THE IMPACT OF MICROAGGRESSIONS ON TRANSGENDER IDENTITY DEFENSE-RELATED EMOTIONS (TIDE) AND THE EMOTIONAL STATUS, DESIRE FOR SOCIETAL ENGAGEMENT, AND PARTICIPATION IN SUICIDE-RELATED BEHAVIORS IN TRANSGENDER PEOPLE by BETHANY GRACE HOWE A DISSERTATION Presented for the School of Journalism and Communication and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2019 DISSERTATION APPROVAL PAGE Student: Bethany Grace Howe Title: “The Impact of Microaggressions on Transgender Identity Defense-related Emotions (TIDE) and the Emotional Status, Desire for Societal Engagement, and Participation in Suicide-related Behaviors Among Transgender People” This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of Journalism and Communication by: Dean Mundy Chairperson/Advisor Ed Madison Member Julieanne Newton Member Yvette Alex-Assensoh Member John Seeley Outside Member and Janet Woodruff-Borden Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded June 2019 ii © 2019 Bethany Grace Howe iii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT Bethany Grace Howe Doctor of Philosophy School of Journalism and Communication June 2019 Title: “The Impact of Microaggressions on Transgender Identity Defense-related Emotions on the Emotional Status, Desire for Societal Engagement, and Participation in Suicide-related Behaviors in Transgender People” Most transgender people face microaggressions on a regular, even daily basis, causing an impact on the mental health of the person being aggressed against. Though research about these microaggressive impacts has increased in recent years, it still falls behind that conducted into other groups within the LGBTQ spectrum. In particular, it has failed to examine the damage done by microaggressions that deny a transgender person not only their identity, but their categorical existence. More, that research has largely failed to differentiate between proximal, interpersonal microaggressions and more distal, media-based microaggressions. Accordingly, this dissertation explores how both interpersonal and media-based microaggressions, particularly those that serve to deny a transgender person their identity, impact the emotional well-being of transgender people, including their willingness to societally engage and their likelihood of engaging in suicide-related behaviors. This research began with a nationwide Likert-style survey of 225 transgender people about identity-denying microaggressions in their daily life, allowing respondents to be scored from 1 to 7, with higher scaled scores indicating higher emotional impacts from identity-denying microaggressions. In-person follow-up iv interviews with 66 survey respondents were conducted across the United States to facilitate understanding why they responded the way to they do to the regular microaggressive incidents in their life. The survey data and the interviews reveal that the vast majority of transgender people do experience transgender identity defense-related emotions (TIDE). A new construct under the minority stress umbrella, those transgender people with higher scaled scores – TIDE scores – were found to have higher rates of societal disengagement, emotional withdrawal and engagement in suicide-related behaviors. Further, media-based microaggressions were, on average, more emotionally damaging than the same microaggressions occurring interpersonally. v CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Bethany Grace Howe GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene University of Missouri-Columbia University of Colorado-Boulder DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor of Philosophy, Mass Media Studies, 2019, University of Oregon Masters of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Missouri Bachelor of Science, Journalism, 1991, University of Colorado Bachelors of Arts, History, 1991, University of Colorado AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Transgender Identity Suicide and Mental Health PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Teacher, Lincoln County School District, 2005 – 2015 Reporter and Editor, Newport News-Times, 2005 - 2006 Performer and Media Coordinator, Disney On Ice, 1998 - 2001 GRANTS, AWARDS, AND HONORS: Distinguished Teaching Award, University of Oregon, 2019 Kappa Tau Alpha Top Scholar, University of Oregon, 2019 Best Student Paper, LGBTQ Interest Group, ICA, 2019 Martin Luther King, Jr. Award, University of Oregon, 2017 vi PUBLICATIONS: Parr, N. J. and Howe, G. G. (in press) Heterogeneity of Transgender Identity Nonaffirmation Microaggressions and the Association with Depression Symptoms and Suicidality among Transgender Persons. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sincere thanks goes to Dean Mundy (Ph.D.), who is my committee chair, advisor, and mentor. I wish to also acknowledge my other four committee members: Ed Madison, who guided my first three years in this school, and to whom I will always be grateful for his role in helping me gain acceptance to the SOJC; Julianne Newton (Ph.D.) whose care and kindness let me know I was valued; John Seely (Ph.D.) who was exactly who I needed to find to continue my work; and Yvette Alex-Assensoh (Ph.D.) who wears many hats – every one of which I have found valuable. I also wish to acknowledge Pat Curtin (Ph.D.) whose door was open literally – yes, that word is accurate – every time I desperately needed her. Nicholas J. Parr, more than just a co-author on my research, for helping me show that sometimes numbers are the best way to tell a story. And finally, Sophia Hutchins, Caitlyn Jenner, and Alan Nierob who encouraged me and ultimately enabled me to chase my dreams that started long before this dissertation. viii To my family: Those who chose to inspire me before they knew me: My grandmother, Alpha Day. Those who chose me: My parents, Bart & Mary Howe Those who were chosen with me: My brother & sister-in-law, Jason & Robin Howe. Those who I chose: Elaine Pruett & Tara Boggs. And most especially the only person who will forever be all four: My daughter, Nola Victoria Longueira. Thank you being patient with me. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................1 II: LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................................8 Terminology: Vocabulary and Guiding Theories ....................................................8 Transgender........................................................................................................9 Identity ...............................................................................................................9 Microaggressions .............................................................................................11 Suicide and Suicidal Ideation...........................................................................12 Microaggression Theory ..................................................................................13 Self-Verification Theory ..................................................................................21 Physicality as Societal “Proof” ..................................................................23 Transgenderism as a Mental Illness ...........................................................24 Approval of the Medical Community ........................................................25 Transgender Persons as Deceivers .............................................................26 Other Groups with “Non-existence” ..........................................................28 Interpersonal Theory of Suicide.......................................................................36 Transgender Identity ..............................................................................................39 The Identities of Transgender People ..............................................................40 Queer Theory ...................................................................................................43 Symbolic Interaction Theory ...........................................................................46 Transgender Lives and Media ................................................................................48 Media Theory ...................................................................................................48 x Chapter Page Transgender Depictions in Media ....................................................................49 Suicide ..............................................................................................................58 Thwarted Belongingness ..................................................................................60 Psychache .........................................................................................................61 Identity non-affirmation ...................................................................................62 Hypotheses and Research Questions .....................................................................64 III. THE PILOT STUDY .............................................................................................69 Transgender Identity Defense-related Emotions, The Pilot Study ........................69 How the Pilot Study Connects to the Dissertation .................................................72 IV. METHODS: