of Education, Suva. 1982. 354 Mesake Dakuidreketi, Factors Contributing to Academic under Achievement of first Year Native Fijian Students in Science Courses at the University of the South Pacific. Master of Science Thesis. University of Waikato, Waikato, New Zealand. 1995. p. 67. 355 Ozioma Azubuike, “Influential Factors Affecting the Attitude of Students towards Vocational/ Technical Subjects in Secondary Schools in Southeastern Nigeria”. Journal of Educational and Social Research. 1: 2, September. 2011. p. 51. 356 Ibid. 145

History.357 The majority of the History teachers are from other disciplines such as Geography and Commerce so because the shortage of graduate History teachers means they are often obliged to teach the subject. He did add though, that from 2011 there has been increasing interest shown by teachers to take History as their second teaching subject. This he said may be due to the resources that are now available to the teachers in the form of the CDU and workgroup prepared textbooks, whereby the teachers no longer have to carry-out extra research and collation of teaching resources, while some he knows have started to show interest in History so that they can enhance their knowledge of the subject, which will lead them to deliver their lessons effectively.358 This is because it is impossible for a teacher without adequate knowledge of the subject to relate the lesson to the present and carry out the application stage of the lesson properly. Students know from their peers which teacher has the ability to access, evaluate and modify the different types of teaching aids, which may be required for History lessons and who has the ability to get them prepared in cooperation with the pupils and other teachers in the school. This was supported by an Indo-Fijian parent of School 6, “Teachers who maintained good relationships with students have a positive effect on students’ achievement and as a result students respond positively to qualified teachers who stimulate their thinking and make the subject more interesting and engaging”.359 A teacher who is not teaching History at School 2 pointed out, “It is important in teaching the way teachers motivate students in lessons. I believe students will have interests in the subjects that involve more student participation and involvement than the teacher”.360 In this sense, it will be more productive for the teachers to make their History classes interesting for the students. As an Indo-Fijian female student from School 1 said, that, “I did not like the History teacher because he was not good with us in Form 4”.361 Thus, students fairly perspective in their choice of favorite and not- so-favorite teachers. The personal rapport the teacher builds with the students can influence the popularity of the subject. This is critical for subject like History

357 In Personal Conversation by the author with the Ministerial officer, the Senior Education Officer for History, based at CDU. 27th January 2013 358 Ibid. 359 Parent 12, 12th February 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 360 Teacher 1, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 361 Student 43, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 146 because it already suffers from image deficit of being ‘boring’ to students and ‘irrelevant’ to parents’ aspirations for their children. Teachers must remember that teaching is a personal relationship and is inspiring and motivation is crucial. If they have a negative approach towards their students, then students will have a wrong impression of the teacher. This will mean the teacher will be hated by the students and this will lead to the students hate the subjects such teachers teaches. A parent from School 3 reported: I have seen in classrooms, teacher growled at the students and was rude towards the students. This creates a hatred for the teacher among the students. As a result, students feel unsecure in such a teacher’s classes and later they ensure not to be part of such a teacher’s classes.362 In addition, an Indo-Fijian student in School 2 pointed out, “Sometimes it is very difficult to talk to the teachers at my school and that is why I always bring [my queries] to my friend”.363 Another Indo-Fijian student of School 2 said, “I am just scared to ask the level Dean to change my subject. You know, sometimes he gets angry and embarrasses us students in-front of everyone”.364 Another parent of School 5 shared a similar sentiment: My son has a dislikes the History teacher, because the teacher used to humiliate him in class in Year 9, when he was their Social Science teacher, so now my son does not want to be in this teachers’ History class anymore.365 Sometimes, teachers opt to ‘hand out’ notes and worksheets. Then they dictate the answers, without allowing students to find the answers, thus making it more top- down. Students do not like this method, and will lose interest in an instant. What the students prefer is active engagement in which students drive or co-drive the lessons with the teacher by making active contribution to the learning of the whole class. As highlighted by a teacher of School 5, “I think for teaching of History to be fruitful and outcomes maximized, both the teacher and the students should participate in the lesson. That is, teachers should allow students to enquire and respond freely rather

362 Parent 19, 4th February2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 363 Student 44, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 364 Student 45, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 365 Parent 14, 8th February 2013, School 5, personal communication with the author. 147 than being spoon fed”.366 Such teachers, and their subjects, rapidly become unpopular amongst students. An Indo-Fijian student of School 1 strongly said: In History we are given notes and are told by the teacher to study all in order to pass with good marks in our examinations. I find it hard to memorize all notes. This is one thing I hate about History because if I am not able to perform well in History, I will not pass my examination.367 From these comments and scholarly findings it is clear poor pedagogy does not warrant a viable future for History in any country. Fiji is no exception.

8.3 Data Discussion on Teachers’ Influence on Students’ Choice of History Overall, 33 percent (173/527) of the Indo-Fijian students apportion some of the blame for their decision not to choose History to the attitudes and teaching styles of the teachers. School 6 recorded the highest number (88) of such responses, whereas at School 2 (8) and School 3 (8) this seemed to be a much less significant factor. Table 8.1 displays the data for teacher influence, in decisions to take or not to take History. From the data in Table 8.1, it can be said that the teachers at the six schools were able to convince the Indo-Fijian students to not take History. On the other hand, it can be said that in none of the schools were teachers particularly successful in persuading Indo-Fijian students to choose History (ranging from four for School 1 to none for School 4 and School 5). As far as the data shows, teachers were the second most important factor influencing Indo-Fijian students away from taking History at the six schools. Teachers can be an influential factor in the decision not to select History; they are significantly less successful in encouraging or inspiring Indo-Fijian students to enroll in the History course, as reported by an Indo-Fijian student from School 4: I always feel embarrassed about seeking help from my History teacher. When he was our Social Science teacher at Year 10, he’ll always embarrass me in front of other students and they will all laugh at me. I hate him for his actions. So I am no longer interested in his subjects, and History is one of the subjects taught by this particular teacher.368

366 Teacher 4, 8th February 2013, School 5, personal communication with the author. 367 Student 46, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author.

368 Student 47, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 148

It is quite clear that teachers do have an influence on the Indo-Fijian students’ preference for a subject at the six secondary schools in this survey. Data in Table 8.2 outlines the dismal views of teachers on History as a subject. Nine teachers, who were teaching History and 75 teachers were not teaching the subject across the six schools, were interviewed. As per the data in Table 8.2, 43 percent (32 out of 75) of the teachers who did not teach History believe that the curriculum and the content of the subject (History) were not appropriate and thus not popular amongst the Indo-Fijian students, while 33 percent (25 out of 75) of the same group of teachers thought that the subject does not offer a viable career path or future job opportunities in Fiji. They believed that Indian parents always looked for financially secured futures for their children and wanted secured jobs for them. A teacher from School 5 supported the parents’ opinion: “Career opportunities in the field of History are limited in Fiji, and not that much and does not pay much as well”.369 As a teacher from School 1 raised: History is a good subject. A lot can be learnt from History. For example the wars, people and discoveries. But sometimes it becomes boring because of past political views really not making sense and it isn’t relevant. That is when students prefer not to take History. Career paths in History are really not well known. I do not know much about career paths in History.370 Six teachers thought that the History Curriculum and content were appropriate but suggested that there be a review of the curriculum and the syllabus to meet the needs of students in this century (21st century). As echoed by a teacher of School 3: “To me, I believe students should actually feel that they (students) are part of the curriculum in order for them to understand and perform well in a subject. So there’s a need for curriculum change”.371

369 Teacher 5, 8th February 2013, School 5, personal communication with the author. 370 Teacher 6, 28th January 2013, School 1, personal communication with the author. 371 Teacher 7, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 149

Table 8.1 Teacher Influence on Choice of History at the six schools (527 students surveyed) Schools School School School School School School Total Total Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 of Indo-Fijian Students Surveyed Indo-Fijian students taking 4 2 1 0 0 1 8 30 History due to teachers’ (13%) (7%) (3%) (0%) (0%) (3%) (27%) influence Indo-Fijian students not taking 44 8 8 15 10 88 173 527 History due to teachers’ (8.4%) (1.5%) (1.5%) (2.9%) (1.9%) (16.7%) (32.8%) influence

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Table 8.2 Teachers opinions on History. That is, what do the teachers think about History as an academic subject on the following bases? Appropriate Inappropriate

School School School School School School School School School School School School

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

Curriculum and content of History 0 1 1 1 2 1 5 10 3 4 4 6

School policy on other subject 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 2 0 options with History and subject counseling Subject viability and career path: Is 1 0 0 0 0 1 6 2 3 4 3 7 the school promoting History Availability of History textbooks 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 2 2 1 2 and resources Total 1 2 1 1 2 2 15 15 10 10 10 15

9 75

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Another teacher of School 2 pointed out: Fiji’s education system is very exam-oriented. The thing is for questions to be taken from all the topics covered, so that the children will also learn other topics which they find important for them when they are at school. Since History has a lot of optional topics teachers often ensure not to teach those topics which students are not going to answer. As a result the topics are not often covered with students even if the topic is important for the real life of the child.372 A teacher of School 4 pointed out: Since our [Fiji’s] education system is exam-oriented and our performance is judged based on the way students have performed in their external examinations, the first thing I have to endure is that my Year 12 History class is to try and cover the examinable units within the allocated time given by the principal, which is by the end of Term 2. This is done so that Term 3 is used entirely on revision for the Fiji Year12 Certificate Examination.373 A teacher of School 3, who is teaching Geography, did History at high school, but not History, explained: I am not much interested in History as compared to Geography. When I was in high school, the majority of the things in my exam were mainly taken from our notes. So if I want to a pass my exam, then, I need to memorize all my notes. This is why I find this subject difficult too. My dislike for History is because it requires students to learn all things in their notes.374 Teachers also voiced their concern over the shortage of History graduates teaching in schools. They wanted the Ministry of Education and the Government to look at this problem with more urgency and avoid having unqualified teachers teaching the subject. A teacher from School 4 noted: “Since unqualified teachers were teaching the subject, this was a strong reason why the interest is not there amongst students”.375

372 Teacher 8, 30th January 2013, School 2, personal communication with the author. 373 Teacher 9, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 374 Teacher 10, 4th February 2013, School 3, personal communication with the author. 375 Teacher 11, 6th February 2013, School 4, personal communication with the author. 152

A teacher from School 2 agreed and elaborated: If teachers are not having a very good knowledge of History, how can they teach History? They will teach the subject just because it is in the curriculum, and they have to teach it. The class will not be that interesting and students will just lose their interest in the subject.376 In one of the counseling sessions that I observed for Year11, I found the teacher not giving any career advice but just allocating the students based on their Fiji Year 10 Certificate Examination marks. For example, this was observed at School 1: Teacher: Good morning students. All of you will stand according to your mark range; line 1: 500–600, line 2: 450–500, line 3: 350–400, line 4: 300– 400. And all those who have failed and have a mark below 300 will stand in line 5. (So the students stood in in the respective lines based on their marks). Teacher: Students in Line 1 and Line 2 go to Mr. X and choose your subjects while lines 3 and 4; I will be allocating you people. Line 5 you will be either doing Arts or Commerce but definitely not Science. Student A (the Year 10 mark was below 300): Sir, my parents want me to take History. Teacher: But your mark is not appropriate and you will not be able to study History, as it requires you to write essays and memorize a lot of dates and facts. And you have failed your failed English. Student: But sir… (Teacher interprets) Teacher: No more questions, you have to take the subject that we teachers are allocating you and if you want to have your way, then go and look for another school.377 This shows that teachers at times push students out of History and give a wrong image of the subject to students. Another similar observation was made in School 6, during a History class, when the teacher was asking questions to the students on the topic ‘History of Fiji’: Teacher: When were the Indians first landed in Fiji? Student B: 1878?

376 Teacher 12, 30th January 2013, School 6, personal communication with the author. 377 Teacher 13, 28th January 2013, School 1, lesson observation by the author. 153

Teacher: 1878? Any other answer? Anyone else? (No response from the class) Teacher: You students do not even know when the first Indians came to Fiji. It’s such a simple question. What else can I expect from you people? If you cannot recall what we discussed yesterday how can you people perform in the examination. It is better you people quit History and take other subjects which you may find easy.378 For example, at School 4, where I observed a class, a teacher discussed with the student on the career path in an Arts stream: Teacher: OK if you are taking Commerce what are you Career paths in Fiji? Student A: Teacher, Lawyer, Businessman. Student B: Accountant, Tax Agent, Salesman Student C: Economist, FRCA, LTA, Government departments. Teacher: Ok. Good. What about if you are taking History? Student D: Lawyer, Teachers, Lecturers. Teacher: Any others? (No response from the Class) Teacher: See students, History does not have much to offer you people in Fiji. I am not able to figure out why some of you are taking it? Student D: Sir, can I change my subjects? I want to drop History and take Accounting. Teacher: No it’s too late. You should have decided earlier.379 These dialogues demonstrate the considerable role the teachers played over the students’ lives. They directed the flow of the dialogue to push their perspectives and preference onto the students, without letting them explore alternatives. Furthermore, the data I have gathered substantiate the teachers’ manners, teaching method and attitude towards History play critical role. Out of the 527 students surveyed at the six schools, 173 (33 percent) stated they chose not to take History because of teachers’ influence. The data indicated that teachers do have an influence on the student’s choice of subjects at schools. As such, people who are bestowed with the

378 Teacher 14, 12th February 2013, School 6, lesson observation by the author. 379 Teacher 15, 6th February 2013, School 4, lesson observation by the author. 154 responsibility of building students’ futures indeed have a great role to play in the lives of the student. Bearing in mind this study investigates a relatively small number of schools in a peri-urban and relatively lower socio-economic community, the data–such as the survey results, observation and interviews–will certainly not speak for the whole Indo-Fijian population across Fiji, or for other ethnic groups or other parts of Fiji. However, if other schools followed similar tendencies to these schools surveyed, teachers would have much to answer for the poor perception of and the lack of students enrolled in History.

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CHAPTER NINE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS In this final chapter, I will put the finishing touches to my enquiry into the reluctance by Indo-Fijian students to study History at secondary schools. My intention is to discuss some implications of my key findings towards concluding with some recommendations on how to attract more Indo-Fijian students to taking up History at secondary schools. As mentioned in the earlier chapters of this research report, I began thinking about this problem when I started teaching History at secondary school. Later, during my postgraduate studies, when I noticed this problem has existed for decades, my concern for this problem became more and I was determined to look into this issue. This enquiry looked at the influence of parents, peers and teachers on Indo- Fijian students’ perceptions about History as an academic subject choice in secondary schools in Fiji. Through the use of different data collection techniques and data analysis it was revealed that, parents play a vital role in the educational choices of Indian students. This was evident from the analyzed results on the three factors– parents, peers and teachers – whereby out of the 527 Indo-Fijian students surveyed 244 agreed that their parents had influenced them not to take History at secondary schools, while 110 Indo-Fijian students said that their friends or peers had changed their opinion about History, and, 173 Indo-Fijian students indicated that teachers had an influence on them taking History at the six schools. As such, in the order of significance, parents are ranked number one, teachers are ranked number two and peers are ranked third for the low enrollment in History at the six case study schools in Nausori. The Indo-Fijian students’ subject choice depends much on parents’ expectations in children’s career and in securing a better livelihood. While it means can vary from one parent to another, ‘a better livelihood’ can mean any of high income and status, and greater employment prospect and stability. The government may say ‘History is important for national identity’, but Indo-Fijian parents walk away from the moralistic ‘think what you can do for your country’ rhetoric because the Indo-Fijian parents (and students) perceive History as irrelevant to the bread-and- butter concerns. In other words, the refusal to take History is the refusal to participate

156 in the nation-building exercise the Ministry of Education has sought to achieve– irrespective of colonial, pre-coup (1987) and post-coup regimes. Indo-Fijian culture encourages children to value schooling highly. For this purpose, social support such as parental involvement and understanding of children’s education is of importance in order for children to take appropriate subjects at secondary schools, as this paves the way for their tertiary education and later for their employment. The majority of the Indo-Fijian parents provide support for education of their children with the belief that it is the key to a better life for their children. They desire a curriculum in which the local language (either Hindi or Fijian), people, history, cultures and traditions play a central and respected role. The parents’ aspiration to be included, consulted, and respected as equals in the educational process can be part of further research, but they are reluctant to come to school; they depend upon school personnel to initiate the process of involvement by coming to their homes or visiting their houses. The parents believe that the primary purpose of all education should be to prepare their child to earn a living. They support the idea of career education to be an integral part of schooling–for all students whatever choices they make in their further studies or employment. They desire a school program that is locally controlled, administered and responsive to their needs. When I started the present research, my preliminary thought was to look at only three factors: the school environment, the content and curriculum of History; and the peers’ and siblings’ influence. My assumptions rested on the following: (i) the schools were not doing a good job in promotion of History amongst Indo- Fijian students (ii) the History syllabus needed revisions and changes, which were long overdue (iii) the social surroundings of Indo-Fijian students were likely to play a role in their reluctance towards History. After conducting my research and analyzing my findings, I am of the view that there are more factors associated towards the Indo-Fijian students’ neglect of History as an academic subject. It is not only the social surroundings but inclusive of the home environment, the education system and school environment that results in such negligence. That is, Indo-Fijians’ direct and indirect experiences at both school and home are embedded together resulting in their differential but mostly negative views and opinions about History.

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Highlighting the findings of this research, has led to several recommendations that will help in making History a more viable subject at secondary schools and will encourage more Indo-Fijian students to take it up. By way of parting thoughts for the reader, here are some recommendations the participants made during the interviews and talanoa sessions. The content of History curriculum should place emphases on Fiji, especially for Forms 5 and 6 (Years 11 and 12), and should include histories of the surrounding region in Form 7 (Year 13). Students’ will first study their own history and then move on with regional and international history. In this they will very easy find a link and will know where exactly they are heading towards. The History curriculum should be re-designed at Form 7 (Year 13) level to be similar and align to foundation and undergraduate courses at tertiary level so that students know the link between the History curriculum in secondary schools and later in tertiary institutions. Such alignment will make students have a follow up of History from secondary level to tertiary level, showing them the link in between the two stages of studying History. Ministry of Education staff at Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) and History staff from the tertiary institutions should have awareness programs and workshops not only for teachers, but for the parents and students at Form 4 (Year 10) level so that students, especially Indo-Fijian students, come to appreciate the importance of taking History. This is because after Form 4 (Year 10), students move to the next the level where they have to make a choice of subject for their career path. So if the Indo-Fijian students are familiar with the importance of History at a lower level (example below Year 10), the students will know the importance of the subject. In the following year during the day of the enrollment students will be able to make better decisions by themselves, and will not be susceptible to the advice the teachers or career advisers give them. The format of both examinations at Form 6 and Form 7 levels should be reviewed; especially when the current examination format requires students to write five essays in each of the examinations. The students have strongly suggested that the examination paper include some multiple choice and other types of questions, rather than writing five essays. If the essays are to remain the one and only skill the Ministry wishes to assess, then some students also suggested that three essays should

158 be the maximum that a student shall write in the examination. Fewer questions can help the students develop appreciation and understanding of the topics at greater depth. Students and teachers are in favor of studying and teaching from new History textbooks. They would like to see the CDU to work with a working group to produce a national textbook–that are available at all schools across Fiji. The new textbooks will feature the new and local content. The students and the teachers also expect CDU and the working group to prepare supplementary notes and resource materials– also to be available to the students and the teachers throughout Fiji. Some parents suggested that they would like proper and appropriate advice, counseling and information from teachers and principals about the career paths and choice of subjects on the day of enrollment at school. They would like one-on-one counseling sessions between parents, teachers and students so that parents can make the informed decisions for their children. Government and donor agencies should provide more funding and grants to provide teachers with in-service training to improve knowledge of the subject and pedagogy. The training can help improve the confidence of the teachers and the quality of their teaching. With greater professionalism of the teachers, the students may engage in History with different expectations and gain positive impressions of the subject. Under the present situation, a number of teachers interviewed were unqualified to teach History. They did not study History at university or teacher training institutions, worse still, at secondary school. Those teachers were teaching History, because their superiors instructed them to teach History. This does not bode well for building a thriving, stimulating discipline from which students may develop richer knowledge about themselves and their social and political universe. A number of findings have emerged from this study that provided helpful insights into previous research and areas that needed to be investigated. It is important to note that these findings could not be generalized to all students or schools or cultural groups but they added to current knowledge and highlighted areas for further exploration. The findings provided principals, teachers, schools and the educational system with clear understanding of factors influencing the Indo-Fijian students’ decisions to study History. The findings of this study have implications for future investigations on a set of specific factors that affect the preference for or against History by secondary school Indo-Fijian students. 159

Since this study has concerned itself with one area with only six schools, it is highly recommended that a further study cast its net wider. A thorough survey on the unpopularity of History amongst Indo-Fijian students at secondary schools will enable us to know why the Indo-Fijian enrollments in History are still low, when the provision of teaching History is expanding, or is expected to expand, across Fiji. Moreover, a further study can take varying geographical, socio-economic and ethnic backgrounds into consideration. Such a study can investigate whether the poor reputation History has earned amongst Indo-Fijian students will apply to students, parents and teachers in other ethnic groups, of other socio-economic standing, and in different areas.

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Interviews

Officer 1, the Senior Education Officer for History based at Curriculum Development Unit. Suva. 27th January 2013.

Officer 2, District Counselor–Nausori Education Office. Nausori. 27th January 2013.

School 1 All the interviews and surveys were conducted on 28th January 2013. Parent 7. Parent 11. Parent 16. Parent 21.

Student 4. Student 5. Student 6. Student 12. Student 13. Student 19. Student 20. Student 26. Student 39. Student 40. Student 43. Student 46.

Teacher 1. Teacher 2. Teacher 3. Teacher 6.

School 2 All the interviews and surveys were conducted on 30th January 2013. Parent 1. Parent 5. Parent 6. Parent 8. Parent 14.

Student 2. 168

Student 16. Student 17. Student 23. Student 33. Student 44. Student 45.

Teacher 5. Teacher 8.

School 3 All the interviews and surveys were conducted on 4th February 2013. Parent 12. Parent 17. Parent 19.

Student 10. Student 11. Student 15. Student 22. Student 28. Student 29. Student 31.

Teacher 7. Teacher 10.

School 4 All the interviews and surveys were conducted on 6th February 2013. Parent 2. Parent 4. Parent 10. Parent 15.

Student 1. Student 3. Student 7. Student 25. Student 27. Student 38. Student 47.

Teacher 9. Teacher 11.

School 5 All the interviews and surveys were conducted on 8th February 2013. Parent 20.

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Student 18. Student 34. Student 36.

Teacher 4. Teacher 5.

School 6 All the interviews and surveys were conducted on 12th February 2013. Parent 3. Parent 9. Parent 13. Parent 18.

Student 8. Student 9. Student 14. Student 21. Student 24. Student 30. Student 32. Student 37.

Teacher 12.

Lesson Observations School 1 Teacher 13, 28th January 2013, School 1.

School 4 Teacher 15, 6th February 2013, School 4.

School 6 Teacher 14, 12th February 2013, School 6.

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APPENDIX 1

SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS NOT STUDYING HISTORY

Form: ______School: ______Gender: ______

Questions

1. For how many years have you been not taking History? ______

2. Was it your choice not to do this subject? Give details. ______

3. List things you don’t like about the subject. ______

4. List things you like about the subject. ______

5. Is History a popular subject amongst Indo- Fijian students in your class/school? Give your reason for the answer.

______

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6. According to you, is the subject too hard for Indo-Fijian students or is it not interesting?

______

7. Does the subject have any relevance to your life? Give the reason for your answer.

______

8. How can a History teacher can make the subject interesting for the students?

______

9. Is the status of the subject of History viable in your school/country?

______

10. According to you, what are the other factors affecting the students’ perception about the subject?

______

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11. What impact does the curriculum (new and old) have on the choice of students doing History?

______

12. How do you think students’ perception about History can be changed? ______

13. List the factors that have affected your preference for not doing History. ______

14. Has the government policy on compulsory education made an impact on your choice of History? State Yes or No and give reasons. ______

15. Suggest some changes that you want to see made in the History curriculum at secondary school level to make the subject more popular amongst Indo-Fijian students in your school.

______

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16. Rank the following factors that must have influenced your attitude towards History at school: (from appropriate, satisfactory and inappropriate)

- Parental Influence ______- Teachers’ Motivational Techniques ______- Friends’ Advice ______- History curriculum ______- Government’s policy of compulsory education ______- Career and Job aspirations ______- Usefulness of the subject in future ______

“THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION

174

APPENDIX 2 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS STUDYING HISTORY

Form: ______School: ______Gender: ______Questions

1. For how many years have you been taking History? ______

2.Was this subject forcefully given to you or was it your choice to do it? ______

3. List things you like about the subject. ______

4. List things you don’t like about the subject. ______

5. Is History a popular subject amongst Indo-Fijian students in your class/school? Give your reason for the answer.

______

175

6. According to you, is the subject too hard for Indo-Fijian students or is it not interesting?

______

7. Does the subject have any relevance to your life? Give the reason for your answer.

______

8. How can a History teacher make the subject interesting for the students?

______

9. Is the status of the subject of History viable in your school/country?

______

10. What are factors affecting students’ perception about the subject?

______

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11. What impact does the curriculum (new and old) have on the choice of students doing History?

______

12. How was your performance in History at the recent exams? ______

13. List factors that have affected your performance in History. ______

14. Has the government policy on compulsory education made an impact on your choice of History? State Yes or No and give reasons. ______

15. Suggest some changes that you want to see made in the History curriculum at secondary school level.

______

16. Rank the following factors that must have influenced your attitude towards History at School: (from appropriate, satisfactory and inappropriate)

- Parental Influence ______

177

- Teachers’ Motivational Techniques ______- Friends’ Advice ______- History curriculum ______- Government’s policy of compulsory education ______- Career and Job aspirations ______- Usefulness of the subject in future ______

“THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION”

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APPENDIX 3 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS TEACHING HISTORY

School: ______Gender: ______Ethnicity: ______

Questions 1. For how many years have you been teaching History? ______

2. What is your opinion on the History curriculum (new/old)? ______

3. What impact does the curriculum have on the choice of students doing the subject? ______

4. What changes would you like to see happen in the History curriculum? ______

5. How many iTaukei and Indo-Fijian students you have in your class? ______

179

6. Why is History not a popular subject amongst Indo-Fijian students?

______

7. What might be the factors affecting the perception of the students about History in schools? Is it related to the teaching of the subject at school or their cultural upbringing or both? Are there other factors? If so what are other factors?

______

8. What other factors might be influencing the Indo-Fijian students not to take History?

______

9. Is the subject too hard for Indo-Fijian students or is it not interesting?

______

10. Are the students thinking that the subject does not have any relevance to Indo-Fijian students?

______

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11. How can a History teacher make the subject interesting for the students?

______

12. Are the students thinking that the subject is not viable? Give reasons.

______

13. What sorts of changes are required to improve the Indo-Fijian students’ perception about History? ______

14. Rank the following reasons for factors affecting the performance of the ethnic Indo-Fijian students in History at your school: (from appropriate, satisfactory and inappropriate) - Lack of parental involvement ______- Teaching strategies are inappropriate ______- Students are not motivated ______- History curriculum is not appropriate ______- Government’s policy of compulsory education ______- Government’s policy of no corporal punishment ______

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION

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APPENDIX 4 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS NOT TEACHING HISTORY

School: ______Gender: ______Ethnicity: ______

Questions 1. For how many years have you been teaching? ______

2. What are your subject majors and why have you opted not to teach History? ______

3. What is your opinion on the History curriculum (new/old)? ______

4. What impact does the curriculum have on the choice of students doing the subject? ______

5. What changes would you like to see happen in the History curriculum to make the subject more interesting for students? ______

182

6. Why is History not a popular subject amongst Indo-Fijian students at your school?

______

8. What other factors might be influencing the Indo-Fijian students not to take History?

______

9. Is the subject too hard for Indo-Fijian students or is it not interesting?

______10. Are the students thinking that the subject does not have any relevance to Indo-Fijian students? And why?

______

183

11. How can a History teacher make the subject interesting for the students?

______

12. Are the students thinking that the subject is not viable? Give reasons.

______

13. What sorts of changes are required to improve the Indo-Fijian students’ perception about History? ______

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION

184

APPENDIX 5 LETTER OF REQUEST FOR EXTERNAL EXAMINATION DATA

15th January, 2013 The Permanent Secretary Ministry of Education Private Mail Bag Suva.

Attention: The Director Exams and Assessment Unit Ministry of Education Suva

RE: REQUEST FOR EXTERNAL EXAMINATION DATA Dear Sir, I would like to request if I can use some data on external exam results. The data I need is the ethnic distribution of the students that did Fiji School Leaving Certificate Examination and Fiji Seventh Form Examination from 2008–2012. That is, analysis of the number of Indian and iTaukei students who did the exam between the mentioned years. I will use this data for writing my Master’s Thesis on the topic: Indo-Fijian Students Reluctance to Take History: Perceptions and Influences Affecting Student Choice in Six Nausori High Schools. The information that I need is for schools in Nausori. The data will be treated confidentially, with respect to both the schools and individual students. Looking forward for your kind consideration and support.

Yours faithfully, ______Dinesh Naidu

185

APPENDIX 6 LETTER OF REQUEST TO MINISTRY OF EDUCATION TO CONDUCT THE SURVEY

15th January, 2013.

The Permanent Secretary Ministry of Education Private Mail Bag Suva.

Attention: The Director Secondary Ministry of Education Quality House Suva.

RE: REQUEST FOR SURVEY Dear Sir, I would like to request your approval to do a survey of secondary schools within the Suva – Nausori corridor. Sir, this survey is part of my Master’s Thesis, which may take 2-3 years to be completed. My research is on Indo-Fijian Students Reluctance to Take History: Perceptions and Influences Affecting Student Choice in Six Nausori High Schools. Sir, I will be seeking approval from the principals of the concerned schools before the survey at their respective schools will be carried out. All the data and information collected will be treated with complete confidentiality.

Looking forward for your kind consideration and support.

Yours faithfully, ______Dinesh Naidu

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APPENDIX 7 LETTER OF REQUEST TO MINISTRY OF EDUCATION FOR SCHOOL VISITS AND INTERVIEWS . 15th January, 2013 The Permanent Secretary Ministry of Education Suva.

Attention: Divisional Education Officer Ministry of Education Nausori.

RE: REQUEST FOR SCHOOL VISITS AND INTERVIEWS

Dear Sir, I would like to request your permission to conduct research on six secondary schools in your district. This research is based on the question of Indo-Fijian Students Reluctance to Take History: Perceptions and Influences Affecting Student Choice in Six Nausori High Schools and these six schools are my case study. I will be conducting interviews with the Forms 5–7 Indian students who are not taking History and those students in Forms 5–7 who are taking History this year. Also the History teachers of the six schools will be interviewed as stipulated in the timeline attached. The research will be conducted over two years. Although, the names of the schools will be used for data analysis, the identity of the schools and the participants from the schools will be kept strictly confidential in the final report. Looking forward for your kind consideration.

Yours faithfully,

______Dinesh Naidu

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APPENDIX 8 LETTER OF REQUEST TO PRINCIPALS FOR SCHOOL VISITS AND INTERVIEWS

22nd January, 2013.

The Principal

RE: REQUEST FOR SCHOOL VISITS AND INTERVIEWS

Dear Sir/ Madam, I would like to request your permission to conduct research in your school. This research is based on the question of Indo-Fijian Students Reluctance to Take History: Perceptions and Influences Affecting Student Choice in Six Nausori High Schools and your school is one of my case studies. I will be conducting interviews with the Forms 5–7 Indian students who are not taking History and those students in Forms 5–7 who are taking History this year. Also the History teachers of your school will be interviewed as stipulated in the timeline attached. The research will be conducted over a 2 year period. Although the name of the school will be used for data analysis, the identity of the school and participants from the school will be kept confidential in the final report. Looking forward for your kind consideration.

Yours faithfully,

______Dinesh Naidu

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APPENDIX 9 LETTER OF CONSENT FOR INTERVIEW

22nd January, 2013

RE: CONSENT FOR INTERVIEW

Dear participant, I would like to inform you that I would like to interview you for my research work. Your identity will be kept confidential and at no point in time will it be revealed. The topic of the research is Indo-Fijian Students Reluctance to Take History: Perceptions and Influences Affecting Student Choice in Six Nausori High Schools.

Looking forward for your kind consideration.

Yours faithfully,

______

Dinesh Naidu

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APPENDIX 10 TALANOA SESSION GUIDE

1. Check on family background

- Parental Education Status

- Parental Financial Status

- Family Social Status

2. Viewpoints on child’s education

3. Viewpoints on subject choice of their child

4. Viewpoints on History as an academic subject

5. Perception on History curriculum both new and old

6. Views on Government and school policies

7. Views on teachers’ teaching styles

8. Recommendations for improvement

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APPENDIX 11 OBSERVATION GUIDE

A. Career Counseling by the Teachers and Head of Department

- What information is given to students? - Educational aims are laid out? - List of Career path given with the subject choices. - How and from whom students’ can get career advice given? - What learning resources are available at school? - Who is taking part? - Number of participants. - Decisions made by whom and for whom - How are participants interacting? - Is there any dialogue between the Head of Department and the students and their parents? - Is the dialogue constructive? - What is the reaction of the students and parents about the career counseling given by the teachers and head of department? - Is there evidence in the dialogue that the teachers or Head of Department are responding to students’ choice of subjects?

B. Availability of Resources at School

- Type of historical resources and textbooks available - Do the historical resources appear to be of good quality? - How are students introduced to the historical resources? - What information is given to students about the historical resources available? - How are the students using historical resources?

C. A History Class - Of students in the History class - Teacher’s control of the class - Methodologies used by the teacher in teaching History - Questioning style used by the respective History teachers - Students’ correspondence to teacher

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APPENDIX 12

Prescription for History in Form 5 and 6, 1987

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APPENDIX 13

History Syllabi for Years 11 and 12 (2014)

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APPENDIX 14

History Prescription for Form 7, 1991

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APPENDIX 15

History Prescription for Form 7, 2011

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