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Agency and Authority on the Chatsworth Estate, 1811-1877 By Power at the Power House: Agency and Authority on the Chatsworth Estate, 1811-1877 By: Lauren Butler A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Faculty of Arts and Humanities School of English and Department of History This work was supported by the Arts & Humanities Research Council (grant number AH/M007316/1). 28/02/2019 2 Abstract Power is a central concept in the language of country house studies. Commonly referred to as ‘power houses’, the primary function of properties such as Chatsworth in Derbyshire is understood as the consolidation and reproduction of aristocratic power. In this narrative of upper-class supremacy, the communities that lived on these estates are conceptually divided in binary terms of upstairs and downstairs, master and servant, landlord and tenant, the powerful and the powerless. This thesis problematises the concept of absolute power on the country estate by drawing on the work of sociologists such as Pierre Boudieu and Anthony Giddens, to ask how power might be approached in more nuanced terms. By defining power as an individual’s capacity to effect change, in however small a way, it accesses new perspectives and suggests how fresh relevance can be drawn from archival material. This thesis finds that far from being insular and isolated, Chatsworth was a microcosm of English society in which daily interactions played out across a diverse community. It therefore speaks to wider issues of class and gender tensions, and individual agency within institutional structures in nineteenth-century Britain. This thesis understands the symbolic power of the landowning family as part of the sociocultural context, rather than the substance, of social relations on the country estate. It is interested in the experiences of servants, staff and tenants not as facilitators of an upper-class lifestyle, but as individuals with their own social and material aspirations and agency. The chapters examine all areas of the estate, from the village to the household, in order to chart a holistic narrative of this dynamic country house community and its residents during a time of significant local and national change. 3 Acknowledgements My experience as part of the ‘From Servants to Staff’ project has been a privilege, and I have many people to thank for making the last four years so rewarding and enjoyable. My first and biggest thanks must go to Jane Hodson, who created and oversaw this project with incredible dedication. Jane has been my mentor not only throughout the thesis-writing process but in all areas from organising conferences, to teaching, to working out what comes next. The other half of my amazing academic supervision team is Julia Moses, whose encouraging feedback and endless knowledge of the nineteenth century have been invaluable. I feel very lucky to have had two such supportive supervisors. Thank you also to Karen Harvey and Esme Cleall for your help in the early stages of the project and for participating in the conference. In addition to my supervisors at Sheffield I have benefitted from the support and encouragement of my colleagues in the collections team at Chatsworth. In particular I must thank Aidan Haley, James Towe and Fran Baker for all of their help facilitating our access to the archives. Many thanks also to Kate Brindley, Kerry Carrie, Ian Gregory, Andrew Peppitt, Diane Naylor, Martha Marriott, Hannah Obee, Charles Noble and all of the other staff and volunteers who have made us feel welcome. I am grateful to Chatsworth, and to the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire for generously hosting us for three years and giving us opportunities to share our research with visitors. Thank you to the AHRC for funding the project, and to the WRoCAH team at York for funding many of my conference trips and research visits. I must also thank Amy Ryall for all the various ways that she has helped us, from storytelling opportunities to event planning. The best part of writing this thesis as part of a wider project has been sharing the experience with Hannah Wallace and Fiona Clapperton. It is impossible to express how much your friendship has meant in these last few years. I couldn’t have asked for better colleagues and I can’t wait to see what we do next. Thank you both. I would also like to thank all of the friendly and inspiring students, academics and delegates I have met at conferences and other events, and also on Twitter. An especially big thank you to everyone who came to Powering the Power House in 2018. Another joy of this project has been the opportunity to learn from family history researchers and to share my research with them. I am grateful in particular to David Wisternoff, Eileen Pratt, David Raywood, Emilie Hance, Pat Bird, Andrew Ellis and Bill Jager, for their 4 generosity. Thank you also to everyone else who has sent encouraging comments and asked thoughtful questions after attending our talks and events. Thank you to my undergraduate supervisor Andrew Hopper, firstly for asking me in 2014 if I had considered doing a PhD (I had not!), and then for helping me with the application process. Thank you also to Sheila Watson, Richard Jones, Richard Sandell and all of my old colleagues at Leicester for their encouragement. Thanks also to my colleagues at Derby Museums for your kindness in the last 6 months of writing. Finally, thank you to Richard Batt for his unwavering support, for the cups of tea, for the weekend walks, for celebrating the high points with me and helping me through the difficult days. I am grateful as always to my family, at home and abroad, for their love and encouragement. I could not have done any of this without you. 5 Power at the Power House: Agency and Authority on the Chatsworth Estate, 1811-1877 Table of Contents Introduction 11 Power on the Country Estate 15 Structure on the Country Estate 22 Sources and Methodology 30 Chapter Overview 37 Chapter One: Change and Continuity at Nineteenth-Century Chatsworth 40 Surveying the Staff 44 Change and Continuity in the Female Staff 52 Agency in Change 62 The Dukes of Devonshire 72 The Dukes’ Advisors 84 Chapter Two: Model Villagers: Gentrification, Comfort and Dependence in the Estate Village 102 The Transformation of Edensor 105 The Performance of the Model Village 111 Influences Behind the Reconstruction 113 A Middle-Class Vision for an Upper-Class Estate 121 The Embourgeoisement of Edensor 126 The Bodily Comfort of Tenants 135 The Financial Comfort of Tenants 146 Agency and Dependence 151 Chapter Three: Pride and Primula: Identity, Mobility and Gender in the Gardens 161 The Chatsworth Gardens in the Nineteenth Century 165 The Gardeners 171 The Structure of the Gardens 175 6 Liminality in the Community 178 Mobility and Boundary Crossings 182 Gender and Authority 197 The Indoor/Outdoor Boundary 206 Chapter Four: Salmon, Silk and Sacred Songs: Conspicuous Consumption “Below Stairs” 213 Hierarchy and Consumption 216 Consumption and Misconduct 222 High Life “Below Stairs” 224 Elizabeth Bickell on Trial 232 The Housekeeper’s Place 252 A “Fallen Woman”? 260 The New Housekeeper 264 Conclusion 268 Implications for Heritage Interpretation 274 Bibliography 279 7 List of Figures Fig. 1.1: ‘Depressed Dukes’, Punch (June 1894). 74 Fig. 2.1: Jan Siberechts, ‘A View of Chatsworth from the East’, c. 1703. 107 Fig. 2.2: A map of Edensor, 1858. 110 Fig. 2.3: A photograph of the Wilson family’s cottage in Edensor. 141 Fig. 2.4: A map of Edensor and surrounding lands in 1858. 144 Fig. 3.1: A photograph of gardeners outside the Great Stove, c. 1900. 170 Fig. 4.1: A photograph of Chatsworth household servants outside Flora’s Temple, c.1880. 219 Fig. 4.2: ‘Music at Home’, Punch (1874). 238 List of Charts Chart 1.1: A chart showing the ratio of local to non-local servants at Chatsworth. 58 Chart 1.2: A chart showing the average distance between full-time indoor servants’ 59 birthplaces and Chatsworth. Chart 1.3: A graph showing the living situations of gardeners at Chatsworth. 64 Chart 1.4: A graph showing the percentage of gardeners born in Derbyshire and born 65 elsewhere. Chart 2.1: A graph showing the occupations of adults in Edensor. 132 Chart 2.2: A comparison of average rents in Pilsley and Edensor between 1821 and 1877. 148 Chart 3.1: A chart showing the number of months gardener James White spent working in 196 each garden department at Chatsworth between 1837 and 1842. List of Tables Table 3.1: A table showing the number of gardeners recorded in the census at Baslow, 173 Beeley, Chatsworth, Edensor and Pilsley. 8 Abbreviations NA National Archives NLI National Library of Ireland OED Oxford English Dictionary DC The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth UCL University College London’s Special Collections UNL University of Nottingham Library 9 10 Power at the Power House: Agency and Authority on the Chatsworth Estate, 1811-1877 Lauren Butler Introduction I am prepared to prove there is very considerable improvement in our Villages within the last few years, which I am sure will progress if the people are properly managed, and not over interfered with.1 In 1841, William Cavendish, the 6th Duke of Devonshire received advice about the management of tenants at his Chatsworth estate in Derbyshire. Despite extensive improvements to the villages, some individuals had been accused of immoral and illegal activities. This letter about the behaviour in ‘our’ villages did not come from a family member or upper-class friend of the Duke, but from head gardener Joseph Paxton.
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