A Feminist Analysis

“BONE OF MY BONES AND FLESH OF MY FLESH1”: A FEMINIST ANALYSIS OF , EVOLUTIONARY THEORY, AND THE PROVENANCE OF PATRIARCHY Heather Department of Biology; College of Arts and Sciences Abilene Christian University

While perceived by many as conflicting in nearly every sphere, science and religion both play an important role in the promotion of patriarchal ideologies. My research has found that neither Christianity nor evolutionary theory are inherently patriarchal, neither do they justify patriarchy. Instead, it is the misinterpretation and misuse of these subjects that contribute to the justification of patriarchy for the deep-seated goal of reproductive power. I will show this by analyzing theological themes present throughout the Christian scriptures, as well as investigating findings of evolutionary psychology and hominid ancestry. The implication of this study is that there is no valid function for the institution of patriarchy.

The effects of gender inequality are First, I will analyze male-female universally felt, whether it is overtly dynamics among hominid ancestors in order expressed through explicit control of female to determine the validity and origin of sexuality, or whether it manifests itself as a patriarchal systems from an evolutionary covert, systemic issue. Feminists respond to perspective. I will also conduct a feminist issues like these by first identifying analysis of Biblical text, the issues that are patriarchal ideologies as the primary source encountered when interpreting the historical of inequality and oppression, especially the text, and compare different Christian oppression of marginalized people including traditions and their inclusivity of women in women, racial and ethnic minorities, the the in order to determine whether poor, and those who do not fit traditional Christianity is inherently patriarchal. characterizations of masculinity. While feminists differ in their thoughts on the Overt and Systemic Patriarchy original cause of patriarchy, a common goal Feminists argue that the institution of feminism is to not only pinpoint ways in responsible for widespread oppression of which gender discrimination is perpetuated, various groups of marginalized people – but also to identify the origin of this most notably, women – is ‘The Patriarchy.’ inequality in order to use this knowledge to Patriarchy at its core is any form of shift society towards a more equal and structural organization – be it social, tribal, inclusive paradigm. This paper will seek to familial, political, religious, or others – in aid in the feminist search for the origin of which there is an unequal distribution of patriarchy, with specific emphasis on the authority based on gender, with favorability influence of science and religion in given to males. This, in turn, results in promoting gender divisions. unequal treatment and gender discrimina- tion. Once a patriarchal scheme is

1 Gen. 2:23, English Standard Version

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A Feminist Analysis established, it is often very difficult to societies. For the purposes of this paper, displace and reform the system. The way in systemic patriarchy could best be defined as which patriarchy is expressed is dependent a covert, patriarchal attitude that, in a way, on whether the issue is an overt one within has diffused under the surface of society as the society, or an underlying, systemic one. progress is made. For example, western Overt patriarchy can be described as societies have experienced an overall shift in any explicit, unhidden expression of gender public thought when it comes to a woman’s discrimination. Figuratively speaking, this role in society – now, in general, it is form of patriarchy is still exposed on the acceptable for a woman to pursue a career surface of society. Some examples of overt outside of the household – yet only 5% of patriarchy include the denial of basic human CEOs in the nation’s Fortune 500 companies rights to women, the explicit control of are women.5 Another example is female sexuality, as well as the distinct government itself. Although women’s control of activity of women. Examples of suffrage was attained in 1920, and although these types of patriarchal expressions 56% of voters are women, only 20% of include acts like female genital mutilation, Senators are women, and only 19% of the human trafficking – specifically of women House of Representatives is composed of and young girls – denial of the right to drive, women.6 own land, vote or hold government Systemic issues like these are largely positions, denial of the right to divorce, affected by gender socialization and gender normalization of rape or male violence, and role propaganda such as through media and in places like Saudi Arabia, the inability to entertainment. It is also important to note go places without a male chaperone.2 that although individual cases of extreme Overt patriarchy is often misogyny occur in systemically patriarchal characteristic of societies in which women societies on an individual basis, this do not have the same access to education as “individual” misogyny is the result of a men, or in societies where quality education society’s foundational beliefs – this attitude is lacking completely for both men and was not created in a vacuum, but rather women. It is also common to see these overt adopted from an individual’s environment. practices in poor and developing societies; for instance, out of the eight nations in The Inclusivity of Inequality which female genital mutilation is practiced An essential component to include at a nearly universal rate (85%+), seven are when addressing the issue of patriarchy and considered among the “Least Developed whom it affects is that of intersectionality. Countries” according to the United Nations Intersectionality is valuable to feminism LDC list.3 These countries also exhibit an because it acknowledges that the oppressive extreme lack of adult literacy, improper institution of patriarchy affects not only the nutrition, poor access to quality health care female population, but also the population as or education, economic instability, and a a whole (at varying degrees). Intersectional typically higher-than-average mortality for feminists assert that cultural patterns of children under the age of five.4 oppression are interrelated, as well as In contrast, systemic patriarchy is grouped together and influenced by the more often characteristic of developed various oppressive systems of our society.7

2 The Week UK, 2015 5 Stark, 2012 3 United Nations, 2014 6 Pew Research Center, 2015 4 Bruckner and Cortez, 2015 7 Collins, 1990

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In other words, although patriarchy is gender-gap in poverty. This gap narrows as typically thought of as gender- age increases, until we reach an elderly discrimination, its consequences are far- population, in which we again see a reaching and all encompassing. Patriarchal dramatic widening of the gender gap with a ideologies are not only unfavorable to majority of the poor American population women, but they are also exclusionary of the composed of women.9 gay, transgender, and transsexual The varying degrees of oppression communities. Those who do not identify that we observe throughout the population with heteronormativity or cis-gender are perpetuated by numerous mechanisms. descriptors often face similar discrimination While the potential methods could include that women face under the patriarchal media-produced propaganda and gender system. socialization; this paper will strictly target Patriarchal ideologies are also the influences of religion and evolutionary thought to discourage traditionally theory on patriarchal promotion. “feminine” behaviors in the male population, which is a form of oppression in In Consideration of Religion itself. For instance, this may prevent a male One establishment that has from pursuing certain interests or historically been involved in the justification developing certain traits due to the of patriarchal organization is religion. In the humiliation that he may face as a result of context of this paper, I will specifically surrounding patriarchal pressures. Robert address Christianity, as well as briefly touch Connell termed this as hegemonic, or a on other monotheistic religions including standard of masculinity, that men are Islam and Judaism in order to determine constantly measured against, and in turn, whether there is any apparent trend between requires excessively feminine behavior in monotheism and patriarchal hierarchy. women.8 Historically, Christian delivery of a The argument follows that anyone patriarchal message is delivered in a two- who does not fit into the “good ol’ boys pronged approach – female submission to club” is susceptible to the discrimination her husband, as well as female submission in that the patriarchy perpetuates. This, of the church (which includes restriction from course, includes as well certain ethnic and fulfillment of leadership positions). racial groups. Therefore, a black female is An important point to consider as we likely to experience a more intense degree of analyze Christianity’s position on women’s oppression and discrimination than a white roles is that, even within this one religion, woman. Intersectionality also claims that there is no single consensus on the issue. classism emerges from patriarchal The position that Christian individuals take institutions. It is commonly stated that on this subject is largely determined by their poverty is a woman’s issue; evidence tradition of origin and their hermeneutic supports this claim. Trends in poverty show approach. Those who approach biblical that at an early age, there is nearly an equal interpretation from a complementarian representation of males and females perspective typically are proponents of the amongst the poor in the United States. separation of roles between men and women However, once reproductive age is reached in the church, with a restriction of leadership among a cohort, there is a dramatic increase roles for men only. Egalitarian traditions, on in women in poverty, creating a huge the other hand, are much more favorable

8 Connell, 1995 9 ibid.

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A Feminist Analysis towards female leadership and are receptive suited for certain roles than others, it is more towards the ordination of women. appropriate and accurate for this to be Among the most commonly cherry- determined on an individual basis, rather picked scriptures in support of patriarchy are than on a gender basis. the verses found in 1 Corinthians 14:34-35, The is clear – amongst men 1 Corinthians 11:2-16, and 1 Timothy 2:11- and women there is a mutual and abundant 15. Traditionalists argue that these verses distribution of spiritual gifts, with no serve as evidence for a justified hierarchal distinction between men and women (1 Cor. organization in which the man is the 12:7-11). An issue that we encounter when authority figure while the woman is to we use the argument that there are distinct support of his leadership. While I will not gender roles in the church is that we are delve into the various theological analyses essentially pigeonholing men and women of these verses here, I would like to at least into very limited definitions of their discuss the implications of interpreting these potential, God-given capabilities. This verses from a complementarian perspective; simply does not match up with the Christian this includes issues of gender inequality and view of the kenotic God that frees followers discrimination in the church, issues of from the socially-constructed limitations leadership qualifications, as well as the placed on them by a corrupt and fallen hermeneutical issues that can arise from world. interpreting selectively extracted verses as Another issue with the transcultural and making the mistake of not complementarian argument is that it sounds considering their cultural or situational all too similar to arguments that were intent. The complementarian position historically used to enforce oppressive ignores the ontological equality in creation institutions in the past, like the ‘separate but of gender where both are image bearers of equal’ mantra used against civil rights God. movements in America in the first half of the 20th century. Despite the ruling of the Issue of inequality and discrimination in the Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson in church 1896,10 segregation was, in actuality, still The verses used to support a discrimination. Based on this logic, it complementarian perspective imply that follows that if there is any boundary women are subordinate to men, and that preventing equal opportunity and treatment, their place is to support male leadership this is not equality – no matter how you coat (when we approach them with hierarchal it. Simply put, patriarchy under the guise of hermeneutics). Even so, an argument that complementarity is still not equality. has commonly been used in justification of the patriarchal arrangement of the church is Issue of leadership qualifications that while men and women are not Another argument commonly used ‘unequal,’ they do have different roles to amongst traditionalists is that since fulfill in the church and in the household. was a man, men should follow His example This is only a partially-valid argument. as leaders. While I agree that it is necessary While there are different roles in the church for Christian men to live as servant leaders and household – and by natural extension, like Christ, the more important question is, society – that some individuals are better where does this leave women? There is no

10 Smithsonian National Museum of American History

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A Feminist Analysis divinely sent being in the form of a woman Similarly, it could be argued that in which we have as a model for women to Christ manifested himself as a male not due live. Therefore, I would like to assert that to any theological necessity, but because the the argument that Christ is a model in which he was born absolutely exclusive to men is not valid – is a would not have accepted a female Messiah model for both men and women, despite the (despite the fact that even as a man, Jesus as gender which He happened to take as an Messiah was still not accepted by all). To earthly manifestation of His being. assert that because Jesus was a man, all The earthly manifestation of Christ authority figures in the church must be male as a man could, perhaps, rather be is to gender God as ‘male.’ However, I understood as a powerful statement of the would like to assert that God has no gender, counter-cultural attributes of Jesus in a and that it is dangerous to the Christian faith culture where men by-and-large had social to use gendered words when describing privilege. For instance, in John 4, Jesus talks God. In the words of the prominent to a Samaritan, and even more, he talks to a philosopher and theologian Mary Daly, the woman, which was controversial in itself. In danger of gendering God is that “If God is Luke 13:16, Jesus heals a woman on the male, then the male is God,”13 an Sabbath and, after facing criticism from the exclusionary illustration that is commonly Pharisees, he explicitly turns the patriarchy conveyed in many of our traditionalist on its head by identifying her heir-ship and churches. calling the woman a daughter of Abraham In the same way that Christ served (lineage distinction was normally reserved and led, men and women should equally for men). It has also been noted that women serve and lead – our Christianity should commonly traveled from place to place with convey a Jesus that is accessible to all. It is Jesus and the Twelve to serve as their not fair to argue that a person is better suited benefactors (Luke 8:1-3). Jesus also or should be more expected to exercise extended the welcome to follow him to authority simply because of gender. For women; two that are identified in Luke 8:1-3 instance, in a hypothetical situation in which and Mark 15:40-41 are Joanna and the decision lie between a man and a woman Salome.11 leading a congregation, and if the woman Implicit to patriarchy is a ‘chain of has clearly been called to do so and is even command’ from the oldest male over the more spiritually gifted to fulfill the calling clan; however, Jesus forbade His disciples to than the man, the default should not go to rule over one another. They were instead the man just because of his sex. To base a called to exhibit humility and love (Matt. qualification for church leadership on one’s 20:25-28).12 Jesus was not afraid to break sex is to neglect Paul’s words in Galatians rules imposed on society by religious 3:28. As counter-cultural , it is our tradition in order to extend his ministry to calling to reject the ascribed statuses that are those whom were commonly neglected. In placed on each other by society and instead, contrast, perhaps complementarians often view each other as spiritual beings that are mistake the trees for the forest when they united and equal in Christ. As representa- exclude women from serving the church tives of Christ on this earth, to state that one through leadership. requirement for serving the Kingdom of God through church leadership is based on an

11 Belleville and Beck, 2005 13 Daly, 1973, p.19 12 Riss, 2005

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A Feminist Analysis earthly, ascribed status like sex is to assert a influenced by the culture in which it was notion contrary to the that Christ written. It is also important to consider that does see male and female, and places more our human interpretation of scripture is not weight on gender than our spiritual perfect, and the fact that so many expert and identities. prominent theologians are divided on this issue should remind us that this topic, and Issue of interpreting the Bible from a strict the correlating biblical evidence, is not transcultural perspective nearly as clear-cut and obvious as we would An issue that is commonly like it to be. encountered in hermeneutics is deciphering In discerning the true will of God for text as either transcultural or cultural. Many women in all spheres, it is beneficial to traditionalists argue that to dismiss certain compare verses like those that have verses as culturally or circumstantially traditionally been used in support of male influenced is to deny the infallibility, dominance to verses that may send a inerrancy, and relevancy of divine scripture. different message. For instance, we have Therefore, it is important to clarify that already discussed how the character of although all scripture is transcultural in its Christ that is reflected in the message, not all scripture conveys these defies, rather than enforces patriarchal transcultural messages through transcultural ideologies. It is valuable to also analyze the examples and language. For instance, if we actual role of women as presented argued from the logic that all scripture is throughout the Bible, as well as the intended transcultural, both in its message and function of marriage. I will also conduct a examples, then Christians would be able to brief analysis of the justify slavery through verses like Ephesians in an attempt to pinpoint the origin of 6:5 and Titus 2:9 (which, for the record, complementarity and religious patriarchy. Christians have done in the past). For perspective’s sake, and in order to better Hierarchical Christians employ the populate the spectrum of Christianity, it is same logic when interpreting circumstantial also beneficial to discuss the different scripture as transcultural and using it to traditions within Christianity and their dictate the limitations placed on the freedom respective favorability towards female of women to use their gifts for the leadership in the church. Finally, I will edification of the church that slaveholders briefly investigate any trends that may exist used when interpreting scripture to justify as a commonality of monotheistic religions slavery. Egalitarian Christians are not that may lead to the establishment of arguing against the divinity of “God- patriarchy. breathed” scripture, however, can we realistically expect this ancient text to be Female representation in the Bible completely immune to the culture and Traditionalists may be disturbed to society in which it was written? The find that in the , we see a question that we as Christians need to ask is surplus of ordained female authority figures. whether the core, transcultural message of It is an interesting note to recognize that in a Christianity encourages this gender-based time that was literally centuries behind our division of the church body, or whether the modern society in progress and gender verses used in support of patriarchy are equality, well-respected female religious simply the result of specific situations that leaders were still to be found. The Bible Paul was addressing within the church or mentions several strong female leaders

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A Feminist Analysis throughout the text, for instance, Exodus traditionalists impose upon the entirety of 15:20 and Micah 6:4 describes Moses’ sister the Bible. Miriam as an indispensable prophetess that “served Israel well during the wilderness The origin of religious patriarchy years.” Another Old Testament prophetess If there are so many verses that (Judges 4:4), Deborah was not only a judge would suggest an equal opportunity for (4-5), but also a mother in Israel (5:7). Other leadership in the church amongst men and prophetesses included Huldah (2 Kings women, as compared to a mere handful of 22:14), exilic prophetesses (Ezekiel 13:17- verses against women in the church, where 24), as well as postexilic (Nehemiah 6:14). did this complementarian perspective first It is important to note, here, that the find root in common Christian ideology? For foremost ministry role in the Old Testament instance, as already discussed, there is was that of prophet (or prophetess), and like significant biblical evidence of women in their male peers, both trustworthy and false religious authority positions, and in ones could be found. Brooten’s book “Women Leaders in the Similarly, in the New Testament we Ancient Synagogue,” evidence of nineteen see a considerable amount of women in Greek and Latin inscriptions in which ministry. For example Priscilla is spoken of women bear the titles including “Head of as apostolic alongside her husband, Aquila Synagogue”, “Elder”, “Priestess” and even (Acts 18:1-3 and Romans 16:3-4); Mary, “Archisysragogos” (the absolute highest Lydia, and Nympha are described of as office).14 being overseers of house churches (Acts At the end of the Apostolic Church 12:12; 16:14-15; Colossians 4:15), Junia period, however, a new church hierarchy was considered by Paul as being dominated by men began to emerge, “outstanding among the apostles” (Romans culminating in the Ecclesiastic male orders 16:7); Phoebe in Romans 16:1-2 was not of the Church.15 Women were only a patron of Paul, but was also a deacon; excluded from clergy roles, and a strict line 1 Corinthians 11:5 describes female prayer was drawn not only between men and leaders and prophesiers; another female women in the church, as well as between deacon is described in 1 Timothy 3:11; clergy and . Simply put, the teachers of the Word are described in Acts development of the male-dominated clergy 18:24-26; Acts 21:9 describes four in Catholicism and the gradual transference unmarried, virgin prophetesses; the of that concept of male clergy roles and evangelists Euodia and Syntyche are found male laity leadership roles in in Philippians 4:2-3, who Paul writes have is responsible for the role of women in the “contended at my side” (emphasis added to modern church. indicate equality rather than horizontal hierarchy); Mary Magdalene is often Christian traditions and their differing acknowledged as the apostle to the apostles favorability towards female leadership in many early Christian writings. In Despite this, there are several conclusion, while there are a mere three Christian traditions that are much more debated verses over the role of women, the inclusive to women. “For example, the numerous verses describing the actions of United Presbyterian Church voted to ordain God-glorifying women seem to speak louder women as ministers in 1956. Since then, than any gender-based limitations that over eighty Protestant traditions including

14 Brooten, 1982 15 Rowland, 1991

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National , Lutherans, Methodists, allowed. Female genital mutilation is and Episcopalians have joined in on the common among Muslim communities in the favorability towards female ordination. east, as it is viewed to combat lust and Denominations that are still experiencing lag preserve a girl’s pre-marital purity. in catching up to reformed egalitarian However, while it is believed that this is a theology include the Roman Catholic religious mandate by those who practice it in Church, churches of the Southern Baptist the East, many Muslims and scholars in the Convention, as well as the Churches of west insist that female genital mutilation has Christ.16 no basis in the Islamic religion and has rather, been wrongly imposed on the Monotheism and patriarchy religion by the eastern culture. Perhaps patriarchy is a natural effect Overall, with these examples and of monotheism. For example, in the other hermeneutical considerations in mind, I monotheistic, Abrahamic faiths of Islam and would like to conclude that while certain Judaism, we also see instances in which traditions all throughout the Abrahamic hierarchical ideologies are promoted. One faiths have perpetuated the oppressive commonality between these monotheistic patriarchal institution, this is not the true faiths is their emphasis on female modesty. intent of their religions, and certainly, it is While traditionalists would argue for this in not the true intent of . Rather, order not to tempt the opposite sex, biblical when we examine the themes present egalitarians would most likely be in support throughout the Gospel and Christ’s actions, of enforcing female modesty for perhaps we see a liberation from socially constructed righteousness reasons, whereas Christian limitations and hierarchy that speaks louder feminists might suggest that this is an than misconstrued words. Throughout the example of male control over female Bible, there is a myriad of scriptures sexuality and places the responsibility of describing women as fulfilling equal roles in men’s actions and thoughts on women. the church as men, and the inclusion of Judaism also emphasizes feminine modesty women that Jesus displays in the New (and in some cases, male modesty as well), Testament opposes the inferiority that the and the traditional Islamic veil is utilized to first-century culture imposed upon women. preserve a woman’s modesty. Therefore, it is strange that despite Another common feature of the women making up the majority of religious Abrahamic faiths is that they all enforce pre- participants in most Christian marital abstinence. While egalitarians again, denominations, they would not be permitted may find biblical legitimacy and to partake in church leadership.17 While the justification in this with complementarians, church body is “not of this world”, the body feminists may argue that this is an explicit is still in the world, and the way that control of female sexuality in order to scripture is interpreted influences the way ensure paternal legitimacy of offspring that Christians approach the world and through the constraints of marriage. Among worldly situations. To the complementarians Orthodox Jews, menstruating women are that support societal reform but not reform segregated due to the that this aspect of the church - female leadership in the of female sexuality is unclean. However, church and female leadership in society are like the Christian faith, there are reformed not mutually exclusive. If Christians synagogues in which female ordainment is approach the issue of church leadership from

16 Rowland, 1991 17 Pew Research Center, 2015

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A Feminist Analysis a complementarian perspective, then their Males have evolved to control and coerce contributions to society will resemble that of women gender inequality and further enforce gender The idea that men are inherently discrimination, rather than that of a counter- coercive, constantly waging an internal cultural and revolutionary movement that battle with their obsessive sexual drive is an works to eradicate oppressive institutions in underlying thought throughout much of order to offer the freedom, equality, and society. Women are taught to be wary of abounding love that the Christian religion men because of this, and sadly, the advertises for the marginalized. experiences of many women often support this claim. In a way, this claim is used to In Consideration of Evolutionary Theory justify the ‘natural’ order of patriarchy, for When analyzing human behavior, it instance, if this is the way that men are is useful to look to science in an attempt to genetically ‘programmed’, then patriarchy at understand any biological basis for such least has an evolutionary basis. This behavior. Social arrangements like argument finds basis in the MCFC model, patriarchy are no exceptions. Evolutionary or, the males compete/females choose theory could provide answers for whether model.18 there exists an ancestral basis for the This model emphasizes (and dominating and submissive attitudes that are exaggerates) the sexual dimorphism between necessary for oppressive institutions like males and females, and stems from patriarchy to function. Historically, Darwin’s theory of sexual selection (1871). evolutionary theory has been used to strictly As mentioned earlier, this theory places enforce the traditional family model, importance on the differing amount of complete with the breadwinner father and parental investment that males and females the submissive housewife. are required to input in order to produce Some common myths that are often successful offspring. As a result of this, thought to be supported by “science” and males who are able to reproduce evolutionary biology in justification of the “inexpensively” approach reproduction from validity of patriarchy as an efficient and a “quantity” approach and compete for successful reproductive strategy include the female choice through ornamental displays following: (1) men have evolved to control or aggressive intrasexual demonstrations. and coerce women, (2) men have evolved to This form of sexual selection combined with be better leaders than women, (3) the male increased size difference would, in uniquely female role of motherhood has theory, make men more susceptible to resulted in the selection of nurturing and coercive and violent behaviors than women, submissive women, and (4) beauty in since in certain cases, this type of behavior females is more reproductively favorable would benefit them reproductively. Under than intelligence. Here, I will analyze each the MCFC model, males display a greater of these misconceptions and how they found sexual drive and interest in sexual novelty popularity in public opinion. I will also than females, and as a result of their compare these claims to what evolutionary competition, have shorter lifespans than theory actually reveals about human nature. females. Females on the other hand, apply a It is important to note that all of these “quality” strategy since reproduction is concepts find root in the sex differences of much costlier and time-consuming. This minimum parental care investment.

18 Stewart-Williams, 2013

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A Feminist Analysis results in in the reproductive strategy of pornography, and rape should be weighed female choice.19 against the MMC model and perhaps the However, while the MCFC model influence of gender socialization and male may strictly hold true in many animal violence normalization enforced by species, an alternative model – mutual mate patriarchal ideologies. choice (MMC) – has found more validity in the field of evolutionary psychology in Males have evolved to be better leaders than describing Homo sapiens behavior. While women the MMC model does not totally discount This thought finds root in the idea the biological influences on human behavior that leadership requires strength and, that the MCFC proposes, it argues that the therefore, is associated with masculinity. emphasized sex differences of the MCFC Some have argued that since men were model are actually much more minimal generally the “hunters” and women were the within the human population. The MMC “gatherers,” that this gives men a model asserts that while there is still a competitive edge that women simply do not degree of dimorphism in humans, we are possess. Again, we see no biological basis more monomorphic than evolutionary justifying this claim – pseudoscience in psychology has historically implied. support of male intellectual and social Implications of this are that males also superiority is not valid. Instead, there may participate in parental investment nearly only be different leadership strategies … equally (with the exception of parturiency), men are more likely to resort to ‘control and pair bonding, and child rearing as a form of command’ types of leaderships whereas allo-parenting became more necessary with women tend to lead from a collaborative increasing hominid brain size and stance. dependency of offspring (increase in While patriarchal societies arbitrarily childhood period). As a result, males also typically value one strategy over the other, participate in mate choice. This increase in the results show that matriarchal leadership offspring dependency meant that the amount can be equally effective. A meta-analysis to of progeny that men could successfully address this debate by quantitatively father in theory was not the reality. measuring gender differences in perceptions Similarly, under the MMC model, females of leadership effectiveness across 99 also engage in female mate competition like independent samples from 95 studies males. showed that when all leadership contexts are It is true that there still exists a considered, men and women do not differ in modest degree of sexual dimorphism – perceived leadership effectiveness. In fact, research has shown that on average, men are in ratings by others about their female much more welcoming of casual sex and leaders, women are rated significantly more sexual novelty than women. However, effective than men. In contrast, when self- “from a comparative perspective, we are a ratings only are examined, men rate relatively monomorphic mammal, with themselves as significantly more effective relatively monomorphic minds”20. than women rate themselves.21 Apparently, Therefore, a machismo portrayal of men that men are far more deluded about their is often used to explain corrupt male leadership capability than women! behavior like adultery, interest in

19 Stewart-Williams, 2013 21 Paustian-Underdahl, 2014 20 Stewart-Williams, 2013

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The role of motherhood has selected women logical.”24 While these false misconceptions to be more nurturing and less ambitious were resolved in the early 20th century, it is than men not uncommon to find derivatives of this Arguably, the greatest difference thought in public opinion. between males and females is the ability to In reality, evolutionary theory, and bear children. While there is truth in the Darwinism asserts that “no adaptation radical feminist argument that this biological continues to be selected for outside the difference accounts for much of the gender circumstances that happen to favor it”25. discrimination and inequality between men This implies that it is simply inaccurate to and women – childbirth often hinders group women into one limiting definition of women from attaining the same social womanhood, because observation does not standing as men in the sense that it often provide enough evidence to suggest that removes them from the workplace – in what there is a single definition with which to ways has the original role of women as prescribe to all women. Evolutionary theory child-bearers and care-takers influenced the shows us that contrary to Herbert Spencer’s psychologies of women and their differences misogynist, Victorian distortion of Social from men? Darwinism, women have never been simply To Social Darwinists like Herbert “baby factories”26– their purpose has always Spencer, the role of motherhood utterly been much more extensive than that, defines women. This concept has although child-bearing is just as an historically served as vital ammunition in important role as any, if not more so. arguments justifying traditional gender roles Anthropologist Sarah Hrdy claims and imposing limits on women. Social that the male construction of the perfect Darwinism has historically distorted true mother portrays women as inherently self- Darwinism to justify a physiological sacrificing, and yet in reality, women are division of labor by sex. For instance, typically not nearly as self-sacrificing as this Spencer argued that because so much energy traditional view of motherhood asserts. In goes into female reproduction, there must fact, self-sacrificing mothers are shown to account for an “earlier arrest of individual normally be found only in highly inbred evolution in women than in men” and groups or among women who are facing the constrained mental development in end of their reproductive career. In addition, women.22 Due to the popularization of this human experience shows that there are many idea, women went uneducated and became a cases of women who do not wish to be self-fulfilling prophecy. As well as largely mothers at all. This fact alone shows us that uneducated, “Women were assumed to be there is no single definition of womanhood ‘naturally’ what patriarchal would as brought about by the uniquely female role socialize them to be: modest, compliant, of motherhood. Likewise, we see that noncompetitive, and sexually reserved.”23 motherhood has no influence on female Social Darwinists argued that since women ambition.27 This is even observed in were naturally selected and “predestined to chimpanzee communities where mothers are be mothers, women were born to be passive able to earn respect in her community and and noncompetitive, intuitive rather than build a dynasty for her offspring.28

22 Hrdy, 1999, pg. 14 26 Hrdy, 1999 23 Hrdy, 1999, pg. 15 27 Hrdy, 1999 24 Hrdy, 1999, pg. 15 28 Smuts, 1995 25 Hrdy, 1999, pg. 13

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Beauty in females is more reproductively in nature must having cunning strategy and favorable than intelligence intelligence in order to keep their offspring It is interesting that early Darwinists, alive long enough to reproduce. The whose sexual selection theory29 resembled implications of this are interesting when that of the MCFC model would argue for compared to the emphasis on modesty in female beauty as beneficial to their many cultures. Why would modesty be so reproductive success; under the MCFC emphasized when female beauty allows model, males compete for the female choice, women to compete for mates? Perhaps male often through physical indicators of control of displays of female sexuality reproductive fitness such as through allows males to ensure paternity. symmetry or ornamental displays. Under Evolutionary theory shows us that this model, one would think that it would be these claims are merely perpetuated myths more favorable for males to display promoted by pseudoscience or common “beauty” as opposed to the females. misconceptions of evolution. Instead, we However, even under assumptions of sexual only see that male domination and control of selection (as the female reproductive women has nothing to do with any evolved strategy), Social Darwinists and essentialists traits of men and women – but rather male emphasized the importance of female bias within early evolutionary theory. One beauty, and suggested that this was a more exception, though, is that the ability to successful reproductive strategy that female modify behavior to different environments intelligence. Even today, this rudimentary in order to be more reproductively favorable concept is propagandized in media like is an evolved trait that may perhaps lead to magazines, music, and television. The idea male dominance. This type of male- that is often unconsciously sold to the dominating, female-submitting behavior female population is that in order to attract a could potentially occur in situations when mate and be reproductively successful, there is a combination of factors to could women must fulfill unrealistic and culturally allow this type of behavioral response. dictated ideals of beauty. In turn, women According to anthropologist Barbara Smuts, have the potential to become self-fulfilling there are six factors that contribute to the prophecies of this, perhaps even investing formation of a patriarchy. These factors more in beauty than in education. consist of a reduction in female allies due to The fact that in the human immigration, elaboration of male-male population, contrary to the majority of alliances, increased male control over nature, women are the “showier” sex does resources, increased hierarchy formation however support the MCC model. Here, we among men, and female strategies that observe that there is mutual male and female reinforce male control over females.30 While competition for mate choice. Evolutionary I will not go into detail of these concepts, theory also reveals that a female’s beauty the general significance of this study is that does not necessarily indicate reproductive it emphasizes the importance of philopatry success. While beauty may help females and support structures for females, as well as attain fertilization and a more diverse the importance of women in positions like selection of mates, beauty will not keep her government and media in order to give a offspring alive to reach reproductive age. voice to feminism and combat perpetuation Observations of chimpanzees like the well- language and ideologies. Smut’s research known matriarch, Flo, show us that females fleshes out the framework that was

29 Darwin, 1859 30 Smuts, 1995

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A Feminist Analysis potentially used to build upon the foundation care or resources to enable the survival of for patriarchy and develop a societal their offspring long enough to reproduce. organization from it. CONCLUSION The Provenance of Patriarchy Neither Christianity nor evolutionary theory It is likely that at the foundation of has inherent patriarchal implications; rather, patriarchy and female oppression lies the complementarian and Social Darwinist desire for reproductive power. Nevertheless, interpretations lead to the perpetuation of many questions remain with this hypothesis. patriarchal ideologies. Nevertheless, it is Why would men want reproductive power? valuable to analyze components of society to What is the purpose of this? How is this determine why moves such as these were related to other forms of oppression like made in the first place. Not only is it racism and xenophobia? What about dangerous to pretend that we are blank slates poverty? What are some modern examples immune to these influences, but it is also where this desire is more apparent and how important for us to identify the relation that does this tie into modern-day examples of we have to these influences so that we can female oppression? better approach issues like patriarchal The facile and perhaps overly oppression. In the end, science allows us to reductionist claim is to conclude that the conclude that natural selection has favored, issue of patriarchy and exploitation boils in humans, the potential to develop and down to a deep-seated male desire to ensure express any one of a wide range of the survival of one’s genes. It is true that reproductive strategies depending on mechanisms like rape, male control of environmental conditions, and that men and resources, male-male alliances, and other women are more monomorphic than manifestations of patriarchy are among the dimorphic. gamut of strategies that are simply no longer This issue is just as important – if not needed in highly advanced and more – to understand as Christians because industrialized nations where reproductive as we reflect on the character of God and success is not as difficult to attain as it once compare this to what ideas are permeating was for our Pleistocene ancestors. In society through certain traditions, ideally the societies like these, perhaps it could be inclusivity and freedom from social argued that patriarchy is manifested more as oppression that Christianity preaches would a systemic issue as opposed to overt control be practiced in all aspects. Otherwise, our of female sexuality. Even if it is a subtler society will continue to perpetuate the form of female oppression, why does it still seemingly endless cycle of oppression and linger in our modern society? inequality pf disenfranchised peoples For lower socioeconomic classes and including women. Natural selection has less developed nations, reproductive power neither morals nor values, but we do – we is something that is not as guaranteed as it is cannot blame a mindless process for societal for those that have access to better health issues. Instead, we should work to fix them.

Literature Cited Belleville, L. L., & Beck, J. R. (2005). Two views on women in ministry. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, c2005.

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Brooten, B. (1982). Women leaders in the ancient synagogue: Inscriptional evidence and background issues. Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press. Bruckner, Matthias and Cortez, Anna. (2015). The 2015 triennial review of the list of least developed countries [PowerPoint slides]. Committee for Development Policy Secretariat. United Nations. Un.org. Collins, Patricia Hill (2009) [1990]. Black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York: Routledge. Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. Berkeley : University of California Press, c1995. Daly, M. (1973). Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women's Liberation. London: Beacon Press. Groothuis, Rebecca Merrill. Good News For Women: A Biblical picture of gender equality. Baker books. 1997. Grenz, Stanley. Women in the Church: A Biblical Theology of Women in Ministry. IVP. 1995. Hrdy, S. (1999). Mother nature: A history of mothers, infants, and natural selection. New York: Pantheon Books. Paul K. J. (1980) The ordination of women. Eerdmans. Paustian-Underdahl, S.C; Walker, L.S; Woehr, D. J. (2014). Gender and perceptions of leadership effectiveness: A meta-analysis of contextual moderators. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol 99(6),1129-1145. Riss, K.J. (2005). Why modern patriarchy is not biblical. God’s Word to Women. Retrieved from: http://godswordtowomen.org/patriarchyriss.htm Rowland, R. H. (1991). “I permit not a woman…” to remain shackled. Oregon: Lighthouse Publishing Company. Separate but equal: The law of the land. Smithsonian National Museum of American History, Behring Center. http://americanhistory.si.edu. Smuts, B. (1995). The evolutionary origins of patriarchy. Human Nature, 6(1), 1-32. doi:10.1007/BF02734133. Stark, C. (2012). By the numbers: Women voters. CNN Library, CNN Politics. Retrieved from: http://www.cnn.com/2012/10/25/politics/btn-women-voters/ Stewart-Williams, S. G. (2013). The Ape That Thought It Was a Peacock: Does Evolutionary Psychology Exaggerate Human Sex Differences?. Psychological Inquiry, 24(3), 137-168. (2015). Chapter 3: Demographic profiles of religious groups. Pew Research Center, Religion and Public Life. Retrieved from: http://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/chapter-3- demographic-profiles-of-religious-groups/ (2014). Country Classification. United Nations. Retrieved from: un.org. (2015). Eleven things women in Saudi Arabia cannot do. The Week, Dennis Publishing ltd. Retrieved from: http://www.theweek.co.uk/60339/eleven-things-women-in-saudi-arabia- cannot-do (2015). Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices. World Health Organization. Retrieved from: http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/ (2015). Women in leadership. Pew Research Center. Social and Demographic Trends. Retrieved from: pewsocialtrends.org.

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