Temple Art & Architecture of Davanagere District – a Study

Science, Technology and Development ISSN : 0950-0707

Temple Art & Architecture of Davanagere District – A Study

*Dr.Thippeswamy.H, Associate Professor of History, Dept of History and Archaeology Vijayanagara Sri Krishnadevaraya University - Ballari

Abstract

Situated in the foothills of the Western Ghats, Davangere city lies in the state of Karnataka in India. Earlier this place was known for its textile business’ and cotton mills but now it’s famous for education and a prominent center for business and economy. Davangere district was established in 1997 after it separated itself from Chitradurga. A survey of the religious phenomenon in the Indian context from the perspective of space and time reveals that it was never static but constantly underwent modifications by assimilating and absorbing new features of practices and worship. Sanatanadharma, the forerunner of the later day Hinduism, advocated Jnana, Vairagya, Bhakti and Karma paths to reach God, while Jnana and Vairagya paths were followed by superior intellectual groups, the Karma and Bhakti paths are followed by common folk.It is a well-known fact of history that Vedic Yagnas, worship of primitive deities with offering of blood, meat and toddy, the domestic rituals and worship of icon in temples of Davangere, heterodox beliefs like Jainism and Buddhism flourished side by side, sometimes competing for space and sometimes adjusting, accommodating and absorbing other rituals into its fold.We have already noted that initiation of puranic dharma in the Gupta and post-Gupta era along with devotionalism of an individual God – Siva and Vishnu and Sakthi worship revived the age-old Bhakti Marga as a popular way to attain God and to achieve liberation. It is to be noted that the Bhakti movement evolved in the South due to the efforts of saints, was different from the early Bhagavata cult of northern India.

There is no unanimity among scholars regarding the nature of the Bhakti cult. K.A.N. Sastri observes that this movement was strongly theistic in its character and definitely aimed at putting down Jainism and Buddhism in Davangere. R. Champakalakshmi points out that the religious changes of the 7th to 9th centuries are hence viewed as a revival of orthodox forms, though not strictly a revival of Vedic religion per se. The Bhakti movement in Davangere has often been characterized as a popular movement of dissent or protest against the social hierarchy of the Brahmanical order. Prsesnt paper looks at the temple architecture of Davangere district

Keywords— Davangere, Bhakti cult, temple, Siva and Vishnu and Sakthi, Gupta, chalukya

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Introduction

Bhakti movement represented an ideology which sought to reflect and legitimize the emerging socio- political order which developed as an unpremeditated by-product of the new Brahmanical agrarian settlements centred on temples, partly as a means of fulfilling their missions and partly as an antithesis. Whatever may have been the objective and nature of the Bhakti movement, an ardent personalized devotion to Siva and Vishnu become deep-rooted in the psyche of the common people.

The Saiva saints are known as Nayanars and the Vishnava saints are known as Alvars. We have references to 63 Nayanars and 12 Alvars. Soul-stirring songs 158 The Post-Gupta Period in the Deuan and the Peninsula were composed in Tamil in praise of Siva and Vishnu and sung in temples. The most important of the Nayanars were Tirunavakkarasu, a Vellala, Jnanasambandar, a Brahmin and Sundaramurthi, another Brahman. Nambi Anadr collected the hymns of the above three in a canonical work called Theuaram.Another Saint Nayanar Manikkavasagar was also very popular. We also come across a female Nayanar from Karaikkal, Nandanar, and a pariah, whose hymns attracted the attention of many devotees. The well-known Vaishnav Alvars were Nammalvar, Timmankaialvar and well-respected and revered woman-poet Andal. The Vaishanav saints’ compositions are collected in a canonical work called Nalayirajaprabandham. Although there were some Brahmins, among the saints, most of them were of the lower castes, belonging to the community of cultivators and artisans.

The sacred texts of the Divyaprabhandam reveal that Vaishnavism had its major centres in the northern and southemmost parts of Tamil Nadu and a few in the Kaveri region. Contrary to the Vaishnava impact the Saiva centres had their greatest concentration in the Chola region, i.e., Kaveri valley, in around the Pallava and Pandya capitals Kanchipuram and Madurai and their centres appear to be more than the Vishnava centres. By the time of the Cholas, Saiva centres proliferated beyond the Kaveri region.Saivism could acquire a more popular and stronger base through the incorporation of mother-goddess worship, along with tribal and popular forms of worship. The inclusion of Murugan, a tribal deity into the Saiva pantheon was also a clever move which made Saivism very popular. While Saivism gained ground among agricultural and artisanal groups belonging to lower social order, Vaishnavism was popular among the dominant peasant groups and ruling elite.

Innumerable lithic records and some copper plates and literary texts like Vikramankadevacharita, Manasoltasa and Vikramankabhyudctya of Bhulokamalla Somevara, Mitakshara of Vignaneswara, Merutunga’s Prabandhachintamani and Ranna’s Gadayuddha and Ajitapurana are very helpful to a student of history in reconstructing the historical and cultural edifice of the times of Kalyani Chalukyas.

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Objective:

The present paper seeks to study the architecture of Davangere temples in historical context and contributions of various kingdoms to the development of temple architecture.

Historical setting

The Chalukyas of Kalyani claim to be the close kith and kin of the Vatapi Chalukyas. But the origin of this family is debatable. After a close study of the available evidences, B.R. Gopal held the view that the Chalukayas were an indigenous Kannada family belonging to the occupation of agriculture and military background, who settled in and around and the Badami region. B.R. Gopal further thinks the word Chalukya is an archaic Kannada term.

The founder of the Chalukyas of Kalyani line Tailapa II, who was a feudatory of Rashtrakuta Krishna III, declared independence and started his reign from AD 973. He ruled for a period of 24 years from AD 973 to 997 and is credited with victories over Chedi, Orissa, Nepal and Kuntala. He is also said to have killed Munja, the Paramara ruler of Malwa. Taila was succeeded by his son Satyasraya, who claims to have won a victory over a Chola invader. Satyasraya was followed in succession by Vikramaditya V, Jayasimha I and Jagadekamalla. Jagadekamalla claims to have defeated Paramara Bhoja, the ruler of Malwa and the ruler of Chedi and Rajendra of the Chola line.

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Jagadekamalla was followed by Somesvara I who ruled from AD 1042 to 1068 with the titles of Ahavamalla and Trailokyamalla. Bilhana in his Vikramankadevacharita states that Somesvara I built the city of Kalyana and made it his capital. V. Venkataraya Sastry is of the view that Kalyana appears to have been in existence even during the reign of Jayasimha II and was one of his Nelavidus or Skandhavaras.

As Sankaracharya in his Soundrayalahari mentions the city of Kalyana as great Devipitha, it can be safely surmised that Somesvara I made Kalyana a well guarded city and shifted his capital to Kalyana in the longer and larger interest of the safety from the invaders.

Jayasimha Jagadekamalla’s records refer to Etagiri, Kolhapur, Poltalakera or Patancheruvu, Kolippakai as Nelavidus or Skandhavaras or capitals and further a record dated AD 1044 refers to Pottalakere as the capital of Somesvara I. B.R. Gopal is of the view that it was only after AD 1044 that the capital was shifted to Kalyani, now in the Bidar district of the Karnataka region 48 miles north-east from Malkhed, the capital of the Rashtrakutas.

Somesvara I carried on the struck with the contemporary Chola power. While the Chalukyas claim victory over the Cholas, the Cholas stoutly deny it. Chola epigraphs claim that Somesvara I was defeated at Koppam in AD 1055 and again at Kudalasangamam in AD 1061. It appears that Dharavarsha, the Nagavamsi ruler of Chakrakuta accepted his supremacy and the territories of Kosala and Kalinga were occupied by him. After Somesvara I, his son Somesvara II became the ruler with the title of Bhuvanaikamalla and ruled till AD 1076. From Bilhana, we come to know that Somesvara I wanted to make his second son Vikramaditya his successor and after the refusal of the offer by Vikramaditya, Somesvara II was made the ruler.

The Chalukyas of Kalyani patronized fine arts. An epigraph dated in AD 1045 refers to the construction of a Natakasala or theatre in the premises of a Jaina temple. We have epigraphic references to a flutist, songsters, florists, drummers and dancers, being given grants for their maintenance.

On the basis of epigraphical evidences, K.A.N. Sastri holds the view that next to the court, the temple was the great promoter of fine arts. Architecture, sculpture in stone and metal, and painting were promoted by the temples. An inscription dated AD 1085 from Nagai refers to a great sculptor Nagoja, who is called Kandarana Vidyadhirajam, the master of the art of engraving and we have references to other sculptures and engravings.We have evidence of an epigraph from Shirur which states that Kankana or bracelet, Katisutra or waistband, Nupura or anklet and three sets of necklaces with suitable pendents were offered to the temple of Vishnu. We have reference to a merchant Sovisetti who supplied precious stones to the emperor and to General Barmadeva.Trade and commence and agriculture were the backbones of the economy of the Chalukyan state. Majority of the people were engaged in agriculture as an occupation. The rulers encouraged agricultural operations by providing irrigational facilities like excavation of tanks,

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construction of irrigation canals which increased the fertility of the soil. A number of epigraphs testify to the above mentioned activities.

A Chola Temple in the Heartland of Karnataka, Bethuru, Davanagere

There are quite a few temples in this region and Northern Karnataka built by the Cholas in the post Badami Chalukyan era. Earlier this year, we got a chance to visit Sri Basaveshwara temple at Hallur of Bagalkot district, also built by the Cholas around 8th century. Thus, it was quite intriguing to explore more Chola temples in the heartland of Karnataka, which otherwise is dominated by the Art and Architecture of the Hoysalas and Chalukyas. Bethuru is a small village lost in oblivion, and the was evident as many of my local friends were totally ignorant and uninformed of its location and whereabouts. Though this village popped up on the google map, we were surprised that the locals were unaware of its existence owing to its close proximity to Davanagere.However, we were displeased to witness such a beautiful temple in a sheer state of neglect, without any care or maintenance.

Kalleshwara temple

While we were moving around, a person came by and introduced himself as the caretaker of Sri Kalleshwara temple, though an unofficial one. He visits the temple daily to do the necessary cleaning of the temple and decks up the god here with the flowers he collects. Though there are no daily pujas/rituals being performed here, he tries his best to keep the temple alive by lighting deepas (lamps) everyday. He shares his personal experience about how doctors gave up hope on his survival due to his chronic diabetic condition and that he would survive only for a few days. But ever since he started visiting this temple daily, he has only felt better, without facing any major health issues. He went on to explain that nobody in the village is interested in the upbringing of the temple and its maintenance, and whatever little money was raised to restore the temple was taken off by a few greedy people who ran away from the village and never returned. A lot of snakes happen to visit this temple regularly and embrace the Shiva Linga here, with one such incident having occurred recently during the Dasara festival.

This temple was built by the Cholas between the 8th and 9th centuries, post the weakening of the Badami Chalukyas and before the rise of Rashtrakutas. Later in the 11th century, this temple under went a few additions under the Kalyana Chalukyas. Many hero-stones found here which are now kept near the temple belong to the Kalyana Chalukyas. The most pleasing sight here is that of a beautiful carving on the ceiling panel of 'Gajasura Samara/ Gajasurasamhara' (depiction of Lord Shiva slaying the elephant demon Gajasura) in the central portion, surrounded by the Ashtadikapalas. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva in the form of a Linga, with murtis of goddesses Saraswathi and Sapthamatrikas and Lord Subramanya kept in the Navaranga of the temple. The Shikara of the temple is a perfect example of early Cholan architecture.

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This temple definitely needs and deserves more care and maintenance in order to be preserved for future generations.

Western Chalukyas: Bagali

Bagali also known as Balgali during the medieval period, was an important agrahara right from the times of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana who were succeeded by the Hoysalas and Vijayanagara. The main temple was constructed during the reign of the western Chalukyan King Ahavamalla in 987 AD and consecrated by Duggimayya. Inscriptionally the main deity is known as Kalideva. The temple, facing east, is constructed close to the embankment of huge tank of the village Bagali to its north. The temple on plan consists of a garbhagriha, an antarala, a mahamandapa with an entrance in the south and east, a huge open sabhamandapa, a shrine for Surya with an astylar mukhamandapa built slightly away from the main entrance, all in east-west orientation. A shrine of Narasimha with an antarala and a passage exists to the north of the sabhamandapa. The sabhamandapa is well-known for its fifty ornate pillars supporting the highly decorated ceiling. Of these twenty four pillars are constructed over the jagati provided with kakshasana. The temple is also known for intricately carved doorways. The eastern end of the sabhamandapa accommodates a couchant bull. There are eight shrines built around the main one. The late Chalukyan sculptures, kept in the mahamandapa of the temple, include Siva, Umamahesvara, Ganesa, Karttikeya, Surya, Anantasayana, Sarasvati and Mahishamardini. There are thirty six inscriptions in the temple assignable to the 10th -11th century AD which record donations to the gods Kalideva and Narasimha.

Santhebennur: magnificent structures of South India

The name of Santhebennur town in Davangere district brings to mind images of a historical pushkarini (sacred pond), which is known for its architectural beauty. In fact, the history of Santhebennur is closely linked to the pushkarini. The region was a part of the Vijayanagar empire, and Kenga Hanumantappa Nayaka, a local palegar, built a Rama Temple and a pushkarini here in the 16th century. God Rama was the family deity of the Nayaka rulers. Now, even after five centuries, the structure remains intact. Today, the pushkarini with a majestic mantapa at the centre is considered to be one of the magnificent structures of South India. Indo-Arabic style It is said that the Vasanta Mantapa, at the centre of the pushkarini, was built to commemorate Kenga Hanumantappa Nayaka’s victory over the rulers of Bijapur. The sides of the pushkarini, also known as Santhebennur Honda, are veneered with granite steps. There are 52 granite steps from the main entrance in the west direction and 44 steps in other three sides. Initially, there were eight towers at the cardinal points (representing eight directions). However, of these eight, only six remain intact now.

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The pond spans over an area of about 250 feet (length) and 240 feet (width), with a depth of over 30 feet. The Vasantha Mantapa is a symmetrical pillared tower and exhibits Indo-Arabic style of architecture. The multi-level mantapa covers an area of about 34 square feet. While the arches, vaults and domes of the mantapa represent the Arabic style; its columns, pyramidical towers and carving embody Indian style of architecture. The mantapa is built in such a way that, for an onlooker on the banks of the pushkarini, it appears to be floating on water. It is said that the mantapa has a water storage facility at its base and supplies water to an inbuilt working fountain. This feature of the mantapa gives it another name — karanji mantapa (fountain mantapa). Different geometrical figures, specifically flowers, adorn each floor, enhancing its beauty. These artworks exhibit the ingenuity of artists of that era. The first floor has similar openings on all four sides. The top floor has a hemispherical dome embedded with carvings. Local people say that when the pond is full, the water can cover the mantapa till a height of 10 feet. The pond was used to perform teppotsava, or floating festival, of the deity. As per the ritual, the utsava murthi of the main deity was taken out of the temple and was placed on a decorated platform on a boat and taken around the pushkarini.

It is said that scores of people from across the region used to gather to witness this colourful festival and the family members of the Nayaka rulers would witness the festival from the mantapas on the banks of the pushkarini. A place to rest According to historical records, later in the 17th century, the army of Bijapur sultan led by commander Ranadullakhan invaded Santhebennur. Ranadullakhan, along with his followers Pattekhan and Faridkhan, constructed a musafirkhana (a place to rest) on the bank of the pond. The spacious building with a dimension of 150 feet length and 40 feet width exhibits Muslim architectural style and is made of granite stones. A large, pillared hall with pointed arches and attractive inlay work was probably used as a prayer hall as well. The entrance to the hall is flanked by many arched windows. The entrance is arched and can be identified by its large width. These are built in the Indo-Arabic style. Artistic stone pillars with columns on four sides can be seen supporting the roof inside this building. The interiors of the building with pillars placed in three horizontal and eight vertical lines makes it a geometrically- perfect design.

The four-century-old building is still strong and the minars carved on the edges of the front part of the building add to the beauty of the building. Floral sculptures are embossed on the walls while intricate designs decorate the windows. Entry to the building, which was also used as a military store for sometime, is restricted now. One can see similar buildings in Vijayapura too. It is said that in the due course, Ranadullakhan built a masjid here. Thus, now one can see both Rama Temple and a masjid together near the pushkarini, representing communal integrity. The premises of the pushkarini is being maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India — Bengaluru Circle (ASI). Within this premises, one can find a beautifully maintained garden as well. If you are looking to visit the pushkarini, Santhebennur is around

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250 km from Bengaluru and 30 km from Davangere. Other places of interest in the region include Bathi Gudda, Shantisagara Dam and Kundawada Tank. Temples such as Harihareshwara Temple, Eshwara Temple and Bagali Kalleshwara Temple are popular as well

Conclusion

The remains of the earliest temple structure were discovered in Surkh Kotal, a place in Afghanistan, by a French archeologist in 1951. It was not dedicated to a god, but to the imperial cult of King Kanishka.The earliest temple structures were not made of stones or bricks, which came much later. In ancient times, public or community temples were possibly made of clay with thatched roofs made of straw or leaves. Cave- temples were prevalent in remote places and mountainous terrains.

The Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary that is home to different species of animals and birds like the wild boar, leopards, giant squirrel, Malabar whistling thrush and grey jungle fowls is a popular tourist destination. The Siruvani waterfalls and Dam are also worth seeing. Built hundreds of years ago, the Durgambika temple was built during the rule of Chalukyas and quite popular among tourists. So Hindus consider the building of temples an extremely pious act, bringing great religious merit. Hence, kings and wealthy men were eager to sponsor the construction of temples, notes Swami Harshananda, and the various steps of building the shrines were performed as religious rites.

References

1. Marc Gaborieau (1985), From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: idiom, ritual and ideology of the Hindu-Muslim confrontation in South Asia, Anthropology Today, 1(3), pp. 7-14. 2. Ellora Caves Cave 16 – Kailasha Hindu Temple, 8th Century CE, UNESCO 3. Venkataramanan, K. (17 November 2019). "What does the Places of Worship Act protect?". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 28 December 2019. 4. "The Place of Worship(Special Provisions) Act, 1991" (PDF). Government of India. 5. Rautray, Samanwaya (10 October 2002). "1991 central law precludes Ayodhya judgment setting precedent". www.telegraphindia.com. 6. Matthew Atmore Sherring (1868). The Sacred City of the Hindus: An Account of Benares in Ancient and Modern Times. Trübner & co. p. 51. 7. Madhuri Desai (2007). Resurrecting Banaras: Urban Space, Architecture and Religious Boundaries. ProQuest. ISBN 978-0-549-52839-5.

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8. Richard Eaton (2000), Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States, Journal of Islamic Studies, 11(3), pp 283-319 9. Robert Bradnock; Roma Bradnock (2000). India Handbook. McGraw-Hill. p. 959. ISBN 978-0-658-01151-1. 10. Werner, Karel (1994). A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. Curzon Press. ISBN 0-7007- 1049-3.

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