Late Neolithic Occupation Near Bornwird (Province of Friesland)

Home , Bornwird, Lichtaard, Oostrum, Westergeest, West Friesland (region)

LATE NEOLITHIC OCCUPATION NEAR BORNWIRD (PROVINCE OF FRIESLAND)

H. Fokkens*

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

2. GEOLOGY AND PALAEOGEOGRAPHY 2. I. Geology 2.2. Palaeogeography

3. THE EXCAVATION 3.1. Location, excavation method and stratigraphy 3.2. Features 3.2.1. Plo ughmarks 3.2.2. Crop remains 3.2.3. Ot her fe atures 3.3. The finds 3.3.1. Stone 3.3.2. Axes 3.3.3. Fl int 3.3.4. POl/ery: technology 3.3.5. POl/ery: typology

4. IN TE RPRETATION 4.I. The site in its setting 4.2. Concluding remarks

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

6. NOTES

7. REFERENCES

*Instituut voor Prehistorie, Postbus 9515, 2300 RA Leiden

91 92 H. FOKKENS

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Fig. I. Location of the site.

I. INTR ODUCTION The complex was dated -mainly on the basis of the coarsely tempered potsherds-to During one of his reconnaissances in the field the Late Bronze Age (Elzinga, 1966). This (in the autumn of 1966), J.K. Boschker (field dating fitted in well with an observation made assistant attached to the Frisian Museum in by Van Giffen in 1910. During the levelling of Leeuwarden) found near Bornwird (fig. I) a the telp of Bornwird, Van Giffen discovered a small stone axe, some crudely worked flint few urns that must have come from the sandy artefacts and a few potsherds. The finds were subsoil of the terp (Van Giffen, 1920). It was made in upturned soil alongside the planned notably the discovery of the ploughland that route of the new Holwerd-Dokkum road that made this complex a unique find for the was then under construction. In the course of Netherlands, for here we had the oldest traces sinking a trench for the road a sand-outcrop of prehistoric agriculture this far north. It was appeared, from which the artefacts originated. decided to carry out an excavation, that took During a closer reconnaissance by members place in the autumn of the following year of the Biologisch-Archaeologisch Instituut (Sep.'4th -Oct. 4th, 1967). The excavation was (B.A.!.) in Groningen it became evident, carried out by labourers under the supervision moreover, that in the surface of the sand of H. Praamstra and K. Klaassens, under the traces of prehistoric ploughland were visible. direction of G. Elzinga and H.T. Waterbolk. Late Neolithic occupa"tion near Bornwird 93

The excavation provided a great deal of new information. The most noteworthy was the fact that the complex could, on the basis of the decorated pottery, now be dated in the Late Neolithic. Later this relative dating was .confirmed by a Cl4-dating of peat that over lay the old ploughland (GrN -5295: 3930±50 B. P., Vogel & Waterbolk, 1972). After 1967 Bornwird was regularly men tioned by various authors. The traces of inhabitation were attributed to different archaeological cultures I in turn. Elzinga (1967), Waterbolk (1967; 1968) and Van Zeist (1970) ascribed the ploughland and the finds to the PFB (Protruding foot beaker) culture. In addition Louwe Kooijmans (1974), Lanting Fig. 2. The Fries-Drents boulder-clay area indicating a and Mook (1977) and Waterbolk (1977) few important valleys of Pleistocene origin in N. E. mentioned elements of the VL (Vlaardingen) Friesland (based on Griede, 1978). I. valley of the river culture. During a visit to the excavation in Zwemmer; 2. valley of the river Oude Ried; 3. valley of 1967 Bakker (pers. comm.) identified a few the river Kromme Ee; 4. valley east of Birdaard; 5. valley sherds as originating from the LHV (Late near Dokkum. Havelte) phase of the TRB (Trechterbeker= Funnel beaker) culture. When questioned, the different authors avowed that they had based their statements (i.e. concerning cultural Moreover, under the influence of glacial affinity) on their own observations of the and/ or fluviatile processes there originated a 'show pieces' (pottery) or on oral and pub northwest-southeast oriented valley that lished communications by other authors. penetrated the boulder-clay area between The present article can be regarded as a Rinsumageest and Oenkerk as far as the definitive report of the 1967 excavation, and Hardegarijp-Veenwouden line (Griede, 1978: as such can serve as a basis for discussion and fig. 2). companson. The developments since the Holocene are characterized by the grad ual rise in sea level in a succession of transgressive and regressive 2. GEOLOGY AND periods.) Initially the influence of the sea was PALAEOGEOGRAPHY only noticeable on the northeast side of the boulder-clay plateau, where the water was able to penetrate via the primary valleys. As a 2. 1. Geology result of this the cover-sand area acquired, From a geological viewpoint Northeast especially in the north, a markedly dissected Friesland forms part of the Fries-Drents character. On the west side the coastline boulder-clay plateau, of which it is an remained fairly stationary for a long time, and extension in a northwestern direction.2 The the sea penetrated only into the valley of the plateau is intersected by a large number of Boorne (Griede, 1978). This applies notably to streams that drain on the east side into the the developments that occurred during the ancient valley of the Hunze, in the southwest Atlantic and the first part of the Subboreal. into the ancient valley of the Vecht and in the About 4000 Cl4-years B.P. there occurred a west into the Boorne depression. During the great expansion of peat growth in the Eemian and Weichselian these streams often Holland IVa and IVb regression periods, only cut deep into the boulder clay and formed so temporarily interrupted by the Calais IVb called primary valleys (Zagwijn & Van transgression period. There then followed Staalduinen, 1975). In the northern part these from ±3400 C14-years B.P. (Griede, 1978) the were the valley of the river Oude Ried, the Dunkerque transgression periods that deter river Zwemmer, a deep valley near Dokkum mined the. present-day extent of the clay and the valley of the Kromme Ee river. region. 94 H. FOKKENS

The actual situation that was consolidated Lichtaard). To the west there are a number when people first started to build dikes, of larger sand 'islands' that are separated presents in Northeast Friesland the picture of from the 'mainland' by the valley between an extensive region of clay. Cover-sand is Rinsumageest and Oenkerk that is filled up present at the surface to the south of the with peat and clay. line between Rinsumageest and Westergeest. To the north of this line there are only a 2.2. Palaeogeography few sand hillocks that protrude above the clay (Bornwird, Wanswerd , Oostrum and The previously mentioned C 14-dating (3930

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TIDAL FLAT . PEAT ZONE · RELATIVELY WE T SAND AREA (,,; 2+ NAP. I ...::,:,:, .... · RELATIVELY DRY SAND AREA ('" 2+ NAP.I �EH/H L,.,,:/:: . : :,J 1 ::./ · :'···1 c=J Fig. 3. Palaeogeographic reconstruction of Northeast Friesla nd ±4300 Cl4-year B.P. (after Griede, 1978). Late Neolithic occupation near Bornwird 95

±50 B.P.) of peat that covered the plough a vegetation of phragmites fen-peat and along land provides a terminus ante quem for the edges by fenwood-peat. The marshy belt permanent occupation in the region around may have been up to l km wide (fig. 3). Owing Bornwird . From a chronostratigraphical view to the presence of this valley the site in fact lay point this peat belongs to the Holland IV A on a peninsula ; at the same time the valley regression period that lasted in this region provided effective drainage of the area. from 4150-3900 C 14-years B. P. (Griede, 1978). The increasing wetness of the region meant that agriculture and stockbreed 3. THE EXCAVATION ing were no longer possible, and conse-. quently permanent inhabitation probably 3. 1. Location, excavation method and came to an end . Thus it is possible to limit stratigraphy the palaeogeographical description to the period from ±4400, when PFB pottery first When the excavation started in 1967, the new made its appearance (Bakker & Van der Holwerd-Dokkum road had already been Waals, 1973), until 4100 Cl4-years B. P. (fig. completed . The excavation trench (57X7 m) 3). was therefore planned to the east of the road The site then was situated in the north and parallel to it (fig. 1). With the aid of a ernmost part of the cover-sand region hydraulic crane the overlying clay layer of that had not yet been overgrown by peat. about one metre thickness was removed. In Towards the north, the west and the east the the southern part of the trench the sandy coastal zone was nowhere further away than 5 subsoil was reached in this way, in the north km. Especially on the west side an extensive however the sand was still covered by a layer coastal peat bog formed a buffer zone between of peat. This peat was dug away by hand. The the region of tidal flats and the mainland, horizontal surface was drawn at two levels, while in the north and east this belt was not so with the ploughmarks being visible only at the wide (fig. 3). Where the sea penetrated the first level. Of the profiles only the eastern face pea t-bog, a shallow, brackish, lagoon-like of the trench was drawn. A number of soil environment predominated, that towards the samples were taken for the purposes of sea underwent a transition into a tidal flat palaeobotanical investigation (Van Zeist, region (Griede, 1978). In the period under 1970), as well as a sample for Cl4-dating discussion, during the Calais IVA trans (Vogel & Waterbolk, 1972). The finds were gression period (4300-4150 Cl 4-years B.P.) collected by sieving the topmost layer of sand the sea eroded the peat-bog zone es (AI-horizon, see below) that had been pecially in the west (Griede, 1978). The removed manually. These finds were not influence of the sea would have been mainly localized. Also during the process of shovel noticeable, however, by the increasingly wet cleaning the horizontal surface some finds state of the region as a result of the rising were made, but the precise location of these ground-water table. Various sea-level curves was not recorded either. Hence it is not (Louwe Kooijmans, 1974; Roeleveld, 1974) possible to make any statements about the show that the level of MHW (mean high distribution of the finds, nor about the layer in water) in the period under discusIJion rose which they were found. from ±3.5 to 2. 5 m below datum level Only in the extreme southeast of the trench (N.A.P.). As a large part of the region around (fig. 4: C) the sand was not covered by peat. To Bornwird lies at this level, the influence of the the north a layer of allochthonous peat is rising ground-water table must have been present that gradually undergoes a transition clearly noticeable. Especially in the lower .into an increasingly thicker peat complex. At lying areas the oligotrophic peat that was the extreme north end of the trench the peat is already present there will have greatly 50 cm thick (fig. 4: B) ; there it lies between 110 expanded. The higher sand region we can and. 160 cm below datum level. Both in the envisage as covered by a vegetation of horizontal level and in the profile a few large predominantly tall trees, i.a. oaks and elms tree stumps are visible that characterize the (Cleveringa, 1978). About 1.5 km south of the peat as fenwood-peat (W.A. Casparie, pers . site lay the primary valley that extends inland comm.). from Dokkum. It must have been covered by On top of the peat (in the south on top of 96 H. FOKKENS

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disturbed peat peat with wood fragments} prehistoric plough SOil �2 podsoUc profile C

Fig. 4. Representative parts of the eastern profile of the excavation trench. For location see fig. 5: A.

the sand) we find a covering layer of clay the slope the B-horizon was much softer than about 100 cm thick. Lithostratigraphically in the highest part, where it had developed two layers can be distinguished within this into a hard layer (Bornwird excavation fi eld clay. The lower layer was sedimented on top notes). In the northwestern part the leached of the peat following erosion of the peat sand was almost absent (fig. 4: A). surface; in the clay, which showed sandy laminations, lumps of peat are included. On 3.2. Features top of this a greenish clay was deposited which shows features indicative of extreme 3.2. 1. Ploughmarks desiccation while here and there patches of rust coloration can be observed. On account Apart from a few post-holes and pits (see of the desiccation the boundary with the below), the features mainly consisted of underlying clay layer is sharply defined, but is ploughmarks. In a Neolithic context we mean not erosive. The lower layer can probably be by ploughmarks the marks made by an ard. identified as the 'sandy layer', and the clay The ard, which can be regarded as a lying on top of it as the 'knip layer' (Griede, predecessor of the plough proper, does not 1978; dating 2500-2000 and from 1650 C 14- turn the earth , but merely makes a furrow in years B.P., respectively). Both clay layers have the soil surface (Rees, 1979). a thickness of 35-40 cm. The top of the. Ploughmarks made by ards show a num uppermost layer (approximately present day ber of characteristic features: (I) a fa irly ground surface level) varies in height fr om 10 consistent distance between adjacent furrows cm above datum level in the southeast to 20 of 30-40 cm (Kjaerum, 1954; Fowler & Evans, cm below datum level in the northwest. The 1967; Rees, 1979), (2) a relatively great furrow difference in height of the covering clay layer length (as compared to the plough proper) is of course connected with the topography of (fowler & Evans, 1967), and (3) evidence of the underlying surface of sand and of the peat cross-ploughing, i.e. the occurrence of plough that developed over this. The sand surface marks crossing one another at right angles. level drops even more, namely fr om 80- The distance of 30-40 cm between two ISO cm below N.A.P. (from southeast to fu rrows is also the average fo r Bornwird (fig. northwest) . 5: D). Experimental research has shown that In the top of the sand a podsol profile this is the minimum distance necessary to . has developed with a distinct A I -horizon prevent the ard from slipping back into the (topsoil), A2-horizon (leached sand) and B2- previbusly made furrow (Rees, 1979; P. horizon (iron pan). The ploughmarks were Reynolds, pers. comm.). The length of the visible at the transition fr om topsoil to furrows in Bornwird is difficult to determine. leached sand (fig. 4: B). In the lower parts of The longest furrow measures' 8.5 m, but this Late Neolithic occupation near Bornwird 97

was interrupted by the vertical face of the 0°/360° 348° N 12° trench . Fowler and Evans (1967) found a @ @ maximum length of 14 m for Neolithic 42° ploughmarks. CD Also the third characteristic feature of ard marks, namely the occurrence of ploughmarks crossing one another at right angles, has been ascertained in the ploughland of Bornwird. The survey of all ploughmarks (fig. 5: A) shows that a number of directions occur W------��------E repeatedly (with or without a corresponding 1000 ploughmark at right angles). A total number @ of four different main directions could be distingUIshed (fig. 5: B-E). The relative age of the different phases was determined by the anaJysis of intersections and interruptions of the ploughmarks that had been drawn very accurately by H. Praamstra . It is assumed that when the marks running in one particular s

main direction break off at the point where Fig. 6. Compass-card showing the (estimated) means they are crossed by furrows running in of the 4 main directi ons of ploughmarks. another main direct ion, the latter plough marks are the younger ones. The analysis provides the following pictu re (fig. 5: B-E and 6). Direction I is concentrated the Late Neolithic. Since the work of Iversen in the northwesternpar t of the excavated area many authors have assumed that in the and is only fragmentarily present. For this Neolithic and later slash-and-burn agri reason ploughmarks belonging to this direc culture was practised. Ethnological parallels tion have not have extricated separately . from tropical rain-forest situations are often The average compass direction is 42° and cited by way of comparison (i.a. Harris, 138° respectively (fig. 6) . Direction 2 can 1972). Recently however dou bts have increas clearly be-seen in the northern and central part ingly been raised as to how far this anal of the trench (fig. 5: B). In the southeastern ogy is directly applicable in the temperate part of the trench, however, this system has climate of Western Europe (i.a. Rowely largely been overploughed in later phases . Conwy, 198 1). Certainly on clay and loess Direction 3 can only be distinguished in the soils annual burning would not have been southeastern part of the surface-area (fig. 5: necessary and the fields could have been C) . No corresponding ploughmarks at right cultivated for a fairly long period without angles could be discovered . It must therefore interruption (Bakels, 1978). The actual pres be assumed that during this cultivation phase ence of ploughmarks is regarded by Rowley cross-plough ing was not applied. Direction Conwy (1981) as a confirmation of this 4 represents the youngest phase. The proposal: when after 3-5 years of cultiva ploughmarks of this system are the most tion fields lie fallow for 10-15 years, the abundant and at the same time the most ground becomes penetrated by roots to such complete. As a result of this it was possible, an extent that a plough cannot break up the on the assumption of an average distance soil. If cultivation is continued over a long between furrows of 30 cm, to extricate the period, however, then ploughing is indeed system of one phase of activity (fig. 5: D). Th is useful. has only been done for the southernmost 20 m Experiments with replicas of prehistoric of the trench where the ploughmarks were ards certainly make it clear that the ard has clearest. Fig . 5: E shows what remains after hardly any turning action and can probably the traces of direction 4 have been extricated. rather be classified as an instrument for For an interpretation of the ploughmarks in making seed drills (Rees, 1979; Reynolds, Bornwird it is necessary to ascertain the 198 1). Good arguments for this are the small, probable type of agriculture practised during regular inter-furrow distance, the fact that the

-- 98 H. FOKKENS direction often remains constant for a long kept under cultivation still remains difficult to time, and the fact that the ploughmarks are estimate. On the (poor) sandy soils of distinct-in contrast to the 'self-cancelling northern Friesland permanent cultivation ploughmarks' (Reynolds, 198 1). Moreover without manuring is out of the question. experimental research has shown that sowing Although continual cultivation for 1-3 years in seed drills produces the maximum yield (Welinder, 1975; Harris, 1972) is probably too (Reynolds, 198 1; Steensberg, 1979). For the low an estimate, uninterrupted cultivation for pl�ughland investigated at Bornwird I will longer than 5-10 years would not have been assume that a form of shifting cultivation took possible. For the intermediate period one place, with the plough-furrows largely func-· should think in terms of a fallow period of tioning as seed dr ills. 10-15 years (bush fallow). With such a system The length of time during which a field is the working of the soil after a fallow period is

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Fig. 7. Two intersecting pits in the northern part of the excavation trench, drawn at different levels (fig. 7: 1-4); constructed cross sections of the same pits (fig. 7: 5, 6). Late Neolithic occupation near Bornwird 99 relatively easy and therefore attractive (Conklin, 1969). The straightness of the plough-furrows supports this presumption. On the basis of these figures, and assuming that the different main directions of the " ploughmarks represent four phases of conti nuous cult iv.ation,. the total duration of use of this land can be estimated at 70-95 years. However, a number of alternative estimates can be defended as well.

Fig. 8. Post-holes and pits in the northern part of the 3.2.2. Crop remains excavation trench. Van Zeist (1970) analyzed one sample from the topsoil (±0.5 m3) and found in it 13 grains of naked barley (Hordeum vulgare var. nudum). Van Zeisfs study shows that this was data it is not possible to interpret this the kind of grain that was cultivated most in configuration as some kind of construction. the late Neolithic. Also Triticum dicoccum The three post-holes and the two larger pits (emmer) and Triticum aestivum (club wheat) (fig. 8) are all older than the ploughland. were known, but these were not found in Bornwird (Van Zeist, 1970). The fact that the 3.3. The finds grains were carbonized could be the result of burning the field after harvesting or before 3.3.1. Stone sow ing. In the same sample two carbonized hazelnut shells were found (Corylus avellana) The finds consist of worked or unworked (Van Zeist, 1970). stone and flint, as well as potsherds. The excavation provided 21.7 kg of stone material. Only a small proportion (in total 10 3.2.3. Other features specimens, 2. I kg) shows signs of use. With Under the cultivation level a small number of regard to rock type three main groups can be pits and post-holes were found. Only one pit distinguished: granite (65%), sandstone (27%) could be recognized at the level on which and quartzite (8%). Granite and sandstone ploughmarks were visible (fig . 7). In the occur naturally on the boulder-clay plateau in horizontal surface drawings it is clearly the form of moraine material. Both are to be indicated that this pit was cut into by the found in the arable land near Bornwird. The ploughmarks (fig. 5: A). The feature was. greater part of the stone material that was excavated in successive layers, so a profile had collected during the excavation will therefore to be reconstructed on the basis of the four not have been brought to the spot by man. horizontal-surface drawings (fig. 7) . From this With the quartzites the situation is different. it is evident that in fact two pits are concerned These are always small rolled stones, here . The larger of the two, that is also older sometimes distinctly affected by vigorous (fig. 7: 1-3, 6) seems to be the result of a tree breakers action, like stones that one would having fallen down in a NE direction (Kooi, find along a coastline where cliffs are present 1974). The second pit (fig. 7: 1-5) has been (identification G.J. Boekschoten). In view of dug through the first, possibly with the aim of the fact that all the hammerstones (n=7) are removing a more deeply lying tree root. This rolled stones of this kind (fig. 9: d), it is activity could thus be connected with the reasonable to conclude that the stones were primary reclamation phase of the ploughland. specially brought from the coast. They will In the' NW part of the trench some patches have been used notably for the working of of discoloration were found, of which three flint. were evidently post-holes; no profile drawings The �ranite stones are almost all severely were made. Despite close investigation in the weathered and could therefore readily be periphery of the trench (fig. 8) no fourth post crushed into small pieces suitable for hole could be found. On the basis of these tempering pottery. The TRB pottery (see 100 H. FOKKENS

a b

- Fig. 9. Characteristic stone artifacts. a) fragment 6f a stohe axe; b) fragment of grindstone; c) large fragment of a flint axe; d) hammerstone. Scale I: I. .

below) has been tempered almost exclusively 3.3.2. Axes with weathered granite. Only in a small Two axe fragments came to light during the number of cases (only coarsely tempered excavation , while a third (complete) axe had potsherds) less weathered granite was used already been found in the course of the (red feldspars). first reconnaissance (f ig. I, mus . no . One piece of sandstone was used as a . FM 1966-IX-2) . Th is axe lay at a distance grindstone (fig. 9: b). The fragm nt s to � � ? of ±500 m from the excavation trench and small to permit any closer typological Identi strictly speaking it cannot be ascribed to the fication. Late Neolithic occupation near Bornwird 101 /'I :�

a b c I ' �d' _d' _� d e f

Fig. 10. Various artifacts. a) fragmen� of a clay disc; b-f) bottom fragments of pottery vessels; g) stone axe (FM 1966-IX-2). Scale I: I. 102 H. FOKKENS find complex from the excavation. For classification based on morphology has further discussion see 4.1.; the description mainly been used. On the basis of the shape follows below. of the used edge the following distinctive The axe (fig. 10: g) is made of gabbro, a categories have been established (between rock that occurs on the boulder-clay plateau brackets the presumed function): and that is to be found near the site I. Blades or flakes with convex retouch (identification G.J. Boekschoten). In the and/ or use retouch (scraping, cutting); typology of Brandt (1967) it is a Felsrecht 2. Blades, fiakes and blocks with a notch or eckbeil (type A2b). Th is type is consi concave retouch and/ or use retouch (pla dered by Brandt to be common in the ning, scraping). Neolithic, notably often associated with 3. Blades (and fiakes) with straight retouch Schnurkeramik (Brandt, 1967). It is regularly and/ or use retouch (cutting); found in a TRB context (Davidsen, 1 978). 4. Flakes (and blades) with a pointed Of the two axe fragments that were found projection that has been retouched and/ or during the excavation, one (fig. 9: c) probably shows use retouch (drilling); is part of a diinnblattige Flintrechteckbeil 5. Flakes and blades that have been (B randt, 1967; type 7b). The raw material retouched in such a way that a tool has been is coarse-g ra ined fiint, most probably made that is characterized according to having originated from terminal moraine established typologies as an arrow-head. (identificat ion D. Stapert). A conspicuous A conspicuous feature of the whole com feature is pronounced curvature of the sides plex is the small number of blades, in total towards the cutting edge, unusual for this not more than 10. Most of the specimens type. Regarding the typechronology the can be described as irregular fiakes and same remarks apply as for the Felsrecht blocks. Most of the artefacts appear to have eckbeil (Brandt , 1967; Davidson, 1978). been used for scraping and/ or planing The second fragment (fig. 9: a) consists of a activities (table I): categories I and 2 (used part of the fiat surface and side of an axe. The edge convex, concave or with notches) to fragment is too small to permit typological gether include 94% of the total number of classification of the axe of which it formed worked and/ or used artefacts. part. The rock type is diorite, that also occurs Characteristic for the complex is also the locally in the form of erratics. large number of artefacts that show only use retouch (i.a. fig. 11: g). In these cases the used 3. 3. 3. Flint The very large quantity of flint (33 kg) that was collected during the investigation can be Table 1. Flint; frequencies of the types, based on shape of the characterized as terminal-moraine fiint of used edges local origin. The complex includes many weathered specimens, stones showing wind Shape of the used edge Kind of retouch Inten- Use Both Total gloss and frost-split faces. Out of the total tional retouch number of fiints 32% still have all natural retouch surfaces; probably we are concerned here with Dint that occurred naturally in the Convex (edge partly used) 30 53 60 143 ploughland. Of the remaining proportion Convex (edge completely 16 16 32 used) (68%) of fiints that have been workedby man, With notches or concave 2 11 2 15 99% consists of waste material while only 1% / Straight 2 2 had been used or further worked (n=201 . With a used pointed 2 1 3 Twelve specimens had been in contact with projection fire. Combination of forms 4 4 In the analysis of the flint material a (functionally different) distinction has been made between intentional Arrowhead-shaped 1 (transversal) retouch and use retouch.6 Both forms of Arrowhead-shaped retouch can of course be present on one (leaf-shaped) specimen . In view of the fact that the complex 52 67 82 n=201 includes few typologically diagnostic tools, a Late Neolithic occupation near Bornwird 103

a b c d

h e f 9

m n o p

Fig. It. Characteristic flint artefacts (for explanation see teXt). Scale I: l. 104 H. FOKKENS edges evidently already had the right shape regard to chronological and cultural aspects, for the required function. Also retouched it is therefore not possible to consider the specimens give the impression that no complex without further preface as a homo exacting demands were made as tu the shape geneous entity. Moreover we must bear of the tool as such (fig. 11: a, d, h). Only an in mind that the composition of a flint occasional specimen has been carefully complex says more about the activities of the worked into an impressive-looking 'scraper' people who used it than about their 'cultural' (fig. 11: b, e, f). identity. With respect to the shape of the other tools the same remarks are applicable. Thus a block 3.3.4. Pottery: technology with a projection has been used as a drill after minimal retouching (fig. 11: 1). Also among From detailed examination of the pottery it the specimens with notches there are ir qecame evident that the 'show-piece finds', on regularly shaped flakes and blocks (fig. 11: j which a number of authors based their k). Fig. 11: m shows a frost-split specimen opinion (see under 1), were a small and with four projections, all of which show unrepresentative sample of the whole. Table 2 intensive use retouch, caused by a turning makes this clear. The show-collection con movement in a clockwise direction. sisted almost exclusively of decorated sherds Two artefacts were classified as arrowheads that had been tempered with sand. (fig. 11: n, 0). The one shown in fig. 11: n is Seeing that 97% of the pottery is un . generally described as a trapezoidal arrow decorated and represents hardly any charac head (Bakker, 1979) and is considered to be teristic shapes, the emphasis of the research diagnostic for the west group of the TRB· had to lie on the technological aspects. For culture (Bakker, 1979). The specimen of fig. each sherd data were recorded concerning 11: 0 is also referred to as an arrowhead, albeit i.a. the variable tempering, mode of con- only on morphological grounds. Parallels . struction, colour, wall thickness and decor have been pointed out in Vlaardingen con ation . As is ev ident from table 2 two c'at text (Van Regteren Altena et al., 1962). egories of temper can be distinguished: sand Comparable forms also occur however in a and granite-grit. With in the category of gra LHV connection (Bakker & Van der Waals, nite grit a dist inct ion can be made between 197 1) and in the Danish Store Valby group a fine-grained component «2 mm) and a (Davidsen, 1978: fig. 104.0). In many respects coarse-grained component (2-5 mm). Most of Store Valby (MNV) is similar to LHV the sherds contain the fine-grained fraction (Davidsen, 1977; Bakker, 1979). In view of the (64%). fact that LHV is represented also among the The structural composition of the sherds pottery (see below), it seems reasonable to has only been investigated on the basis of the regard the leaf-shaped point also as an LHV fracture pattern. Especially when a vessel is element. built up from bands or coils of clay, this can In its entirety the complex appears to clearly be seen from the fracture: the pot resemble to a number of-vaguely describ breaks along the zone of attachment of the ed-TRB assemblages. Among the charac coils. This pattern was present in 99 sherds, all teristic features of these complexes are parti cularly the casual working of the flint material (no remarkably fine tools), the large number of scrapers, and the relatively small Table 2. Pottery; quantitative data. number of blades. These characteristic Part of the pot 81 rim-sherds features are typical for Anlo (Waterbolk, 1 054 body-sherds 1960), Anlo 'De Schipborg' (Van der Waals, 7 bottom-sherds & 1962), Angelsloo (Bakker Van der Waals, Total number of sherds 1142 1971) and the Beekhuizerzand (Modderman et Temper 123 sand (11 %) al. , 1976). The two arrowheads described here 1 019 granite grit (89 %) also are indicative of TRB, and then possibly Other aspects 30 decorated the LHV phase. 1 handle . Caution is necessary however because the 7 secondarily drilled holes 1 clay disc flints found all come from ploughland. With Late Neolithic occupation near Bornwird 105 of which had been tempered with granite. The entire pot substantial differences are often zone of attachment of the coils was always evident. Moreover, weathering is an im oblique, which indicates that they were portant disturbing factor with this variable. attached to one another by pushing the inner Caution is therefore necessary in drawing any surface downwards with the thumb and the general conclusions. The width variation of outer surface upwards with the index finger. the sand-tempered pottery is 3- 14 mm, and of Van der Leeuw (1976) mentions that this the granite-tempered pottery 3-15 mm (with technique was used to prevent the pot from fine tempering 3-1 1 mm). The two dis becoming wider than desired in the course of tributions have an average and median its fabrication. value of a thickness of 7 mm (6 mm for the The colour of pottery is generally related to fine tempering). Both the granite-tempered the method of firing used: in an oxidizing and the sand-tempered pottery contains a environment colours become light, in a thin-walled as well as a distinct thick-walled reducing environment dark. The difficulty in component. The material is, however, too this respect is that on a single pot big fragmentary to permit any percentage figures differences in colour can often be seen. In to be given, which might be suggestive of a spite of this problem, in all cases the colour distinct differentiation. has been described and 'translated' in terms of To summarize the technological analysis, it oxidation and reduction (table 3). seems possible to distinguish two groups of Because that it is unlikely that a pot was pottery, mainly on the basis of the variable fired on the inside in oxidizing conditions and tempering. on the outside in reducing conditions, the last 1. The sand-tempered pottery. Fired for the category in table 3 gives an indication of the most part under oxidizing conditions. The interpretation error that arises because one inner surface often ..;hows reduction colours pot has a different gradation of colours. however (table 3). The wall thickness varies On the basis of the colour differences, the from 3- 14 mm, the fracture pattern gave no sand-tempered pottery can be characterized as indication of the structural composition. predominantly fired in reducing conditions on 2. The granite-tempered pottery. For the the inside and in oxidizing conditions on the most part fired under reducing conditions, outside. This would seem to indicate that both on the inner and outer surface. The wall these pots were fired standing upside-down in thickness varies from 3 to 15 mm. The pottery an open or poorly covered fire. Of the granite tempered with fine grit is generally slightly tempered sherds 35.5% show the same colour thinner than that tempered with the coarser distribution, yet the majority show reduction grit. About 10% was seen to have been built colours on both sides (6l. 7%). Statistically the up from band or coils of clay. two distributions differ significantly when the last category (too small expected values) is left 3.4.5. Pottery: typology out of consideration (X2=6.93, a=0.05). For the wall thickness of pots the same The pottery of Bornwird is too fragmentary to remarks apply as for the colour that is permit anything much to be said about the connected with the firing process: over an shape of the pots. One sherd shows a distinctly carinated neck profile (fig. l2:b). The rims have consistently been more or less sym metrically flattened out by kneading, or Table 3. Pottery; distribution of the color patterns have been rounded off . Neither are the few bottom fragments very useful for establishing Col or of the sherd Temper grani te grit sand a typology. Three pieces have the shape of a small protruding foot (fig. 10: d-f); these are Inner- and outer surface light 27 ( 2.6 %) 23 (18.7 %) sand-tempered. The other four bottom sherds Inner- and outer surface dark 629 (61.7 %) 18 (14.6 %) have been tempered with granite; three of Inner surface dark, outer 360 (35.5 %) 80 (65.0 %) them have a flat bottom that joins the wall surface light Inner surface light, outer 3( 0.2 %) 2 ( 1.6 %) almost at a right angle (fig. 10: c). A fourth surface dark has a rounded bottom and may represent a form of dish (fig. 10: b). 1019 123 For the purposes of ascertaining a typology 106 H. FOKKENS

a b c

d e f 9

.--

I I

I , , I V' ,

, ). ) k

I m '; 1 •

n 0 Fig. 12. Diagnostic pottery sherds (for explanation see text). Scale I: I. Late Neolithic occupation near Bornwird 107

Table 4. Pottery; decoration forms; between 0 the typological Bakker to the MHV (Mid Havelte) phase determination. (PFB = Protruding Foot Beaker; LHV = Late (1979). Havelte; MHV = Mid-Havelte). It is noteworthy that the PFB decoration

Type of ornamentation Temper Granite only occurs on sand-tempered pottery, and sand grit the TRB decoration only on the pottery tempered with granite grit. Although the Grooved lines (PFm 4 humber of decorated sherds constitutes only a 'Short-wave molding' (PFB) 11 small percentage total, it is tempting to Fingernail impressions (PFB) 4 String impressions (PFB) 2 conclude that in Bornwird also the Grooved ridge (LHV) 4 undecorated, sand-tempered pottery must be Row of grooves (without ridge) (LHV) 4 ascribed to the PFB group and the granite Grooved lines (zigzag pattern) (MHV) 1 tempered sherds to the TRB group (Havelte 21 9 phase). On the basis of such a conclusion it is hardly permissible to generalize about the TRB pottery and the PFB pottery as distinct categories of uniform composition. The raw the decoration provides us with more inform material used for making the pots must vary ation. Table 4 shows that we are concerned from one region to another, and also the with two groups; TRB and PFB decoration material used for tempering, but probably not patterns. the way of shaping vessels and firing them. With the PFB decoration no differentiation Nevertheless also Van der Waals noted a according to subtypes is possible (la- If, Van difference in tempering that is determined by der Waals & Glasbergen, 1959; Lanting & Van the archeological culture: 'TRB pottery is der Waals, 1976). Clearly present in any case tempered with stone grit: PF beakers is the 'short wave moulding' decoration sometimes are tempered with a little sand; Bell (Wellenband decoration) that is generally Beakers have grog tempering' (Van der Waals, considered to belong to settlement pottery 1965: p. 125). It is worthwhile investigating (Becker, 1955; Van Giffen et al., 197 1) (fig. 12: whether such a correlation does indeed appear a, f). to be consistently present.7 In practice this Especially noteworthy are two sherds of a means that the technological data will (also) PFB amphora (fig. 12: b, e). In the Nether have to be quantified. lands amphorae are a regularly though A few additional attributes of the pottery scarcely occurring phenomenon (Van der have not yet been discussed. First of all the Waals, I 964b). Apart from the amphorae secondary perforations must be mentioned. mentioned by Van der Waals (Zeijen, Ruinen These occur only on granite-tempered pottery and Rhee from burial mounds; Beilen, Rhee and are always within 3 cm below the rim (fig. and Hankenberg possibly from flat graves), 12: i). As the perforations are secondary, they one is known from the settlement of the do not have to be regarded as decoration, as is Vlaardingen culture in Vlaardingen (Glas indeed the case in a VL context. With VL bergen et al., 1967). Unpublished finds pottery the small holes were made below the are known from the megalithic tomb 026' rim already before firing (Louwe Kooijmans, (Bakker, 1983 in press), the megalithic tombs 1976). In most cases an interpretation as holes on the Glimmeres, Odoorn and possibly the made to repair vessels can be excluded. PFB settlement at Kolhorn (J.N. Lanting, Perhaps these holes should rather be regarded pers. comm.). In Bornwird we are prob as points of attachment for a skin or lid ably concerned with sherds of an early covering the opening of the pot. (Strichbiindel) amphora (fig. 12: b-e). Owing The complex included one body sherd with to the lack of good find-associations it is just the beginning of a handle (fig. 12: m). The hardly possible to give a reliable dating for fragment is too small to give any clear these amphorae. impression of the shape. The tempering The decoration in the form of a row of consists of granite grit. notches, sometimes on a plastic band (fig. 12: The final element to be discussed is the k, 1, n, 0), is characteristic for the LHV phase fragment of a clay disc (fig. 10: a). The of the TRB culture (Bakker, 1979). The thickness of the specimen is 16 mm, and the grooves in a zigzag pattern are ascribed by circumference of the whole disc must have 108 H. FOKKENS measured ±200 mm. There are no traces of a its immediate surroundings, use is often made hole on the part that has remained preserved; of the model of Vita-Finzi and Higgs (1970). the decoration consists of small holes and There has been a lot of criticism of this nail-prints. According to Davidsen (1974) the method as site locational analysis, La. because thickness is an indication of age (they were it ignores the importance of non-subsistence made increasingly thicker in the course of factors for the settlement site (Clarke , 1978). time), but so far this has only been Nevertheless the concept of site territory, that demonstrated for the Danish discs. Fragments forms part of site catchment analysis, is used a of clay discs occur both in VL settlements as great deal as an aid to description. Vita-Finzi well as in the TRB culture, although never in and Higgs define it as fo llows: ' ... the terri large numbers (Bakker, 1979). tory surrounding a site which is exploited To return to the identification of the pottery habitually by the inhabitants of a site' (1970: of Bornwird by other authors (see chapter 1) a p. 7). The site territory of agrarian com number of points are now clear. Firstly, table munities is designated as a circle around 4 shows that the sherds with PFB decoration the settlement with a radius equal to the are the most numerous, in an absolute sense. distance which can be covered on fo ot in one Almost all of them were represented in the hour (or 5 km on level terrain). display collection, while the sherds with TRB The concept mentioned immediately above decoration were absent from this. It is has also been applied fo r the description of the therefore easy to understand how the entire district around the presumed location of the complex was labelled 'PFB culture'. The VL settlement near Bornwird (fig. 3). Within its aspect that was introduced by some authors territory the settlement fo rms the centre of a must be attributed to the plethora of peninsula surrounded by the coastal peat-bog discoveries of VL sites with PFB pottery zone in the west, north and east, and a valley (Glasbergen et al., 1967; Van Regteren Altena with marsh vegetation and (semi-) permanent et al., 1961; 1962). Also the superficial open water in the south. The only connection similarity of the pottery (tempering with stone with the Pleistocene 'mainland' lying further grit, grey colours) and the occurrence of a south is in the southwest of the region. The clay-disc fragment may have contributed situation on a local eminence probably means towards such a designation. An initial that the site was well drained, while in view of identification in 1966 as pottery dating from the deep position of the boulder-clay on either the late Bronze Age becomes understandable side it is unlikely that the site was suffering in the light of a remark made by Bakker and fr om a surplus of water. This last mentioned Van der Waals (1971, p. 28): ' ... on superficial point is of special importance with regard to examination, undecorated LHV sherds could the arable land. be confused with those from the Late Bronze If we consider the areas that do indeed lie or Early Iron Age, ... '. within the site territory but outside the peninsula just mentioned, then it is evident that the site lies in a central position and gives 4. INTERPRETATION equal access w a number of different environ ments: 1. The relatively high-lying wooded area 4. 1. The site in its setting immediately around the assumed settlement A site can be studied at a number of different site. This is the potential arable land; estimat levels. Unfortunately, the ploughland exca ed surface area 700- 1000 ha. vated at Bornwird does not lend itself to 2. The relatively low-lying wooded area. analysis at the intra-site level, on account of Probably more open and with local peat the absence of structures and the way in which bog depressions. Regarded as too wet fo r the fi nds were collected. The artefacts fo und agriculture; estimated surface area 800-1 200 in the arable land (settlement pottery, flint, ha. As an arbitrary borderline between these etc.) indicate that a settlement must belooked two environments the contour line of 2.m for in the immediate vicinity. The obvious below datum level has been taken (= ±1 m place is slightly higher on the local eminence, above the sea-level of late Neolithic times). on which the terp of Bornwird now lies. 3. The coastal peat-bog zone; notably in For analysis at the second level, the site in .the west quite high and wide. Late Neolithic occupation near Bornwird 109

4. The tidal flat area; probably only that stockbreeding was practised along accessible in places where the peat-bog zone side agriculture (cf Molenaarsgraaf, Louwe was eroded away by lagoons or draining Kooijmans, 1974) . In the surroundings of rivers. Such a lagoon was certainly present Bornwird the lower lying areas of open immediately NNW of the site (Griede, 1978, woodland probably formed the most suitable fig. 35). natural pastures. Bakels (1982) gives a. figure Such a gradient-rich region is known as an of 1.5 ha per head of cattle as a very rough ecotone. These are considered to be rich areas minimum estimate for the area of pasture and certainly the peripheral zone of a forest re quired . Yet even if we double this figure, region is eminently suitable for human with an estimated surface area of potential inhabitation (Odurn, 197 1). Seen in this light, pasture of 800- 1 200 ha this still leaves room the location of the settlement at Bornwird is for a few hundred head of cattle. Of course thus ideal rather than marginal. such estimates serve merely as guidelines for The above-described naturally bordered ascertaining the situation in former times. peninSUla can be considered as the terri They are intended primarily to indicate that tory of one settlement at most. A second , there was ample opportunity for permanent contemporary settlement cannot be expected inhabitation. in this small area, but the extent of the At the third level of analysis, the inter-site potential ploughland is large enough to or regional level, a problem is posed by the maintain a group of 50-100 pe rsons perma small amount and uneven quality of the data nently .� currently available. Nevertheless a general In fact there are indications that other parts pattern can indeed be outlined. Contem of the site territory were used as ploughland. poraneous and probably comparable traces Van Zeist (1955) has discussed three pollen of inhabitation have been excavated near diagrams from the region to the west of Birdaard (Steenendam, Elzinga , 1971; 1972). Bo rnwird (J islum, Lichtaard and Klaar -Investigation of a sample of the pottery kamp) . At various levels in these diagrams showed that here too we are concerned with a low values are present for Plantago lanceo mixed LHV-PFB complex (Fokkens, 1980). lata and Cerealia. Notably the diagram The location of this site (fig. 3) right next to a for Lichtaard, where the first values for deep valley filled with peat is very interesting plantain and grain occur at a depth of 155 cm from the point of view of preservation of any under the surface (in the top of the sand organic remains. In the cou rse of the substrate), is of interest for our research. excavation the 'wet' part of the site was From a stratigraphical viewpo int this occur not reached, however. The immediate rence must be dated in the (late) Neo surroundings closely resemble the territory lithic. The values higher in the diagram of the Bornwird settlement. The same en must originate from Bronze Age and Iron Age vironments are within reach , while also the inhabitation. Van Zeist attributes these traces extent of the area that is li kewise enclosed by of human activity to inhabitation of the natural boundaries shows great similarity. higher-lying sandy areas to the south of the A similar environmental situation is also region (Van Zeist, 1955). In 1955 it was present around Oostrum where LHV pottery thought that inhabitation was not possible so has been found. This find presumably low on the flanks of the boulder-clay plateau, concerns a flat grave, while a settlement was let alone that agriculture could be practised. possibly present in the neighbourhood. A As late as 1966 Waterbolk designated the I m number of other isolated finds, mainly axes, above datum level contour-line as the extreme PFB battle axes, flat graves and small flint limit for both the TRB and the PFB culture. complexes are homogeneously distributed In the light of the present finds, however, the over the region. These finds are not registered traces of human habitation-in any case the in fig . 3 because a separate study is to be lowest level of the Lichtaard diagram-can devoted to their distribution and the inter perhaps better be explained as indication of pretation of the settlement pattern.9 the presence of local ploughland. It is in any case no longer possible to regard Although little or nothing is known about the finds in this region as occasional isolated the role of stockbreeding for the subsistence finds outside the actual distribution area. of late Neolithic farmers, it can be assumed Rather we are confronted with what appears 110 H. FOKKENS to be a settlement pattern of farmstead with the onset of the Havelte phase form and settlements distributed regularly over the decoration of the pottery undergo a marked region, each with its own territory. alteration. Seen in this light the TRB -PFB The natural compartmentalization of the transition is incorporated in larger processes landscape has in a number of cases evidently of change, and is less sudden and strict. been the point of departure for the division As to the factors that triggered those into territories. processes, they will have been related to various sectors of the culture system. How ever, indications are present that the main 4.2. Concluding remarks causes have to be looked for in the realms A problem that has not yet been discussed of the economical subsystem. In this res concerns the presence of two typologically pect Sherrat (1981) showed the importance different pottery complexes that are ascribed of the concept 'secondary products revolution' to different prehistoric cultures, both in for the explanation of processes of culture Bornwird and Steenendam. The transition change . In our region at least two innovations from TRB to PFB culture is still regarded by in economic context can be demonstrated for many archaeologists as an example of ethnic the late Neolithic. Van der Waals (1964a) discontinuity. Various arguments seem to showed that the wheel was introduced in support this view: from an archaeological connection with the PFB culture . Secondly we viewpoint there is a conspicuous change in might add the introduction of the ard of which burial ritual and pottery style, while on the the first traces in our region can be dated to basis of palynological evidence two different, the later part of the Neolithic. apparently culturally linked landnam phases The innovations mentioned above may were distinguished (Iversen, 1973; Waterbolk, have caused an improvement of existing 1954; Van Zeist, 1967). farming methods, and may even have brought Those who prefer to consider the TRB new areas for cultivation within reach. The P FB transition in the light of ethnic conti presence of the Bornwird and Steenendam nu ity argue that the observed differences settlements, both situated in regions pre ma inly concern burial ritual (Malmer, 1962; viously without (Neolithic) inhabitation, might Hausler, 1978). Discontinuity in one sector of point in this direction. The observed change culture, however, cannot automatically be in burial practices too, when seen as a implicated in other sectors (Van del' Waals, change from the use of formal disposal areas 1976). Since so little is known about the other (megalithic tombs; Chap man, 198 1) to aspects of late Neolithic cultures, particularly dispersed individual graves (burial mounds, settlement and economy, direct comparisons flatgraves), might support this hypothesis. I D remain yet impossible . In this respect it is In Chapman's view the abandonment of much to be desired that renewed (large scale) formal disposal areas would indicate a research be carried out on the Bornwird and diminishing pressure on (scarce) resources of Steenendam settlements. arable land. With respect to the cultural link between It is beyond the scope of this article to the landnam phases that was previously discuss all the problems that are involved with assumed to exist, Casparie and Groenman processes of late Neolithic culture change. Van Waateringe (1980) have recently demon Nevertheless I hope to have contributed to the strated that , as far as the Netherlands acceptance of the thesis that the TRB -PFB are concerned, this was an artifact of the transition is to be explained in terms of ethnic archaeological sampling method involved. continuity rather than discontinuity. Therefore neither in palynological data evidence can be found for discontinuity. In contrast it can be argued that much of 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the culture change that indeed marks the late Neolithic developments, is due to internal I am indebted to G. Elzinga, provincial changes within the TRB culture. Already in archa'eologist for Friesland, for permission to the Havelte phase the emphasis changes from study the material of Bornwird. J.N. Lanting collective burial in megalithic tombs to (B.AJ., Groningen) and J.A. Bakker (A.E. individual interments in flatgraves. Besides, van Giffen Instituut voor Prae- and Proto- Late Neolithic occupation near Born wird 111 historie, Amsterdam) were at al l times land for 50- lOO persons per year, the region is still big prepa red to discuss the results of my research enough. With uninterrupted cultivation for 5 years and a and to provide useful informat ion, for which I fa llow period of 15 years 'a minimum area of 200 ha of am most grateful. I am especially indebted to ploughland is necessary before the first field can be cultivated over again. J.O. va n der Waals for the discussions on 9. The author is occupied with a regional investigation co ntinuity and discontinuities, that contri of the western part of the Fries-Drents boulder-clay buted to a s.ignificant extent to the conclu plateau with respect to the period from Neolithic times sions draw n in the last pa ragraph . G.J. until the Early Middle Ages. Boekschoten and O. Stapert did some of the 10. The idea of using this concept in the explanation of rock identifications. F.W.E. Colly prepared ethnic continuity between TRB and PFB was proposed by J. D. van der Waals in his Rhind lectures in the photographs, H.R. Roelink made the Ed inburgh (spring 1983). drawings for fig. 10 and 11. G. Oelger was able to transpose the 3-m- Iong field draw ings with closely adjacent ploughmarks into a 7. REFERENCES form em inently su itable fo r publication. Also the oth er linedrawings were made or adapted RAKELS. c.c., 1978. Four Iinearbandkeramik seIt le by G. Oelger. S. va n Gelder-Ottway translated /IIent.i· and Iheir environmenl: a paleoeco /oKica/ the Dutch text into English study of Siltard, Slein, Elsloo and Hi en . heim (=Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 11) Leiden. BAKELS, CC, 1982. Zum wirtschaflichen Nutzung sraum einer bandkeramischen Siedl ung. In: 6. NOTES Si edlungen der Kultur mit Linearkeramik in Europe. Inlernationales Kolloquium No ve Vozokany I. In this article the concept of culture is used in the 17-20 Nov. 1981. Nitra, pp. 9-16. sense of archaeological culture, as defined by Childe BAKKER, J .A .. 1979. The TRB West-Group: slUdies in Ihe (1929, pp. v-vi): 'certain types of remains-pots, chronology and geography of lhe makers of hunebeds implements, oranaments, burial sites, house fo rms-that and Tiefslich poltery (= Cingula 5). Amsterdam. are constantly recurring together'. However, the original BAKKER, J.A. & J.D. VAN DER WAALS, 1973. assumption made by Ch ilde, namely that archaeological Denekamp-Angelslo; collard flasks and a corded cultures by definition coincide with peoples, cannot be ware sherd in Dutch final TRB contexts. In: GI.E. automatically included within this concept. Daniel & P. Kjaerum (eds.), Megalithic graves and 2. For a detailed overview of the origin of the boulder ritual. Papers presented al the III Atlantic clay plateau and the development into a cover-sand colloquium, Moesgllrd 1969 (=Jysk Arkaeologisk landscape see Zagwijn and Van Staald uinen, 1975. Selskabs skrifter 11). Aarhus, pp. 17-50. 3. The doctoral dissertation of Griede (1978) gives an BEeKER, CJ., 1955. Coarse beakers with 'short-wave extensive analysis of the Holocene developments in moulding'. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society North Friesland. 21, pp. 65-7 1. 4. Here it should be noted that no special attention has BRANDT, K.H., 1967. SlUdien iiber steinerne Axte und been devoted to the presence of any gloss produced as a Beile del' jiingeren Steinzeil No rdlVesldeutschlands. result of use. All the flint has been observed Hildesheim. macroscopically, with the aid of only a xlO magnifying CASPARIE, W.A. & W. GROENMAN-VAN WAATE RINGE. glass. It is very probable that closer inspection will show 1980. Palynological analysis of Dutch barrows. that some specimens classified as waste material do in Palaeohistoria 22, pp. 7-65. fact show traces of use. CHAPMAN, R., 198 1. The emergence of formal disposal 5. In connection with the lack of data on the spatial areas and the 'problem' of megalithic tombs in distribution of the finds no further study has been made prehistoric Europe. In: R. Chapman, I. Kinnes & of the waste material. K. Randsborg (eds.), The archaeology of death. 6. Intentional retouch is meant to describe small Cambridge, pp. 71-8 1. flake-or pressure negatives that served to give a tool its CHILDE, V.G., 1929. The Danube in prehislory. shape or to make it sharp. Use retouch is meant to London. describe the traces of damage (often hardly visible with CLARKE, D.L., 1978. Analytical archaeology . 2nd. ed. the naked eye) that arose as a result of the tool being rev. by B. Chapman. London. used. CONKLlN, H.C, 1969. An ethnoecological approach to 7. Superficial investigation of the late Neolithic sh ifting agriculture. In: A.P. Vayda (ed.), En viron settlement potte'ry of Steenendam and the pottery from ment and cultural behaviour. Ecological slUdies in the megalithic tomb of Valthe does not contradict this 'eullUral anlhropology. New York , pp. 22 1-233. provisional conclusion. DAVIDSEN, K., 1973. Neolitiske lerskiver belyst af 8. The application of Bakels' estimate model for the danske fund. AarbrjJger , pp. 5-72. loess exemplifies this (Ba kels, 1978; 1982). Even if one . DAVIDSEN, K., 1977. Valby-type pottery from single- takes 50 ha-taking into consideration the impoverished grave mounds in Jutland. A preliminary report. state of the sandy soils-as the required amount of arable . Helinium 17, pp. 71-75. 112 H. FOKKENS

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