THE VOODOO AMONG NEGRO MIGRANTS IN

ERDMANN DOANE BEYNON

ABSTRACT The "," usuallyknown as the "Voodoo Cult," belongsto a chain of movementsarising out of the growingdisillusionment and race consciousnessof recent Negro migrantsto northernindustrial cities. The attentionof the generalpublic has been directedto sensationalepisodes in the historyof this cult, such as the occurrence of human sacrifice,but the reorientationof the personalityof its membershas been ignored. The membersof the cult have been isolated fromthe social organizationof the communityin which they lived, but they have maintainedtheir functional rela- tionshipin the metropolitaneconomy from which they derive their means of livelihood and in whichthey have been able to make moresatisfactory adjustments. As a result of the teachingof thiscult, they have gained a new conceptionof themselvesand regard themselvesas superior,rather than inferior,to otherpeople. The Negrosect known to its membersas the "Nationof Islam" or the "Muslims,"'but to thepolice as the Voodoo Cult,2has sig- nificancefor social scienceresearch partly because of its synthesis ofheterogeneous cultural elements and partlybecause of its unique expressionof race consciousness. If themovement be viewedas the life-cycleof a cult,however, its variousphases tend to show an orderlyprogression through which the attitudes of its devoteeswere moldedto a commonpattern. There developed among them a way of livingwhich isolated them to a certainextent from all persons not membersof theircult, even thoughthey themselves remained scatteredamong an urbanpopulation of theirown race and color. In theirtrade relations the membersof this cult have continued to live,like other Negroes, within the ecological organization of the Negrocommunity of Detroit.Their principal occupational adjust- menthas beenfactory labor, and thusthe cult members have main- taineda functionalrelationship with the metropolitan economy out- side of the Negro community.At the same time,however, they

ISpelling: "Moslem"; pronounced: "Muslim." This is one of the changed pro- nunciationsby whichinitiates recognize each other. The Moorish-Americansalso are "Moslems," but pronouncethe wordas spelled. 2 No effortis made in thispaper to trace relationshipbetween this cult and Voodoo- ism in Haiti and other West Indian islands. The cult received the name "Voodoo" solely because of cases of human sacrifice. 894

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THE BEGINNING OF THE MOVEMENT The prophet and founderof the cult made his firstappearance among the Negroes of Detroit as a peddler. Like other Arab and Syrian peddlers,he went fromhouse to house carryinghis wares. He came firstto our houses sellingraincoats, and thenafterwards silks. In thisway he could get into the people's houses,for every woman was eager to see thenice thingsthe peddlars had forsale. He toldus thatthe silks he carried were the same kind that our people used in theirhome countryand that he had come fromthere. So we all asked him to tell us about our own country. If we asked himto eat withus, he wouldeat whateverwe had on the table,but afterthe meal he began to talk: "Now don't eat thisfood. It is poisonfor you. The people in yourown countrydo not eat it. Since theyeat the rightkind of food they have the best health all the time. If you would live just like the people in yourhome country,you would neverbe sick any more." So we all wantedhim to tell us moreabout ourselvesand about our home countryand about how we couldbe freefrom rheumatism, aches and pains.3 At the stranger'ssuggestion a group of people was invited to one of the houses visitedby him,so that on a particularevening they all might hear the story in which all alike were so much interested. Accustomedas these people were to the cottage prayermeetings of the Negro Methodistand Baptist churchesthey foundno difficulty in holdinginformal meetings in theirhomes. The formerpeddler now assumed the role of prophet. During the early period of his ministryhe used the Bible as his textbook, since it was the only religiousbook with which the majorityof his hearerswere familiar.With growingprestige over a constantlyin- creasinggroup, the prophet became bolder in his denunciationof the Caucasians and began to attack the teachings of the Bible in such a way as to shock his hearersand bringthem to an emotional crisis. BrotherChallar Sharriefftold of the crisisthrough which he himselfpassed afterhearing the prophet's message:

3 Sister Denke Majied, formerly,Mrs. Lawrence Adams.

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The veryfirst time I went to a meetingI heardhim say: "The Bible tells you that the sun risesand sets. That is not so. The sun standsstill. All your lives you have been thinkingthat the earth never moved. Stand and look towardthe sun and know that it is the earth you are standingon whichis moving." Up to that day I always wentto the Baptist church.After I heard that sermonfrom the prophet, I was turnedaround completely. When I went home and heard that dinnerwas ready,I said: "I don't want to eat dinner. I just want to go back to the meetings."I wouldn'teat my meals but I goes back thatnight and I goes to everymeeting after that. Justto thinkthat the sun above me nevermoved at all and that the earthwe are on was doing all themoving. That changedeverything for me.4 The reportof the prophet'smessage spread through the Negro community.Many of those who heard him invited their friends and relatives to come to the meetings,appealing either to their curiosityor to deeperinterests. The attendanceat thehouse meet- ingsincreased so muchthat the prophetwas compelledto divide his hearersinto several groups, the members of each ofwhich were permittedto hear his messageonly at the timeassigned to their group.The inconveniencewas so obviousthat the prophet'sfol- lowersreadily contributed money sufficient to hirea hall whichwas fittedup as theTemple. THE PROPHET Althoughthe prophetlived in Detroitfrom July 4, I930, until June30, I934, virtuallynothing is knownabout him,save thathe "came fromthe East" and thathe "called" the Negroesof North Americato enterthe Nation of Islam. His veryname is uncertain. He was knownusually as Mr. Wali Farrad or Mr. W. D. Fard, thoughhe used also thefollowing names: ProfessorFord, Mr. Far- rad Mohammed,Mr. F. MohammedAli. One of thefew survivors whoheard his first addresses states that he himselfsaid: "My name is W. D. Fard and I camefrom the Holy Cityof . Moreabout myselfI willnot tellyou yet,for the time has not yet come. I am yourbrother. You have not yetseen me in myroyal robes."5 Leg- endssoon sprang up aboutthis mysterious personality. Many mem- bersof the culthold thatthe prophet was bornin Mecca, the son ofwealthy parents of thetribe of the Koreish, the tribe from which 4 BrotherChallar Sharrieff, formerly, Mr. CharlesPeoples. s Interviewwith Mrs. CarriePeoples (Sister Carrie Mohammed).

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Mohammedthe Prophet sprang, and thathe was closelyrelated by blood to the dynastyof the Hashimidesheriffs of Mecca who be- came kingsof the Hejaz. He is said to have been educatedat a collegein England,6in preparationfor a diplomaticcareer in the serviceof thekingdom of theHejaz, but to have abandonedevery thingto bring"freedom, justice and equality,"7 to "his uncle"8 living"in thewilderness of NorthAmerica, surrounded and robbed completelyby the Cave Man."9 There has grown,however, among the membersof the cult a beliefthat the prophetwas more than man, as BrotherYussuf Mohammedclaimed: "When the police asked himwho he was, he said: 'I am the SupremeRuler of the Universe.'He told those policemore about himselfthan he wouldever tell us."

THE NEGROES WHO HEARD THE "CALL " Not all whoattended the meetings and heardthe stranger's mes- sage acceptedhim as a prophet.Many ridiculed his attacksagainst the Caucasiansand wereangered by his criticismsof the churches and thepreachers. During the four years of his ministry,however, approximatelyeight thousand Negroes'0 in Detroit"heard the call" and becamemembers of the Nation of Islam. Interviewswith more thantwo hundred Moslem families showed that with less thanhalf- a-dozenexceptions all wererecent migrants from the ruralSouth, the majorityhaving come to Detroitfrom small communitiesin Virginia,South Carolina,Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.In- vestigationsof cult membersby the Wayne CountyProsecutor's officealso indicatedthe same origin.The interviewsdisclosed that 6 SisterCarrie Mohammed and certainothers claim that the prophetgraduated fromthe University of Southern California in Los Angeles. 7Symbolizedby theletters F J E on theMuslim flag hanging in thehome of every cultmember. 8 The AmericanNegroes-"the black men in thewilderness of North America"- arereferred to symbolicallyin the cult ritual as "theuncle of Mr. W. D. Fard." Mos- lemsof the East-Syrians, Turks and others-arereferred to as "thesecond uncle of Mr. W. D. Fard." 9 ProphetW. D. Fard,Teaching for the Lost Found Nation of Islam in a Mathematical Way,Problem No. 30. IOEstimated by officialsof thecult. Detectives of the Special Investigation Squad ofthe Detroit Police Department estimate 5,ooo.

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the Moslemsnot onlyhad migratedrecently from the South,but also had visitedtheir old homesin theSouth one or moretimes after theirmigration and beforethey had come into contactwith the Nationof Islam. Throughthese visits they had becomemore con- sciousof race discriminationon the part of the Caucasians.After theirbrief sojourn in the Norththey tended to reinterpretwith sinisterimplications incidents of race contactin the South. They beganto realizethat lynchings and theindignities of theJim Crow systemwere perpetrated by Caucasianswho worshipedthe same God as theydid and worshipedHim in thesame way. In manyof its partsthe SecretRitual of the cult reflectsthe arousedfeelings withwhich these Negroes returned from their visits to the South. "Me and my peoplewho have been lost fromhome for 379 years havetried this so-called mystery God for bread, clothing and a home. And we receivenothing but hardtimes, hunger, naked and out of doors.Also was beat and killedbv the ones that advocatedthat kindof God."" The illiteracyof the southern Negroes now seemed due to Cauca- sian "tricknollogy."I2"Why does the devilkeep our peopleilliter- ate? So thathe can use themfor a tool and also a slave. He keeps themblind to themselvesso thathe can masterthem."I3 Awakenedalready to a consciousnessof race discrimination, these migrantsfrom the South came into contactwith militant move- mentsamong northern Negroes. Practically none of them had been in theNorth prior to thecollapse of the movement. A fewof them had comeunder the influence of the Moorish-Ameri- can cult whichsucceeded it. The effectof both thesemovements uponthe future members of the Nation of Islam was largelyindirect. Garveytaught the Negroes that their homeland was Ethiopia.The NobleDrew Ali, the prophet of the Moorish-Americans, proclaimed that thesepeople were "descendants of Morrocans."I4 The newer migrantsentered a socialmilieu in whichthe atmospherewas filled

I W. P. Fard, SecretRitual ofthe Nation of Islam, Part II, sec. i i. This has been pre- served as an oral tradition,memorized verbatim by the pupils at the Universityof Islam. Only a fewmanuscript copies are extant. 12 A cult termpronounced "trickenollogy." I3 Fard, SecretRitual, Part I, sec. 6. I4 KoranQuestions for Moorish Americans (, I928), p. i, quest.I4.

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withquestions about the originof theirpeople. Long beforetheir newprophet appeared among them they were wondering who they wereand whencethey had come. The migrantsdid not findlife in the Northas pleasantas they had expectedit to be, whenfirst they came to the "land of hope," as theNorth was knownin Negropoetry and song. The depression deprivedthem of theirmeans of livelihood, and theysuffered their firstexperience of urbandestitution. Though public relief came to theirrescue, the attitudesshown by the welfareagents increased theirhatred of the Caucasiancivilization. Forced to standwaiting forhours to receivetheir dole, thesepeople began to believethat racediscrimination was evidentin theNorth as wellas in theSouth. The welfareworkers-including those even of theirown race-be- camesymbolic of all thatthese people hated. An Asiatictrend among Negro dole recipientsof the Elmwood district, noted at the time as a passing whim,to-day came back withhorror to two women welfareworkers on learningthat the fanatical Robert Harris had intendedthem forhuman sacrificesas infidels. . . Harris stated to the police that each of thesewas a "no good Christian,"and thatthey would have been sacrificedif he knewwhere he could have foundthem.'5 A furtherdisillusionment came fromtheir own physical discom- fortresulting from life in crowdedquarters in a northerncity. Un- accustomedto theclimate of the North, and especiallyto its winters, thesepeople soon developed many bodily ailments. Their condition is describedby theProphet Fard in his teaching: He had fever,headaches, chills, grippe, hay fever,regular fever, rheumatism, also pains in all joints. He was disturbedwith foot ailmentand toothaches. His pulse beat more than eighty-eighttimes per minute: thereforehe goes to the doctorevery day and gets medicinefor every day in the year: one after each meal and threetimes a day, also one at bedtime.'6 The migrantsrealized that theysuffered much morephysical pain than theyhad in theirold homes.They connectedthis suffering withthe civilization of the white man to whosecities they had come. Even beforethey met the prophet,they had begunto blame the Caucasianfor their aches and pains.

5 DetroitTimes, November 22, I932. i6 Teachingfor the Lost Found Nation of Islam in a MathematicalWay, Problem No. 6.

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THE ORGANIZED CULT Maladjustedmigrant Negroes came into contact with the prophet at the informalmeetings in theirown homes.With the changeto templeservices the movement took on a moreformal character. The teachingbecame systematized.Membership was recognizedand "registered."The movementitself became organized in a hierarchi- cal manner. The prophet'smessage was characterizedby his abilityto utilize to thefullest measure the environment of hisfollowers. Their physi- cal and economicdifficulties alike wereused to illustratethe new teaching.Similarly, biblical prophecies and theteaching of Marcus Garveyand Noble Drew Ali werecited as foretellingthe coming of the newprophet. As additionalproofs of his message,the prophet referredhis followersto the writingsof JudgeRutherford, of Je- hovah'sWitnesses, to a miscellaneouscollection of bookson Free- masonryand its symbolism,and to somewell-known works, such as Breasted'sConquest of Civilizationand Hendrikvan Loon's Story of Mankind. Sincemany of thesepeople were illiterate, it became necessaryto organizeclasses in Englishso thatthey might be able to read "the proofsabout themselves."They werealso instructed to purchaseradios in orderthat they might listen to the addresses of JudgeRutherford, Frank Norris,the Baptist fundamentalist, and others.The prophetexplained to the people that the recom- mendedbooks and addresseswere symbolic and couldbe understood onlythrough the interpretation which he himselfwould give at the templeservices. The Koranitself was soon introducedas themost authoritativeof all textsfor the study of the new faith. The prophet, however,used only the Arabic textwhich he translatedand ex- plainedto thebelievers. Here too theywere completely dependent uponhis interpretation. To give moresystematic character to his teaching,the prophet himselfprepared certain texts which served as authoritativemanuals of the religionand werememorized verbatim by all who became membersof theNation of Islam. The prophet'steaching was in substanceas follows: The black men in NorthAmerica are not Negroes,but membersof the lost tribeof Shebazz, stolen by tradersfrom the Holy City of Mecca 379 years ago.

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The prophetcame to Americato findand to bringback to lifehis long lost brethren,from whom the Caucasians had taken away theirlanguage, their nation and theirreligion. Here in Americathey were living other than them- selves. They mustlearn that they are the original-people,noblest of the nations of the earth. The Caucasians are the coloredpeople, since theyhave lost their originalcolor. The originalpeople must regaintheir religion, which is Islam, theirlanguage, which is Arabic,and theirculture, which is astronomyand higher mathematics,especially calculus. They must live according to the law of Allah,avoiding all meat of "poison animals,"hogs, ducks, geese, 'possums and catfish.They mustgive up completelythe use of stimulants,especially liquor. They mustclean themselvesup-both theirbodies and theirhouses. If in this way theyobeyed Allah, he would take themback to the Paradise fromwhich theyhad been stolen-the Holy Cityof Mecca.'7 Thosewho acceptedthis teaching became new men and women, or, as theprophet expressed it, wererestored to theiroriginal and trueselves. As a markof thisrestoration the prophetgave them back theiroriginal names whichthe Caucasianshad takenfrom them.Since a sumof money-usually ten dollars-was requiredto securethe original name, this work must have been extremely profit- able to theprophet. Each newbeliever wrote a separateletter asking forhis originalname, which the prophetwas supposedto know throughthe Spiritof Allah withinhim. Examplesof the changed namesare: JosephShepard became Jam Sharrieff LindseyGarrett became Hazziez Allah HenryWells becameAnwar Pasha WilliamBlunt became SharrieffAllah. Apparentmistakes sometimes occurred when three or morebrothers appliedfor new names,neglecting to mentionin theirletters that theywere blood brothers. Thus, despite his omniscience, the prophet once gave the surnamesof Sharrieff,Karriem, and Mohammedto the threePoole brothers.The prophetexplained this seeming mis- takeas due to his divineknowledge of thedifferent paternity of the threebrothers.

'7 Compiledfrom the threetexts issued by theprophet: Teachingforthe Lost Found Nation of Islam in a MathematicalWay, consistingof 34 problems.This text was printed,but given only to registeredMoslems. SecretRitual of the Nation of Islam, Part I, in I4 secs.; ibid., Part II, in 40 secs. The SecretRitual was, and still is, transmittedorally. The entireteaching is sym- bolic and can be understoodonly by the initiates.

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The peoplewho secured the new names value themas theirgreat- est treasure."I wouldn'tgive up my righteousname. That name is mylife."'8 They became so ashamedof their old slavenames that theyconsidered that they could suffer no greaterinsult than to be addressedby theold name. Theysought to livein conformitywith theLaw of Islam as revealedto themby theprophet, so thatthey mightbe worthyof theiroriginal names. Gluttony,drunkenness, idleness,and extra-maritalsex relations,except with ministers of Islam, wereprohibited completely. They bathed at least once a day and kept theirhouses scrupulously clean, so that theymight put awayall marksof theslavery from which the restoration of the originalname had set themfree. The rapidincrease in membershipmade necessarythe develop- mentof a formalorganization. Subsidiary organizations had been establishedas theneed for them arose. Chiefof thesewas theUni- versityof Islam to whichthe childrenof Moslemfamilies were sentrather than to thepublic schools. Here theywere taught the "knowledgeof our own," rather than the "civilization of the Cauca- sian devils." Courseswere given in "highermathematics," astrono- my,and the "generalknowledge and endingof the spookciviliza- tion." That womenmight keep theirhouses clean and cook food properly,there was establishedthe Moslem Girls' Training and Gen- eral CivilizationClass. Fear of troublewith the unbelievers,espe- ciallywith the police, led to the foundingof the Fruitof Islam- a militaryorganization for the men who weredrilled by captains and taughttactics and theuse offirearms. Each of theseorganiza- tionswas underthe controlof a groupof officerstrained specially by the prophetfor their task. Finally the entiremovement was placedunder a Ministerof Islam and a corpsof assistantministers, all ofwhom had beenselected and trainedby theprophet. Within threeyears the prophet not only began the movement but organized it so well thathe himselfwas able to recedeinto the background, appearingalmost never to his followersduring the final months of hisresidence in Detroit.This was undoubtedlyan importantfactor in thecult's survival after the prophet's departure. 18Mrs. William McCoy, renamed Sister Rosa Karriem.

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SCHISMS AND PERSECUTIONS Inherentapparently in theprophet's message were certain teach- ingswhich, from the very beginning of the movement, led to withinthe membership of the cult and to persecutionfrom without. The prophetproclaimed that his followers did not belong to Amer- ica. They werecitizens of the Holy Cityof Mecca and theironly allegiancewas to the Moslemflag. Their children must be removed fromthe public schoolsand sent to the Universityof Islam. In revoltagainst this position, Abdul Mohammed, one of thefirst offi- cersin thetemple, seceded and organizeda smallMoslem group of hisown in whichthe cardinal principle was loyaltyto theConstitu- tionof the UnitedStates and to its flag.The attendanceofficers of the Board of Educationand the police attemptedto breakup theUniversity of Islam and to compelthe children to returnto the publicschools. This led to a severeriot in whichthe members of the cult triedto stormthe policeheadquarters. Fearful of race riots, thejudges of therecorder's court released with suspended sentence almostall of the rioters.Since that timethe Universityof Islam has continuedits classes. Moreserious difficulties arose over the question of humansacri- fice.The prophet'sposition on thisquestion was nevermade clear. He taughtexplicitly that it was theduty of everyMoslem to offer as sacrificefour Caucasian devils in orderthat he mightreturn to his homein Mecca.I9The prophetalso taughtthat Allah demands obedienceunto death fromhis followers.No Moslemdare refuse the sacrificeof himselfor of his lovedones if Allah requires it. On November2I, I932, thepeople of Detroitbecame conscious of the presenceof thecult through its firstwidely publicized human sacri- fice.A prominentmember, Robert Harris, renamed Robert Kar- riem,erected an altarin hishome at I249 Dubois Streetand invited his roomer,John J. Smith,to presenthimself as a humansacrifice, so thathe mightbecome, as Harrissaid, "the Saviourof the world." Smithagreed, and at the hour appointedfor the sacrifice-9:oo A.M.-Harrisplunged a knifeinto Smith's heart. After constant re- currencesof rumorsof humansacrifice or attemptedsacrifice, on January20, IQ37, VerleneMcQueen, renamed Verlene Ali, brother

'9 Fard, SecretRitital, Part I, sec. IO.

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of one of the assistantministers, was arrestedas he preparedfor the ceremonialslaying and cookingof his wifeand daughter.This sacrificewas, as he said, to have "cleansedhim from all sin." These cases of humansacrifice have directedto the cult much attentionfrom the Police Departmentso that the cult has been forcedto pursuemany of its activitiesin secret.The questionof sacrificehas led also to seriousinternal clashes. "Rebels against the Willof Allah," as theyare called, have left the Temple and organized anotherTemple of Islam, desiring to remainwithin the framework of the cultbut to avoid humansacrifice, the necessity of whichas an expiationof sin forms one ofthe most hotly debated subjects amnong thecult members. Persecutionsand schismsalike have tendedto increasethe cul- tural isolationof the membersof this group. The effectof the schismswas selective,leaving within the parent organization those whowere bound together by commonattitudes and commonloyal- ties. Attacksmade on thecult by thePolice Department have been instigatedusually by theleaders of Negro organizations. These per- secutionshave led naturallyto a greatersolidarity among the -cult membersand to a constantlyincreasing isolation of the Moslems fromthe other residents of theDetroit Negro community.

EFFORTS TO EXPLOIT THE MOVEMENT The solidarityand culturalisolation of the Moslemshave ren- deredineffectual the variousattempts made by interestedparties to redirectthe activitiesof the cult in orderto furthertheir own particularpurposes. The firstof these efforts was madeby theCom- munistsin I932, but thecult members rebuffed their appeal. Then came Major Takahashi,a reserveJapanese officer, who soughtto lead the Moslemsto swearallegiance to the Mikado. Onlya small minorityof themembers followed him into the newmovement he organized-The Developmentof Our Own. With hisdeportation, thisschmismatic movement came to nought.An Ethiopian,Wyx- zewixardS. J. Challouehliczilczese,sought in June,I934, to re- organizethe movement as a meansof sendingfinancial support to Ethiopia.This too, was unsuccessful.At presentthe membersof thecult have comeunder the influence of certainanti-Union inter-

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ests and talk violentlyof thewar of the C.I.O. againstAllah, and the need of removingfrom the PlanetEarth all Unionorganizers. Whilethis trend seems very pronounced at present,it is unlikely to leave any permanentimpression upon the movement,and still less likelyto detachfrom the Nation of Islam any of its members.

ADJUSTMENTS OF CULT MEMBERS IN THE URBAN ECONOMY At thetime of their first contact with the prophet, practically all the membersof the cult wererecipients of publicwelfare, unem- ployed,and livingin the mostdeteriorated areas of Negrosettle- mentin Detroit.At thepresent time20 there is no knowncase ofun- employmentamong these people. Practicallyall of themare work- ing in the automobileand otherfactories. They live no longerin the slumsection around Hastings Street, but renthomes in some of the best economicareas in whichNegroes have settled.They tendto purchasemore expensive furniture, automobiles, and clothes thando theirneighbors even in theseareas of higher-class residence. Thisimproved economic adjustment is due,doubtless, partly to post- depressionconditions of employmentand to the increasedhiring ofNegroes as a resultof recent labor troubles. The membersof the cult,however, claim that they have securedwork much more easily thanhave otherNegroes. They offerthanks to Allah forthis evi- denceof his favor.To someextent their claim appears to be justi- fied,though no statisticalstudy has yetbeen madeof comparative unemploymentof cultmembers and otherrecent Negro migrants. Throughthe Nation of Islam theyhave gaineda newstatus and a new confidencein themselves.When theymeet Caucasians,they rejoicein theknowledge that they themselves are superiorsmeeting membersof an inferiorrace. Employmentmanagers tend to accept morereadily persons whose appearance gives evidence of cleanliv- ingand self-reliance,than those who show the marks of debauchery, defeat,and despair. The asceticmanner of life of the Moslems also has contributedto theireconomic improvement. No moneywhatever is spentby them on liquor,tobacco, or pork. Theirone meal of the day consistsal-

20 Writtenin August,I937.

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mostentirely of vegetables and fruits.Consequently their expendi- tureon foodis significantlysmaller than is that of otherNegroes in Detroit.This economyin consumption,however, is notextended to visiblemarks of status, such as houses,automobiles, and clothes. The prophettaught them that they are the descendantsof nobles in theHoly Cityof Mecca. To showtheir escape from slavery and theirrestoration to theiroriginal high status, they feel obliged to livein goodhouses and to weargood clothes. Despite their expendi- tureon theseitems, members of the cult constantlydeclare that theyare ashamedthat they have not been able to purchasebetter commoditiesor to rentfiner homes. "This furnitureis thebest we couldafford to buyhere in thewilderness of North America, where we have to live otherthan ourselves. When we go hometo Mecca, we willbe able to get reallygood furniture,just like all ourpeople wholive thereuse."

RELATION TO OTHER NEGRO The storyof the Nation of Islam cannot be consideredas complete in itself.Militant and cultistmovements among migrant Negroes in the citiesof the Northhave formeda sort of tree.After one branchhas grown,flourished, and begunto decay,another shoots up to beginover again the same cycle,though always with an in- creasingdegree of race-consciousnessand anti-Caucasianprejudice. Out of thewreck of theMarcus Garvey movement, there sprang Phoenix-likethe Moorish-Americancult of whichthe prophetwas Noble Drew Ali. Afterthis prophet's disappearance and the stabi- lizationof the movementas a formallyorganized denomination, theresprang up the Nationof Islam. Althoughthe culturalisola- tionof themembers of thiscult has not declinedduring the three yearsof theirprophet's absence, there are manyevidences of the loss ofmilitant aggressiveness which once characterizedthis group. The organizationalso is tendingto becomemore amorphous. From amongthe largergroup of Moslemsthere has sprungrecently an even moremilitant branch than the Nation of Islam itself.This newmovement, known as theTemple People, identifies the prophet, Mr. W. D. Fard, withthe god Allah. To Mr. Fard alone do they offerprayer and sacrifice.Since Mr. Fard has been deified,the

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TemplePeople raiseto the rankof prophet the former Minister of Islam,Rlijah Mohammed,2' now a residentof Chicago. He is always referredto reverentlyas the"Prophet Elijah in Chicago."A former assistantof his, the Haitian TheodoreRozier,22 has becomethe ministerand directorof thenew movement. Thus continuesthe chain of these movements,each running throughits cycleof growthand decayand all of theminterwoven as strandsof a web. Fundamentalto themall is theeffort of migrant Negroesto securea status satisfactoryto themselvesafter their escape fromthe old southernaccommodation of whiteand Negro.

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

21 His slave name was Elijah Poole. The prophet conferredon him the name of "Elijah Karriem." The Temple People claim that Mr. W. D. Fard himselfchanged this name later to "Elijah Mohammed" to indicatethe higherstatus to whichthe minister was called. Moslems opposed to the Temple People denythis and continueto speak of "BrotherElijah Karriem." 22 One of the newerconverts, Brother Theodore Rozier, admits that he never saw the "Savior," Mr. W. D. Fard, and that he learnedof Islam solelythrough his contact withthe "ProphetElijah Mohammed." Opponentsof the Temple People contendthat BrotherTheodore Rozier is not qualifiedto be ministerof Islam since he receivedthe revelation"second-hand."

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