Defining a New Citizenship for South Africa and the Fundamental Values That Will Shape It
14 June 2001 Sunnyside Park Hotel Parktown, Johannesburg Table of Contents
Introduction 5 Prof. Edith Raidt, Vice-Chancellor, St Augustine College of South Africa
Welcoming Remarks 7 Dr Michael Lange, Resident Representative, Konrad Adenauer Foundation
Setting the Scene: In Search of a New Citizenship 11 Prof. Edith Raidt, Vice-Chancellor, St Augustine College of South Africa
Civility in a Post-Apartheid Era: Tolerance is Not Enough 15 Dr Vincent Maphai, Board Chairperson, South African Broadcasting Corporation; Corporate Affairs Director, South African Breweries
Good Corporate Governance: A Fundamental Value for New Citizenship in South Africa 21 Mervyn King, SC and former Judge of Supreme Court
Defining a New Citizenship for South Africa: Culture, Diversity and Recognition 29 Dr Reverend Makhenkesi Stofile, Premier, Eastern Cape
The Sources of Citizenship: The Family and Civic Associations 35 Chief Rabbi Cyril Harris, Union of Orthodox Synagogues of South Africa
Competence, Character and Compassion as Values in Education 41 Professor Emmanuel Ngara, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, University of Natal
Competence, Character and Compassion as Values in Education 49 Dr Neil McGurk, Director of Research and Development Unit, Sacred Heart College
Economics and Redistribution – the Role of Business: Can a Corporation be a Citizen? 55 Prof. Kenneth Goodpaster, University of St Thomas, United States
3 Table of Contents
The Fight Against Poverty: Social Security, Job Creation and Responsibility 63 Prof. Anthony Asher, Director of Actuarial Studies, University of the Witwatersrand
Role of the Church in a Country of Religious Pluralism 71 Cardinal Wilfrid Napier, Archbishop, Durban
Programme 75
Participants’ List 77
Seminar Reports 83
Occasional Paper Series 85
4 Introduction
Who and what is a citizen? What is citizenship? What are the values that should underpin and charac- terise a new citizenship for a country such as South Africa that is going through a process of compre- hensive transformation? The Leadership Seminar conducted by St Augustine College of South Africa in collaboration with the Konrad Adenauer Foundation, and held in Johannesburg on 14 June 2001, explored these fundamental issues and questions.
The purpose of the seminar – which had as its theme Defining a New Citizenship for South Africa and the Fundamental Values That Will Shape It – was to focus on the need to create an awareness in society of the social responsibility of its citizens and to encourage people to participate in community affairs.
Taking into account the recent past of this country and the first years of the experience of being a democracy after 1994, one has to agree that tolerance is not enough. Civility in a post-apartheid era requires an all-round and values-based education in the public and the private sector, in the family and civic associations, in the business world, the political arena and in the churches.
While the speakers provided broad perspectives and in-depth analyses of our complex situation, the lively participation from the floor showed how relevant the topic was and how much needed to be done to educate the citizenry of a new society.
The aim of the seminar was to stimulate an educational discourse that would help responsible leaders and educationists to gain more clarity on a matter of extreme importance and to find ways to implement suitable strategies.
This is one of the aims of St Augustine College of South Africa, the new private higher education insti- tution, which hopes to work in partnership with government, business and the education sector to bring about an ethical awareness as a step towards the shaping of a new society.
Many participants expressed the wish to continue and deepen the discussions on these issues. We hope that the publication of the seminar papers will promote an ongoing intellectual dialogue and the search for practical implementations in order to shape a new citizenship for South Africa.
Professor Edith Raidt Vice-Chancellor St Augustine College of South Africa
5 Welcoming Remarks
Michael Lange
INTRODUCTION with political parties and their respective think- On behalf of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation tanks but also with reputable education and (KAF), I would like to extend a very warm research institutions. It has wide-ranging pro- welcome to you all. grammes in the different provinces of South It is with great pleasure that we are cooperat- Africa. ing for the second time with St Augustine College of South Africa. Today’s conference – 2. CRISIS OF MORALITY Defining a New Citizenship for South Africa Since the adoption of the new South African and the Fundamental Values That Will Shape It Constitution in May 1996 and the subsequent – will continue to strengthen our working rela- accession of Thabo Mbeki to the South African tionship with this new, aspiring institute of Presidency, the concept of an “African learning, especially since the conference theme Renaissance” has taken centre stage. forms part and parcel of KAF’s ongoing effort This African Renaissance seeks the rebirth of to contribute in a meaningful way to discus- spiritual values which are in the depths of all sions regarding the ongoing democratic transi- humanity. It recognises that although each of tion of South Africa. us has personal responsibilities, these are accomplished by cooperating with others. This 1. KAF freedom of association produces common KAF is a German-based political foundation social responsibilities. that has been cooperating with partners I believe it is fair to state that the South throughout the world for more than 35 years, Africa of today is facing a crisis of morality, in its quest to promote democracy and good demoralising every aspect of society. The governance. We have become convinced that vicious destructive effect of moral delinquency the creation and consolidation of a democratic affects all sectors of state and civil society, and political framework is one of the essential con- demands a united response from all sectors, ditions on which any development process irrespective of their political, ethnic or reli- depends. gious differences. The strengthening of institutions and The most visible signs of moral degeneration structures that guide the development of a con- in our society are exemplified by contempt for stitutional and legal order and that favour the the law and the state and the virtual collapse of consolidation of the rule of law has been at the a system of social behaviour informed by the forefront of KAF’s activities in South Africa – precepts of humanism which, historically, have especially since transformation processes all informed particularly the African culture. over the world, and particularly in Africa, have There are many examples of unethical atti- been offering greater opportunities for direct tudes that contribute to the promotion of involvement. immorality as a way of life throughout South In South Africa, KAF cooperates not only African society.
7 Lange
It seems also fair to state that for a long time South Africa has one of the world’s most South Africa suffered under an illegitimate sys- elaborate constitutions, revolving around exec- tem of governance and therefore a regime of utive accountability to the legislature. Over and laws and organs of the state, which enjoyed no above this, the South African Constitution also moral authority in the eyes of the majority of provides for special institutions such as the people in South Africa and around the world. Public Protector, the Constitutional Court and Many have therefore drawn the conclusion the Auditor General, which jointly aim at assur- that the apartheid era opened the way for moral ing accountable government in the best tradi- degradation and spiritual bankruptcy. tion of democracy. When political change finally occurred in But concerns about corruption have intensi- 1994 neither black nor white communities in fied in South Africa in recent months. The cur- South Africa were experienced in living in free- rent discussions around the arms deal seem to dom, and both were unprepared for it when indicate that all is not well in this regard. freedom eventually came. Daniel Bell, a renown sociologist from the However, the question of how a nation United States (US), recently suggested that the should go about restoring its moral character central political cleavage of the post–Cold War needs to be answered. How should a country world would not be between left and right, nor recovering from an era of repression and under- between secularists and fundamentalists – as going transition and social reconciliation treat Huntington predicted – but between the clean severe unemployment, an extremely high crime and the corrupt. In his opinion, the substance of rate, the AIDS pandemic and a stagnant econo- politics would be stripped down to the simple my, at the same time ensuring that this is done question of honesty. in an honourable, moral way? Although history is littered with examples of We are all aware of the fact that poverty can populations that live for years in appalling inhibit morality, and a society overwhelmed by squalor and never mounted a political challenge social problems eats away at ethics. Does an or posed a serious electoral threat as long as the economic environment that makes it impossible identification between the leaders and the led for much of the population to obtain a liveli- remained strong, it remains likely that poverty hood, compel millions to beg or even steal? combined with the perception that the political Should society be forced to offer such people a class is self-serving, will open spaces for popu- viable alternative to crime? lar opposition. The search for answers to these questions has Countries such as South Korea, the Philip- only just begun. This conference aims at dis- pines, Peru and Italy have all seen heads of cussing practical ways in which individuals, state fall over revelations of dishonesty. The organisations and different sectors of society US and Germany have both experienced politi- can participate in and contribute towards a cal crisis due to irregular or unethical behaviour comprehensive readjustment of the moral fibre of leading politicians. of South African society. We are hopeful that it It appears that in decades to come, the most will make a meaningful contribution to finding imaginative and successful political parties will answers to all questions arising in this regard. be those that link anti-corruption to a broader political agenda. 3. CORRUPTION AND GREED But corruption is only one element of the In a recent report on The State in a Changing moral degradation of South African society; World, the World Bank stated, rightly so, that greed is obviously another even more accepted the very basis of development becomes com- element. promised when rules and practices are not George Soros recently pointed out that peo- effectively monitored and applied. Develop- ple today, unsure of what they stand for, ment suffers, in particular, where the rules of increasingly rely on money as the criterion of governance allow arbitrary resource allocation value. What is more expensive is considered and the diversion of public resources in defi- better. People think they deserve respect and ance of the public good and to the exclusive admiration because they are rich. What used to benefit of corrupt officials, politicians and their be a medium of exchange has usurped the place collaborators. of fundamental values, reversing the relation-
8 Lange ship postulated by economic theory. The cult of Today, South Africa is considered by many success has replaced a belief in principles. observers to be a legally consolidated democra- cy, in which development towards a constitu- CONCLUSION tional, pluralistic state, ruled by the new law of In view of the fact that South Africa is affected the land, appears to be irreversible. by all those evils that arise out of great social Building and maintaining a strong and endur- injustices and vast economic imbalances, we ing democracy on these foundations will must first of all accept the proposition that only depend on a continuing commitment by all seg- with the transformation of the South African ments of South Africa’s diverse population to society and economy, can these evils be reconciliation and far-reaching economic and redeemed. social transformation: KAF is willing to play its One of the most important tasks must be to role in this process. eradicate poverty by reversing economic dis- This seminar is designed to stimulate such parity. Economic growth is a necessary condi- debate and I wish you enjoyable, interesting tion for the reduction of poverty and inequality. and worthwhile deliberations.
9 Setting the Scene: In Search of a New Citizenship
Edith Raidt
INTRODUCTION our nation. Here we have to ask ourselves some In a briefing paper issued by the Southern basic questions, such as: African Catholic Bishops’ Conference’s • What is a citizen and what do we understand (SACBC’s) Parliamentary Liaison Office in by citizenship? Cape Town, the researcher Lawrence Matemba • What are the basic values needed in a com- writes: “People’s participation in politics in munity of citizens? South Africa needs to be strengthened.” • And since these basic values are linked with The recently completed South African sec- moral values and therefore public and private tion of the Southern African Democracy morality, we need working definitions of Barometer – a seven-country survey of citi- these concepts for our discussions here. zen’s attitudes to democracy, coordinated by Idasa – reveals significant deficiencies in citi- 1. “COURAGE TO BE MORAL” zenship in South Africa. Citizens of Namibia, In his recent bestseller, Auf der Suche nach Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi fared far better einer öffentlichen Moral (In Search of a Public than their South African counterparts in terms Morality) Helmut Schmidt,2 the former German of participation in politics in their respective Chancellor, shocks his readers with the opening countries. And Matemba concludes: “South sentence: “Have we Germans lost morality?” Africa’s hard won democracy is going through No, not really, is the reply, since most citizens a testing period as increasing numbers of citi- still lead decent lives, but the “we-feeling” is zens regard political institutions and electoral dwindling. People are self-centred, they are no processes with indifference and even distrust longer focused on the common good; there is an … We need a committed, informed, and “inflation of personal demands” (p. 183), self- involved citizenry to revitalise our political fulfillment and a one-sided emphasis on rights life, to require accountability from our political without considering the corresponding civic leaders and governmental institutions, and to duties. achieve the common good.”1 Schmidt challenges his German readers, espe- The problem lies even deeper than participa- cially politicians, business and church leaders, tion in elections and active involvement in to have the “courage to be moral” and to foster democratic processes. A democratic society is again virtues; the so-called cardinal virtues basically dependent on its citizens, their values (prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance) and aspirations. As the title of this seminar and civic virtues (e.g. solidarity and readiness to indicates, we need to define or redefine a new help, tolerance and respect, courtesy and punc- citizenship for South Africa and to identify and tuality), as well as to practise these starting in nurture the fundamental values that will help the family, the smallest cell of democracy. It is our fledgling democracy to reach maturity and interesting to hear from a seasoned political create a new society. This is part of the con- leader such as Helmut Schmidt that “virtues are certed effort to strengthen the moral fibre of non-negotiable”.
11 Raidt
2. THE MEANING OF CITIZENSHIP motion of values is important not only for A citizen can therefore be defined as: the sake of personal development but also • a person who is a member (by birth or natu- for the evolution of a South African charac- ralisation) of a city or state ter. The definition we give to values today • a person owing loyalty/allegiance to a nation is also an avenue to imagining the future or state and entitled to the protection of per- character of the South African nation.” sonal rights In the Executive Summary, the task group • a person within a community of citizens with writes: reciprocal obligations and multiple citizen “In this report we make an argument for the responsibilities. promotion of equity, tolerance, multilin- And here we are already dealing with the gualism, openness, accountability and social meaning of citizenship which, as Professor honour at our schools. We believe that these Goodpaster will point in his paper, amounts to values are important for the personal devel- reciprocal rights and duties; a reciprocity that opment of our school-going population. has to do with acknowledging the dignity of the They also define the moral aspirations of citizen in the community and the responsibility South African democracy as defined in our of the citizen for the common good. Constitution and Bill of Rights. The defini- In defining a “new citizenship for South tion we give to values today is an avenue to Africa” we have to move away from a one- imagining the future character of the South sided emphasis on the individual, on personal African people. These values are therefore demands, expectations and rights. Instead, as the moral aspirations which South Africans Dr Stofile will point out, “a new citizenship is regard as desirable.” one inextricably linked to the ‘community’”. St Augustine (354–430), the brilliant African 3. THE ROLE OF EDUCATION AND RELIGION IN scholar after whom our College is named, pro- SOCIETY vides a cogent answer to the questions posed This “values-in-schools-initiative” is already a above when he writes in his famous work De big step forward. But does it go far enough? Is Civitate Dei (2,21): it anchored in a clear understanding and accep- “What is a community of citizens other than tance of morality? Cardinal Napier argues that a multitude of people bound to one another we need “the education and formation of the by the tie of concord? In the State, what moral conscience”, and here the role of religion musicians call harmony is concord: civic in society is of decisive importance. “Where concord cannot exist without justice.” does one get values more clearly expressed Augustine’s “tie of civic concord” summarises than in religious writings and practices?” It is the values and civic virtues that underpin a gen- the religions and religious traditions that have uine citizenship.3 These have to be acquired to a large extent shaped the moral codes, and in and practised during a lifetime, starting in the a multi-religion country like ours, an intensive family and the school, and continued in the inter-religious dialogue on moral values could workplace and especially in the political arena. make an important contribution. However, The loss of the moral fibre of our nation has morality is different from religion. A morality brought about a growing awareness of the is not as such linked with an organised institu- urgent need of these values. During the past tion like a church; it may involve only a set of year the Minister of Education appointed a task social or individual rules accompanied by sanc- group to research “values in education”. The tions of praise or blame, and feelings of con- final report was discussed at a conference in science. It does involve an ethics or value sys- February this year. The researchers write: tem and a way of life. Morality is a code or “By values we mean desirable qualities of view about how we should or should not con- character such as honesty, integrity, toler- duct ourselves. A morality does presuppose ance, diligence, responsibility, compassion, some belief about the world and life. In the altruism, justice, respect, and so on. We urgent call to restore the “moral fibre of our would like our young adults to possess nations” all the role players, and especially all these values and therefore for our schooling the religious communities, can and must make system to actively promote them. The pro- a crucial contribution. After all, it is quite
12 Raidt intriguing that both presidents Nelson Mandela ance is not enough because it is a live-and-let- and Thabo Mbeki – and here I am quoting live attitude that avoids introducing concep- Cardinal Napier – “have repeatedly enlisted the tions of the full human good into political dis- aid of the religious leadership in the struggle to course. The “method of avoidance” actually turn around the moral slide that has overtaken further threatens democracy by deepening our nation in recent years”. alienation and anomie, and this is exactly what Faith-based institutions, e.g. schools or a we do not need. A functioning democracy Catholic university such as St Augustine requires the virtues of mutual reverent accep- College, can also be major role-players in shap- tance, of mutual cooperation, mutual responsi- ing the mentality necessary for the development bility, and what Aristotle called civic friendship of a new citizenship. The shaping of a new citi- and concord.5 zenship cannot be achieved through laws, it is Pope John Paul calls this “the virtue of soli- basically an educational process and, I would darity”, and he describes it as “a firm and per- even say, a life-long education of the citizens, severing determination to commit oneself to the involving all sectors of society. common good; that is to say the good of all and of each individual”.6 And he expresses the hope 4. LIFE-LONG EDUCATION that all people, “whether or not they are In their 1986 statement Economic Justice for inspired by religious faith, will become fully All,4 the United States Catholic Bishops made aware of the urgent need to change spiritual clear reference to this ongoing educational attitudes which define each individual’s rela- process: tionship with self, with neighbour, with even “What the Bible and Christian tradition the remotest human communities, and with teach, human wisdom confirms. Centuries nature itself”. Such a change in attitudes arises before Christ, the Greeks and Romans from a recognition of “higher values such as the spoke of the human person as a ‘social ani- common good”. mal’ made for friendship, community, and Commitment to the common good requires a public life. These insights show that human hard-nosed recognition of the reality of human beings achieve self-realisation not in isola- interdependence, and it requires a promotion of tion, but in interaction with others. justice. Referring again to the United States The virtues of citizenship are an expres- Bishops, “basic justice demands the establish- sion of Christian love more crucial in ment of minimum levels of participation in today’s interdependent world than ever the life of the human community for all per- before. These virtues grow out of a lively sons”.7 sense of one’s dependence on the common- weal and obligations to it. This civic com- 6. CONSEQUENCES FOR EDUCATION mitment must also guide the economic insti- There are clear consequences for education: tutions of society. In the absence of a vital • Education shapes the values that become sense of citizenship among the businesses, operative in a republic by helping to shape corporations, labour unions, and other the virtues and character of its citizenry. groups that shape economic life, society as • Worries about the quality of public life in a a whole is endangered. Solidarity is another democracy lead directly to worries about the name for this social friendship and civic whole process by which each generation pre- commitment that make human moral and pares its progeny to assume their responsibil- economic life possible” (Economic Justice ities as citizens. for All, nrs. 65-66). • Education in virtue is education that guides the development of students in ways that 5. THE VIRTUE OF SOLIDARITY AND THE enable them to become good citizens; men COMMON GOOD and women dedicated to the service of the The need for stronger bonds of social solidarity common good. across cultures and for efforts to attain a greater • Education in virtue is not a mere civic do- degree of shared moral vision is increasingly gooderism. Helmut Schmidt certainly does evident in our world today, writes David not think so. Tertiary education, in particular, Hollenbach of Boston College. Clearly, toler- should be aimed at a commitment to intellec-
13 Raidt
tual solidarity. Here the Catholic tradition of nied by a social solidarity which is of special education has some distinctive intellectual relevance to Catholic universities. A university resources. Intellectual solidarity – David that aspires both to be Catholic and to serve the Hollenbach writes – is a willingness to take common good must translate the importance of other persons seriously enough to engage social solidarity into its teaching and research them in conversation and debate that makes priorities. life worth living. It includes an appeal to tol- A “culture of service” should be the hallmark erance, but goes beyond it. Tolerance is a of such universities; they should propagate strategy of non-interference with the beliefs what Robert Greenleaf calls “servant-leader- and ways of life of those who are different. ship”. But the spirit of intellectual solidarity differs St Augustine College of South Africa, as the radically from pure tolerance by seeking pos- first Catholic university in this country, hopes itive engagement with the other through both to make such a contribution with its postgradu- listening and speaking. Here a community of ate programmes for values-based leadership. freedom begins to exist. Today’s leadership seminar will hopefully con- tribute towards a constructive intellectual CONCLUSION debate that can be translated into action in our This intellectual solidarity must be accompa- effort to help shape a new citizenship.
ENDNOTES 1) Briefing paper 41, December 2000. political authority in human communities, Southern African Catholic Bishops’ and because they obey the law out of a reli- Conference Parliamentary Office, Cape gious duty.” See Allan D. Fitzgerald (ed.), Town. Augustine through the ages. An encyclope- 2) Helmut Schmidt, Auf der Suche nach einer dia. Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge öffentlichen Moral. Deutschland vor dem UK: William B. Eerdmans 1999: neuen Jahrhundert. Vollständige 194-196. Taschenbuchausgabe. München: Der 4) United States Catholic Bishops, Economic Goldmann Verlag, 2000. Justice for All. Pastoral Letter on Catholic 3) It is interesting to note that St Augustine Social Teaching and the United States deals extensively with the question of citi- Economy. National Conference of Catholic zenship. One of his best-known political Bishops, Washington D.C. 1986. teachings is that concerning the tension 5) Cf. David Hollenbach S.J., Is tolerance between the “two cities”: the City of God enough? The Catholic University and the and the City of Man. Citizens of each city common good. In: Conversations on Jesuit are fundamentally marked by the tendency Higher Education, No. 13, Spring 1998. of their wills, towards God or self. He 6) Pope John Paul II, Sollicitudo rei socialis argues “that Christians make the best citi- (On the social concern of the Church). zens because of their principled understand- Encyclical 1987, no. 38. ing of the human condition and the role of 7) Economic Justice for All, no. 77.
14 Civility in a Post-Apartheid Era: Tolerance is Not Enough
Vincent Maphai
INTRODUCTION cal competition or rivalry. It presupposes this The contention that tolerance is not enough rivalry and competition, but merely attempts to when discussing civility in a post-apartheid era, specify rules governing such competition. is true in the most obvious sense. It seldom Fourth, tolerance does not collapse political happens that a single variable constitutes a suf- rivals or foes suddenly into friends or allies. It ficient condition for the achievement of any merely converts political enemies into political national or institutional goal. If anything, it is rivals. Lastly, tolerance is not political license. doubtful that tolerance is even necessary for It is incompatible with anarchy, authoritarian- civility because tolerance is not an absolute ism or dictatorship. value. We should, after all, hardly be tolerant of evil. Under certain circumstances, intoler- 2. WHAT DOES TOLERANCE MEAN? ance becomes a moral imperative. In addition, To understand the concept of tolerance it might like non-racialism, the concept of tolerance is be illuminating to draw parallels between poli- ultimately vacuous unless its object is speci- tics and a sports competition. Politics, or any fied. One must always tolerate something. social organisation, is a type of contest. Every Alternatively, appeals for tolerance may sim- game is played according to rules. Tolerance ply be an avoidance tactic in the face of essentially means playing a game according to uncomfortable social issues. One cannot help accepted rules. This means, inter alia, the will- feeling at times that tolerance is a smokescreen ingness to accept defeat under those rules. It for an anti-transformation agenda. Indeed, a also requires preparedness, on the part of the single-minded focus on tolerance may lead to winning party, to be subjected to subsequent what may be termed “frozen democracies”, that elections. Tolerance does not mean there can is, the consolidation of the substance of the sta- be no winner. In the same vein, the winner is tus quo. subject to certain constitutional and moral con- straints in the exercise of political mandates. 1. WHAT TOLERANCE IS NOT Democracy, in this context, is used widely to The concept of political tolerance is too elastic refer to a set of procedures and systems to be of value. It may therefore prove helpful to designed to facilitate maximum political partic- dismiss certain common misconceptions. First, ipation and representation in decision making. tolerance does not refer to absence of disagree- This requires the toleration of as many political ment among rivals. On the contrary it presup- actors as are evident in any given community. poses such disagreements. Second, tolerance Sometimes this requirement creates a tension does not mean uniformity. If anything, unifor- between the contending demands of compre- mity is the very antithesis of tolerance. hensiveness on the one hand, and compatibility Tolerance promotes the coexistence of multi- on the other. The more comprehensive and plicity of viewpoints and institutions. Third, diverse the participants in government are, the tolerance does not imply the absence of politi- less likely that such a government will be
15 Maphai effective. Democracy may, at best, entail a out of office. A further precondition to the happy medium between the need for effective multi-party system is that the defeated party, government and for the widest possible repre- while being the parliamentary opposition, need sentativeness. not fear a change of the political rules or the loss of jobs, houses and lives by its members. 3. ASSUMPTIONS UNDERPINNING COMMITMENT TO TOLERANCE 4. THE CONTEXT OF TOLERANCE Commitment to political tolerance is based Tolerance becomes salient against the backdrop upon certain assumptions regarding human of an authoritarian or totalitarian political cul- nature and society. First, all humans are pre- ture. The apartheid edifice, with its varied sumed to be inherently rational. To be rational, package of repressive legislation, was the among other things, is to be able to define goals bedrock of intolerance par excellence. and ends and to adopt the means and strategies Since February 1990 the concept of tolerance that are appropriate for the achievement of has gained currency in South African political those goals and ends. Second, all humans are discourse. Initially, the unbanning of organisa- born equal as moral persons; that no person is tions did not result, as some had expected, in more human than the other. free and fair political competition. On the con- Third, everyone is born free and it is the task trary, violence and effective declaration of of society to protect and enhance that freedom. “own territories” or “no-go” areas became hall- Fourth, if people are rational, equal and free, it marks of the country’s political culture in the follows that they are likely to cherish different early 1990s. viewpoints – morally, socially, politically and The features of violence, intolerance and ideologically. A tolerant society is one in which authoritarianism were, and to some extent still various viewpoints are freely expressed and are, central to South Africa’s socio-political protected. Fifth, if various viewpoints are possi- culture. Historical state violence against politi- ble it follows that no person or group is infalli- cal rivals, violence against the state and its ble. This is not to deny that certain beliefs and agents and general criminal violence form part attitudes can be reasonable or unreasonable, of this legacy. The same applies to corporal civilised or barbarian, fair or unfair. However, punishment in schools, families and community no single person or group reserves the sole right violence. to pronounce on these issues. Last, the alterna- Until their unbanning, resistance movements tive to tolerance is violence. Where there are no themselves operated under impossible condi- acceptable methods of conflict resolution, vio- tions. Unlike political parties, they could not lence is perceived as a legitimate form of self- mobilise in a democratic manner. Democratic defence. behaviour requires a climate of openness, con- To summarise, tolerance features in various sultation, debate, discussion, elections and spheres of our experience – political, social, accountability. Such an environment, by defini- cultural and religious, to name obvious exam- tion, hardly exists in an authoritarian culture. ples. Politically, a tolerant society accommo- The culture of revolution and resistance is a dates a multiplicity of viewpoints and permits culture of secrecy, vigilance, suspicion and the expression of such viewpoints organisation- fear. Consultation becomes impossible, and yet ally. A multiplicity of political forums becomes effectiveness depends on the mobilisation of a form. In liberal democracies, this multiplicity the very broad mass that cannot be consulted. It is expressed, amongst other things, through a should be of no surprise that anti-apartheid multi-party system. mobilisation entailed both persuasion and coer- The political culture in which the multi-party cion of communities. institution thrives manifests an extraordinary Resistance politics invariably and impercepti- degree of trust between political rivals. It bly contributes to a culture of intolerance. In assumes that the governing party will allow addition, a revolutionary political culture tends itself to be voted out of power. Such willing- to produce a spill-over into secondary violence. ness to relinquish power rests on the ruling par- Just as insurrection against an illegitimate ty’s belief that its successful opponents would regime becomes normal, physical attacks “in turn”, be willing to surrender power if voted against rival organisations soon become com-
16 Maphai monplace as well. This too culminates into ter- does not preclude the existence of a dominant tiary coercion, where inter-party intolerance culture or set of values in that society. In South translates ultimately in to intra-party repression. Africa, the Anglo-Saxon liberal culture typical- ly dominates every aspect of society. Domestic, 5. WHAT DOES THIS ALL MEAN? regional and international changes in the 1980s Several points emerge from the foregoing and 1990s also served to intensify a strong analysis. sense of liberal triumphalism. Internationally it Tolerance as a political value is pronounc- was expressed by Fukuyama’s discredited “End ed at a particular conjuncture in society. of History” thesis. Briefly, according to this The issue of tolerance is particularly salient at thesis, liberal democracy as an ideology was the aftermath of transition from authoritarian- here to stay and there would be no other ideo- ism to democracy. For obvious historical rea- logical challenge to it. The South African ver- sons, intolerance is deeply rooted in the South sion of this thesis may be summed up as fol- African culture. Yet, there are obvious signs of lows: a departure, however slow, from this tradition. Communism has failed; Secondly, South Africa is not tottering on the Apartheid has failed; brink of civil war due to political or any form therefore, liberalism has and will triumph. of social intolerance. There are powerful insti- This explains partly why it is only liberal insti- tutions to underpin the country’s democratic tutions which, post-1990, have steadfastly fabric. The Constitution protects just about refused to re-evaluate their role and ethos in the every conceivable right. Even more promising, new South Africa. This is unsustainable in the there is an uncompromising preparedness on long term. The sub-text underpinning the the part of citizens to use the courts to protect African Renaissance crusade is the claim by the their rights. majority that self-respect will not allow them to Overall, throughout the 1990s, South subject themselves to what amounts to cultural Africans have displayed an incredible imperialism. Other cultures and values will degree of commitment to political tolerance. stake their claim with vengeance in the shaping This was partly assisted by the growing of the South African national ethos. awareness of the human rights culture. One can rightly ask: If not liberalism, then Thirdly, what? Certainly, if the South African Constit- Tolerance is generally a necessary but never ution is anything to go by, the South African sufficient condition for a democratic culture. political culture is, and is likely to remain for a Strictly speaking tolerance, like non-racialism, long time, rooted in a strong liberal tradition. is not even a value or a goal. It is an instrument The challenge, it would appear, is not how to or a possible condition for the promotion of repudiate the fundamental values of equality other values, notably freedom and democracy. and freedom, but how to “indigenise” them, for If it converts into a value or an end in itself, it lack of a better term. Liberalism in contempo- becomes obstructive to the achievements of rary South Africa has to take a cue from what other national goals. This leads to the next les- Christianity began to do decades ago. son. Christianity has had to adjust to local cul- Tolerance is never an absolute value since tures. Without that, it was increasingly becom- society has to be intolerant of certain val- ing irrelevant. South African liberalism runs a ues, attitudes and behaviour. similar risk. Not only is it in danger of becom- Finally, tolerance remains central to the ing irrelevant, worse still, it also has the poten- creation and consolidation of a democratic cul- tial to be the only respectable channel for white ture in South Africa. Yet, its salience recedes supremacist positions. Their language is still with time. A decade since the commencement rooted in 19th century English and European of the transition process, we now face a new set culture. of challenges and goals. Intolerance features The major challenge for contemporary South minimally among these. African liberalism is an unambiguous depar- ture from fundamentalism. Of its nature, funda- 6. CURRENT KEY CHALLENGES mentalism – be it political, religious or whatev- Commitment to tolerance in a plural society er – is irrational and irrelevant because, by defi-
17 Maphai nition, its context and time is of no conse- it is quite surprising that a large percentage of quence to it. black South Africans have not died of malnutri- There is one area in which liberal fundamen- tion, exposure to the elements, diseases and talism is starkly pronounced. It is its chronic mini-wars. Why is this so? Perhaps it is distrust for the state, coupled with an unbridled because social scientists often forget that celebration of the market. This tendency is behind institutions and structures, lie ordinary rooted in history. The South African liberal people with tremendous resolve and capacity to class is largely English speaking. The point survive. often made by Frene Ginwala is that this politi- In addition, there has always been a strong cal class lost control of the state in 1910 and is culture of civil society and non-governmental unlikely to regain it. If this is so, the cynical organisations that have volunteered their time anti-state tendency of this class is hardly sur- and resources to intervene in hopeless situa- prising. There is also an international dimen- tions. Family networks have also helped. Post- sion, with local content, to the liberal distrust of 1994 South Africans have, perhaps quite under- the state. standably, become extremely statist. There is a Liberalism in Europe was born out of a mid- worrying dependency on government to pro- dle class rebellion against monarchy and aris- vide almost everything. When the government tocracy. In South Africa, the black middle class proposed earlier that young graduates should is created largely by the state, although there is provide some form of rural voluntary service, – unlike anywhere else on the African continent this was denounced as a violation of their – a strong private sector. Contemporary South rights. Yet, a few years earlier when we Africa is characterised by a black state and a unleashed our young people upon one another white market. Deliberately or sub-consciously, in a mindless war, we called that “national ser- demands for the unbridled exultation of the vice”. market, coupled with demands for a minimalist Now back to the key values driving the new state ultimately amount to clarion calls for South African citizenship. white supremacy. This appears to be the chal- lenge for liberalism if it intends to be relevant 7. THREE FUNDAMENTAL VALUES in South Africa. The post-1994 national agenda is broadly about To conclude, in a highly and grossly unequal transformation of society. In particular, it is society such as South Africa, liberal fundamen- about the introduction and reinforcement of talism becomes a powerful instrument in the three key elements into the national political hands of the dominant class. The intellectual culture, namely, democracy, rights and social roots of liberalism, expressed in the classical justice. The degree to which South Africa man- consent theory of Locke, Hobbes and ages to promote these values will ultimately Rousseau, makes this point. Individuals in the define the form and content of its transition. It “state of nature” were assumed to be absolutely is not feasible to undertake a pedantic defini- free, rational, individualist and, above all, equal tion and analysis of these concepts. in every respect. Theoretically at least, liberal- The key issue to remember is that, contrary to ism is an ideology of equals. popular tendency, these three values are not The remaining section focuses on principal interchangeable. A worrying feature of contem- values likely to shape the evolving South porary South Africa is the almost exclusive Africa. It is tempting to provide a catalogue of focus on first generation negative rights, lip ser- such values, because they must surely be count- vice to democracy and virtual silence on social less. That will, however, prove pointless. justice. Instead, for the purpose of this discussion, these Why are these values mutually exclusive at will be crystallised to the absolute minimum. times? Rights claims are typically anti-democ- Before dealing with the three main values, it ratic. To claim a right is like labelling someone is worth commenting on a fundamentally wor- racist or sexist. It places one in an unassailable rying change that has been witnessed in South morally pre-eminent position. This tendency is Africa since 1994. In general, South Africans demonstrated in the manner in which three are known for their generosity and voluntarism. political and moral issues have been dealt with: If social science statistics are anything to go by, namely, the death penalty, affirmative action
18 Maphai and abortion. The anti-death penalty lobby Zimbabwean crisis illuminates this dilemma, appeals, amongst other things, to the right to although it is by no means solely about redistri- life. Similarly, affirmative action becomes the bution. For the moment let us bracket President right due to the historically disadvantaged. Mugabe’s machinations and focus on the Abortion, in turn, is simply an expression of underlying unresolved land question. The Zim- women’s rights. babwean experience reinforces what is general- Rights, by definition, are freedom-limiting. ly know, namely, that neither the state (law) nor To claim a right is to place a moral obligation religious institutions (morality) can successful- on the part of others to refrain from interfering. ly legislate against survival. The key lesson In fact, a right entitles the holder to employ here is that a single-minded commitment to first coercion in the defence of that right. Precisely generation constitutional rights, to the exclu- because these three issues are defined in terms sion of considerations of justice, is a recipe for of human rights, they are placed outside the national disaster. ambit of debate and discussion. Those who dare challenge these positions are, by definition, CONCLUSION morally flawed. The issue is not that rights are The triadic cornerstone of South African citi- undesirable or indefensible. I am simply sug- zenship comprises democracy, human rights gesting that rights claims place the objects of and social justice. All three values are essential such claims consciously outside a democratic but not interchangeable. Sometimes they may framework. There is a definite trade-off be mutually exclusive. They are not simultane- between rights and democracy. Ironically, ously salient to the same degree. Commitment when rights claims are underpinned by a strong to democracy remains over-arching at all times. demand for tolerance as well, democracy suf- Tolerance and first generation rights were par- fers in turn. ticularly prominent in the 1990s. In the future, The issue is further complicated by the rela- justice will increasingly take a central position. tionship between rights and justice. South This means that, beyond these values, South Africa’s dominant discourse is about first gen- Africa will need quality leadership to manage eration rights. This is hardly surprising for a these trade-offs. Discernment, rather than society with a long-established authoritarian dependence on text book solutions, is what will culture. Yet, a single-minded focus on first gen- define such leadership. eration rights, to the exclusion of justice, is All are important. There is no sense of per- unsustainable in the long-term. It will have the sonal dignity in the absence of a human rights effect of blocking transformation and social culture. Yet, personal dignity is intricately justice. I refer specifically to first generation linked to a collective sense of dignity. Middle rights, which often tend to benefit the powerful class blacks and women cannot simply shake by limiting the capacity of the state to redirect off the baggage of historical domination over national assets. them. The contending demands for justice on the Finally, there is no sense of collective dignity one hand, and the respect for the first genera- without a strong culture of social justice. tion rights, will define markedly the difficult Tolerance is certainly not sufficient for the task trade-offs the country has to manage. The of reconstruction facing South Africa.
19 Good Corporate Governance: A Fundamental Value for New Citizenship in South Africa*
Mervyn King
INTRODUCTION comply with the social norms and mores of the The governance of corporations is a highly top- society in which it operates. Companies, like ical issue at present and is a dynamic that has individuals, do not operate in a vacuum. This spread throughout the world. It actually began was not appreciated in the 19th century, nor in in the 19th century, but in the last two decades the first half of the 20th century. We had then of the 20th century, corporate governance has the so-called robber barons. Henry Ford, for truly come to the foreground of peoples’ example, was a great entrepreneur: we would minds. The reason for that is a growing realisa- not be driving mass produced vehicles today if tion that corporations in fact impact on all it wasn’t for him. But Ford did not care about human endeavour. the exploitation of resources and labour when We drove here this morning in motor vehi- he began his business. To assuage his social cles manufactured by corporations. We are conscience, however, he later created the Ford wearing clothes manufactured by corporations, Foundation. There are many other similar and at tea break, the tea bags we will use were examples. no doubt delivered here by a company. The The question is: Can the great entrepreneurs point is that companies today affect all aspects of today have the privilege of a limited liability of our lives. They in fact link us to the commu- corporation and assuage their consciences by nities in which we live and create mutual rights creating foundations? Would that open them to and obligations in society to the extent that a severe criticism in the 21st century? company is as much a citizen as an individual. I believe that a corporation must operate In the middle of the 19th century, Lord within the context of the community in which it Gladstone developed the concept of limited lia- carries on its business. For example, if in South bility, and this concept was the driving force Africa a corporation today endeavoured to behind the development of the Industrial carry on its business, not in a participative or Revolution. It is wonderful for an entrepreneur transparent manner, but in an intolerant, hierar- to know that he can take his idea, put some chical manner, it would not succeed. Corpor- capital into a company and limit his personal ations are therefore closely linked to what soci- liability. The creation of that legal personality ety demands. is a privilege granted by the state and it creates a citizen. 1. TRANSFORMATION But that creation of citizenry by way of South Africa has begun its process of transfor- statute also brings with it certain legal obliga- mation, which, I believe, will be on-going. In tions, such as having to keep books and records. keeping with this, I was asked in the early As a citizen, however, the company also has to 1990s to chair a commission into corporate governance because it was appreciated that *This is the edited version of a speech delivered by South Africa was returning to a normal society Mervyn King at the seminar. of equal opportunity. Most of our citizens who
21 King were disadvantaged under the apartheid laws, 3. GLOBAL CLUB MEMBER were now going to move into the mainstream The company today – whether it likes it or not economy, yet they had not participated actively – is also a member of the global community. in corporate life. Could we, for example, blind- This is because we live in a borderless world – ly follow the Cadbury Report on corporate gov- not borderless in the sense of the World Trade ernance in the United Kingdom (UK)? Organisation, which tries to break down the Those who had asked me to chair the com- artificial borders created for trade, but literally mission had already concluded we could not, through the ether; information today moves and I agreed with them. Sir Adrian Cadbury about without consideration of borders. had reported on the financial aspects of corpo- The great global institutions in the world rate governance; the very matters on which today are the major shareholders of equities in Ford and others had focused, namely the profit companies, including those in South Africa. As bottom line. an example, the Californian Public Service The commission concluded that South Africa Employment Pension Fund has invested tens of had to develop an integrated system of gover- millions of dollars in South Africa. How do nance that dealt with financial, social, ethical these institutions decide to invest in a company and environmental concerns. The report pro- in, for instance, South Africa, Malaysia, France duced in November 1994 embraced those four or Germany? They rely on information and on elements. the quality of governance of the company issu- When the Commonwealth Heads of ing that information. Government met in 1997, it was decided that The measurement for investment today by the 56 countries in the Commonwealth should these great institutions has therefore become have guidelines to establish governance of cor- the quality of how a corporation is governed. porations in those countries. I was asked to From a hard-nosed business point of view, it chair that body in the Commonwealth because therefore makes good business sense to be a of the principles laid down in what has now good governor when one is the director of a become known as the King Report, and which company. report went further than dealing with the finan- cial aspects of corporate governance. 4. HISTORY Before moving on to the international trends in 2. OWNERSHIP governance, I will briefly discuss the history of We in our lives are owners of assets; many of the corporation and how governance developed, us are fortunate to be owners of a property, a as there is no better way to understand the pre- house or an apartment. As the owner of a sent and the future than to know the past. house, would you allow noxious gases, fumes The corporation developed as follows: hun- or noise to pollute your neighbour? Would you dreds of years ago human beings busied them- consider allowing sewage to escape on to your selves keeping body and soul together – this neighbour’s property, or would you regard that was our main function. Then we learned that if as the conduct of a bad citizen? we worked collectively we could produce Why then, one should ask, if one or all of you goods and services more cheaply. Following became agents of another citizen – for that in that, the concept of limited liability was devel- effect is what one becomes when one is a direc- oped and we moved to another level; with lim- tor of a company – do you permit that company ited corporate liability one could now produce which has no mind, heart or soul of its own to goods and services without one’s personal lia- pollute the neighbourhood in which it carries bility being at stake. on its business? From the 19th century until the end of the That is a strange phenomenon of human Second World War, wealthy families were the behaviour, and yet from the middle of the majority owners of equities in most countries 19th century when corporations were first reg- and the members of wealthy families were the istered, we have seen corporations actually directors of those companies. However, when destroy communities. As with an individual cit- families started listing their companies or issu- izen, a company must therefore be a good ing rights to garner more capital, they started neighbour. taking other people’s money into the company.
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When they realised they did not have the skills but if you are a member of a pension fund, own to make certain business decisions, they unit trusts or have savings at an institution, appointed outsiders to the board, and in this indirectly, you are a shareowner. way some of the concepts of corporate gover- This is why universities today teach not only nance were unwittingly born: the people who that a corporation is a being created by statute invested their money now expected account- and that the directors are the minds, heart and ability. Also, those outsiders who came in were soul of that corporation, but that the corporation not involved in the day-to-day running of the is also a link between the various stakeholders business and so the concept of the non-execu- that it brings together: the employees, the local tive director developed. community, the customers, the suppliers, etc. Shareowner dominance prevailed in the 19th As a result, we have today, for example, the and 20th centuries. The theory was that there United Nations Human Rights Declaration should be an exclusive focus on the bottom line Against the Exploitation of Labour, as well as of profit. It did not matter if labour or other environmental groups such as Greenpeace, resources were exploited during the course of which monitors what corporations are doing business, so long as the bottom line – profit – environmentally. Multinational companies now was met. operate, as their name suggests, not only locally We have seen in our lifetimes corporations but nationally and internationally. General both destroy and create communities. In the Motors, for example, gives livelihood to mil- UK, for example, the great textile companies lion of people worldwide through direct have failed because of competition from the Far employment and outsourcing. The company’s East regarding textiles. Other examples are the gross turnover is greater than the gross domes- closing of coal-fields in England and the decay tic product of a country like Denmark. Figures of those communities, as well as the deteriora- such as this make one wonder at the power of tion of health caused by employment in multinational corporations. asbestos mines. But we have also seen the cre- We live in a borderless world that is charac- ation of communities. There can be no finer terised by globalisation, and the result is what I example today than Silicon Valley on the west have called the “Seattle Battle”. As the coast of the United States (US). President of the World Bank has said, this is an In the second half of the 20th century we attack on the rich getting richer and the poor moved into the post-industrial era with its focus getting poorer. But the medium that creates this on services rather than manufacturing, and the situation today is the corporation. If the corpo- introduction of technology and robotics in man- ration does not begin to act as a good citizen, it ufacturing. will be destroyed and capitalism will be Take, for example, motor vehicle manufac- destroyed with it! turing plants. As far as the eye can see, robots I therefore pose some questions: Can we as are busy assembling components. Occasionally, directors and governors of companies in the a vehicle will drive in to deposit components to 21st century continue shareowner dominance to be used in the just-in-time manufacturing the exclusion of other stakeholders? Can the process, but there are hardly any people financial focus ignore this changed world, and involved, and those who are, are usually over- continue to use only backward-looking finan- seeing the computer-aided processes driving cial measurements? Can a company perform the robots. but not conform to some of the constraints that Other characteristics of this modern age are society now demands? Is it possible for a com- e-commerce companies, where intangible com- pany to decide not to be a responsible corporate pany assets have become more valuable than citizen? tangible assets. Outsourcing is popular, man- agement structures are flatter and self- and part- 5. INCLUSIVE TREND time employment are common. We move now to the trends in corporate gover- In short, we are living in a changed world. In nance worldwide. We described earlier the this regard we have a shareowner revolution. exclusive approach to running a corporation. I can say with some confidence here that all Today, however, the trend is towards a more of you are shareowners. You may not think so, inclusive approach (see graphic). As the direc-
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THE INCLUSIVE APPROACH
Licence to operate
Law/Regulation
Political Industry and opinion market standards
Public opinion/ Industry confidence COMPANY reputation
Pressure groups Media
Individual attitudes: customers, suppliers, consumers, employees, investors and community
(Tomorrow’s company) tor of a company today, one does not simply go service, we might agree that reliability and reli- to a regulator and obtain a licence to do busi- able conduct are essential values. We must then ness. Over and above this, there are many other identify the stakeholders. Naturally, the factors one has to take into account as a prudent employees are important, but so are the airlines governor of a corporation. One must consider and other transport companies in the delivery the individual attitudes of one’s customers, chain. So we would talk to them and explain one’s suppliers, one’s industry reputation, the that the more parcels we can deliver, the better media, etc. for their business. In this way, a reciprocal rela- The inclusive approach recognises stakehold- tionship is developed, and this leads on to the ers other than shareowners. The relationship development of a business strategy. between the company and some of these stake- That is the modern inclusive approach: it holders is contractual – as with the customer embraces stakeholders other than the share- and supplier – while some are non-contractual, owner. such as the community in which it operates. The inclusive approach has three legs: a cor- 6. ACCOUNTABILITY AND RESPONSIBILITY poration should define its purpose; identify its There is a difference between accountability values; and identify the stakeholders relevant to and responsibility. If you gave me money to its business. The strategy it develops should establish a company to manufacture chairs, I combine all three and it should develop recipro- would be answerable and accountable to the cal relationships with its stakeholders. company in which you had invested. But that Take for example a parcel delivery company. does not stop me being responsible also to the Its purpose would be the delivery of parcels. Its various stakeholders that come together as the values may include the usual values such as result of the formation of this statutory citizen. respect for the individual, integrity and respon- I need to be responsive and responsible to sibility. Since we are running a parcel delivery them.
24 King
As we have mentioned, ownership creates The report from customers should cover cus- responsibility. In the course of my study on tomer satisfaction, perception of key service corporate governance and speaking with vari- areas, internal business – i.e., audit, risk man- ous governments throughout the world about agement, service standards, productivity – their corporate legal situation, one thing has human resources – i.e, morale, skills gaps and become clear: one cannot have a single corpo- training, etc. Other examples of non-financial rate governance code that pertains throughout aspects include innovation, learning and train- the world. Each country has its own corporate ing. laws and its own culture of doing business that One would, for example, probably not want has developed over many years. Each country to invest in an information technology (IT) therefore has to develop its own code of gover- company where the profile showed that most of nance. the employees were over 50 years of age, since But in looking at the codes of governance of it is known that the age profile for IT compa- several countries, four pillars stand out; pillars nies should be between 19 and 34. One would that directors in the 21st century need to be also want to know: aware of when making decisions either through • What is the age of the senior manager of this act or omission. These are fairness, account- company? ability – in the sense of accounting to the com- • What is the intellectual capacity, i.e., train- pany – responsibility – acting responsibly ing, innovation, etc.? towards the various stakeholders, and trans- • What incentives are used to retain talent? parency. And all this must rest on a base of • How does the company incentavise to attract intellectual honesty, that is, being able to sepa- the right new talent? rate fact from assumption, and making good • How does the technology in the company decisions based on all the facts. compare with its competitors’? • Check the company’s licence to operate. 7. NON-FINANCIAL ASPECTS • What of the company’s general conformance As we have mentioned, the shareholder domi- aspects? nance that pertained certainly until the middle Investors today want directors to account for of the 20th century, was characterised by a their stewardship of the assets of a company. backward-looking financial focus. But we live We have been taught and have a language for in a changed world; investors today want a for- communicating in financial terms. If, for exam- ward-looking approach or a “score-card” ple, I say I want to reduce my company’s work- approach – they want information at a glance. ing capital ratio to its gross turnover, one would To use an automobile analogy, a financial know what I am talking about. However, if I focus would be like driving a vehicle but only say my company has great intellectual capital, being able to use the fuel gauge to monitor what am I talking about? Intelligence quotient? what was happening. Using non-financial People who have tertiary education? People aspects, one can have measurements which will who are skilled in the industry in which I am allow investors to draw conclusions as to working? whether a business will or will not have sus- A language to communicate non-financial tained success. aspects needs to be developed and this, I think, Investors today are looking for measurements is going to be one of the challenges of corpo- that will allow them to view performance rate life in the 21st century. Great work is being through the customers’ eyes, not through the done internationally by the Global Reporting manager’s eyes. As a result, some companies Initiative to develop such a language. have now appointed corporate reputation offi- The general accounting principles cannot, for cers. These officers ask the company’s third example, value intellectual property, nor do parties – their customers and suppliers – ques- they account for the cost of equity capital. tions such as: What is your opinion of how this Social and ethical accounting principles have company is operating? What do you think of recently been developed in the UK. The Global the credibility of its managers? The corporate Reporting Initiative has introduced reporting on reputation officer reports to the chief executive the triple bottom line principle, that is, on the officer, who then reacts to these reports. social responsibility of a corporation – its eco-
25 King nomic life, social aspects and its environmental their members in the UK to tell these trustees responsibility. what they thought of their investment. Two A good example of a modern corporation is weeks later, those institutions disinvested from the Shell Organisation, which has come a long Huntingdon, which subsequently lost 60% of way from its attempt to explode the Brent Spar its market capitalisation and to this day has not platform at sea, and its drilling in the Nigerian recovered. In fact, quite tragically, about three Delta. These episodes reinforced Shell to adopt weeks ago, Huntingdon’s CEO was physically a triple and not a single bottom line. attacked upon leaving his office. An extreme Today, Shell reports on its social responsibil- example, but an example which shows that ity in the various countries in which it operates, activism has arrived. how this is linked internationally and economi- Another example of shareowner activism is cally and, of course, what it is doing environ- the UK National Association of Pension Funds, mentally. which has established guidelines for pension Organisations such as the Association of Unit fund investment. Trustees’ responsibilities now Trusts and Investment Funds in the UK have include that they be active in companies to now laid down guidelines for institutions to ensure that companies are socially responsible invest in corporations and their duty to gauge and are also looking after the environment. the quality of corporate governance in the cor- porations in which they invest. 9. CONFORM AND PERFORM To summarise, shareowners today, especially As a good corporate citizen in the 21st century, institutional investors, want measurements to one has to conform to certain good governance judge stewardship, performance, conformance standards while one performs. and sustainability. Following research into institutions in the UK and the US, leading international consul- 8. SHAREOWNER ACTIVISM tants have found that institutions today will pay We have moved from an era of deference to an up to 27% more for equity in company A com- era of activism, with Warren Buffet perhaps peting with company B in the same industry, being the best example of that. Shareownership where company A has good quality governance in the world is dispersed, particularly as benefi- compared with company B, which does not. ciaries of institutions. But institutions today are Professor Black of Stanford University, only asking themselves: which guard should guard three weeks ago, came out with a similar report. the guardians? Take, for example, Norwich Union, a well CONCLUSION known institution in South Africa and the UK. The modern day director has to perform a very Norwich Union invested in a company in the difficult balancing act for success and sustain- UK that was polluting the English countryside. ability. Friends of the Earth approached Norwich, The good new corporate citizen has to: which promptly disinvested from the offending • adopt an inclusive and not an exclusive company. approach Perhaps the most extreme example is • interact with institutional activism Huntingdon, a company listed on the London • place greater emphasis on non-financial Stock Exchange. Six months ago, the UK Ani- aspects mal Anti-Cruelty League discovered that • apply the tests of fairness, accountability, Huntingdon was experimenting on animals at responsibility and transparency its laboratory outside London. Amid much • be accountable to the company uproar, Huntingdon was asked to stop, but the • be responsive to other stakeholders and act directors said they could not, as carrying out responsibly towards them such experimentation was in the best interests • balance performance with conformance. of its shareowners. The Animal Anti-Cruelty The fundamental values of a new corporate citi- League then went about finding out the names, zen in South Africa must be a realisation that addresses and telephone numbers of the trustees the ownership of assets has concomitant of the major institutions that had invested in responsibilities. It must practise those four Huntingdon, published their names and invited mentioned pillars, must be a good neighbour,
26 King and must conduct itself ethically. In short, a Solomon, and when it comes to balancing per- director in the 21st century needs the courage formance and conformance, the agility of a and strength of Hercules, the wisdom of trapeze artist.
27 Defining a New Citizenship for South Africa: Culture, Diversity and Recognition
Makhenkesi Stofile
INTRODUCTION cal parties and the traditions of these parties. It The adoption of a new constitution in the 1993 is clearly not something new to the democratic marked an important paradigm shift in tradi- movement – after all, as far back as 1955 the tional debates on citizenship in South Africa. Freedom Charter proclaimed a basis for com- The new Constitution (1996), as you know, prehensive citizenship. This document, in my confers an extraordinary array of formal free- view, remains to be one of the most visionary doms to our citizens – not only conventional landmarks in our recent history. Long before political liberties (vote, free speech, associa- the Universal Charter of Human Rights was tion), but also social and economic conditions formulated, the African National Congress that must be created for such citizens to mean- (ANC) had been calling for a charter of human ingfully exist in our democracy. Today, almost rights. seven years after the birth of South Africa’s The notion of a comprehensive citizenry is democracy, these rights encoded in the Con- central to the question of democracy. An stitution may appear self-evident truths as we acceptance of this notion is, after all, not some- work our way into the new century. But their thing that was universally acclaimed by politi- inscription in our Constitution was neither cal parties in South Africa. recognised by many conventional political the- For me, citizenship can only be a meaningful ories nor was it an automatic outcome of the construct if it defines the totality of the human discourse of struggle. condition in a modern, democratic society. In less than a decade, the debate has shifted Traditionally, this wider concept of citizenship from the formal attainment of political rights, was hardly recognised in academic disciplines to finding effective institutions and a political such as political science and political philoso- culture for making those rights real and mean- phies such as liberalism. It was only very ingful to our citizens. For the past five years or recently, during the post-war period, that con- so, we have been hard at work in trying to ventional notions of citizenship tended to expand the frontiers of political participation to embrace a more wider and inclusive set of doc- include all the people of this country – particu- trines. larly those who have for centuries been exclud- In Europe this found expression, for exam- ed from participation in the political decision- ple, in the birth of the “welfare state” and in making process. many African countries, in the establishment of However, in more recent times, the debate post-colonial nationalist states wherein the has gone beyond a preoccupation only with state provided for a wider range of social rights political participation, and has begun to touch than mere political rights. Of course, in many upon the crucial question of the economic and cases these societies failed to provide appropri- social (cultural) underpinnings of citizenship. ate conditions for the preservation and exercise This broader view of citizenship is, I have to of these rights. And, in many cases, the depen- submit, something recent to many of our politi- dency on state intervention tended to erode the
29 Stofile role of civil society and communities in the The traditional liberal notion of citizenship is development of the wider society. a self-limiting one, focusing almost exclusively The excesses of this period since the Second on a one-sided emphasis on formal political World War fuelled a rightwing reaction in rights. Rights such as the right of representa- many countries during the 1980s and 1990s that tion, freedom of expression and association are sought to swing the pendulum in the complete typically stressed in the liberal refrain. These opposite direction. This “reaction” – led most rights, to be sure, are vital to our democracy, militantly by Thatcher and Reagan in the north and they must be cherished. But they do not – wanted the emasculation of the state in pro- represent the totality of freedoms that are nec- viding for the needs of citizens, and gave essary for a true democracy to work. They need almost exclusive agency to the individual as the to be complemented by economic and social “master of his/her destiny”. Fortunately, this freedoms which citizens need if they are to era too came to an end, and many of the voices exercise such political rights in the first of this conservative tradition have been toned instance. After all, as the traditional saying down in recent times. goes, “people cannot eat political rights”. In the past decade or so, there has been an Moreover, it is equally difficult to see how increased appreciation of the need for a balance disadvantaged sectors of our society – the vast of state/society, individual/community and majority of black people – would be able to unity/diversity. The way in which we approach effectively exercise such political rights if they these equations is still at issue in our young lack the means to do so. Material well being is democracy, and I wish, in this paper, to make a an essential condition for meaningful political few comments on these issues. participation. If one is struck with hunger and illiteracy, one would find it difficult, if not 1. ISSUES FACING A DEMOCRATIC CITIZENSHIP impossible, to be engaged creatively in the polit- I think we have grown in significant ways as a ical sphere. For this reason, the quest for materi- political democracy since 1994. We are often al well being – through the redistribution of not able to see these shifts in our political cul- wealth – is indispensable to the political process. ture, perhaps because we are so close to the A good example of the relationship between political terrain. An example of this point is the material well being and the quality of political fact that today almost all the major political participation can be found in the way “public parties agree on the principle that without a opinion” is both constructed (made) and articu- major and material redistribution of wealth, our lated today. The haves are the “public” and the political democracy will be rendered perpetual- have-nots are relegated to obscurity and ly unstable and unachievable. In other words, silence. there appears to be a widespread acceptance Take for example, the print media (I am of that without complementing formal political course generalising here for the purposes of rights with substantive conditions of economic illustration). In the “mainstream press”, it is a and social freedom and well being, our democ- fact that the editorial boardroom (where stories racy will fail. In fact, without also enjoying are finally edited for publication) is still vastly economic and social freedom and well being, under-represented. Most columnists purporting the very political rights we have achieved will to represent “public opinion” convey a set of be threatened. impressions that are, like the ones they critique, The construction of economic and social citi- subjective. Nonetheless, they are portrayed as zenship, in my view, is the most crucial chal- “public opinion” or in the “public interest”. lenge facing the present generation. For politi- Who is the “public”? cal rights to work, our citizens must have and A cursory reading of “mainstream newspa- enjoy a better quality of social and economic pers” will also probably show that most “letters life. to the editor” are written by the educated – the In recognising and embracing the notion of majority of whom tend to come from one sec- social and economic citizenship, we are of tion of our society. Again, these voices are held course implicitly rejecting and moving beyond out or give the impression of being constitutive traditional liberal and conservative theories of of “public opinion” and “public interest”. My citizenship. view is that they form part of public opinion.
30 Stofile
That these voices belong to the public domain nity that we can realise the construction of a is not in question here. But they form only a non-racial democracy. part of the “public” whose diversity of voices And herein lies our challenge: to create a new are often not heard, but on whose behalf the set of human relations founded not on the fic- privileged few purport to speak. Invariably, tion of “race”, but on its antithesis (that is, its opinions of citizens who happen to be “white” denial: non-racialism). Truth is that there is, in are constructed as “public” interests; and those science, no such a thing as “races” (in the plur- voices who happen to be “black” are not recog- al) – only, the human race. We have different nised as belonging to the domain of the “pub- cultural and language groups, but only one race lic” sphere. lives on planet earth: the human race. Yet it is Unless we find the means of ensuring that all the power of the mythology of racism that it citizens of this country have the means and has defined the contours of our political project space to exercise that freedom, we will contin- – non-racialism. ue the fiction of constructing the views of a We must instill a fundamental and uncom- segment of our population as if it represents promising acceptance of the equality of human that of all or the majority of people. beings. This, for me, is the starting point. A second argument relates to notions of Today, evidence of the continued non-accep- “individual” and “community” in a democratic tance of this principle can be seen in countless South Africa. Traditional liberalism tends to examples of brutality meted out on farms and abstract the “individual” (with his/her rights) communities – such as the recent dragging of a from the social or community context in which black man behind a truck, the painting of a they exist. In many of the extreme versions of black child by a shopkeeper, or whippings of liberalism, this comes close to a denial of even farm labourers reminiscent of lynchings some the fact that a community or society exists. I am hundred years ago. This must simply stop. reminded of the notoriously bold claim by And for me, it must be stopped at its point of Margaret Thatcher (a conservative who took origin: the denial of the fundamental and this notion from traditional liberalism) that inalienable right of equality. As long as one “there is no such thing as society”. But if no person constructs another as something other such a thing as society or community exists, than human – either in the name of “culture” or then we are all “free-floating” individuals! “race” – we are creating the seeds of the vio- In other cases, there is a one-sided emphasis lence of today. One has only to add the number on the individual as if the individual does not of farmers that have been killed to the atrocities have attachment to, and inter-dependency with, recounted above. The equation becomes sim- a given community. The problem with this is ple: Mythology of racism = conflicts and vio- that it constructs a rarefied and atomised world- lence. view – which is neither historically correct nor It begins with, and ends with, communities. theoretically defensible. If we fail to inculcate a culture of human rights In a democratic South Africa, the meaning at the level of families, neighbourhoods, cultur- that we would like to give to a new citizenship al clubs, sports associations, churches and other is one intimately and inextricably linked to the religious institutions, we will condition young “community”. After all, the individual forms people to grow up with feelings of superiority part of a given community, and communities and inferiority based on self-constructed “dif- consist of connected networks of inter-depen- ferences”. My deepest concerns today are with dent individuals. In short, individuals and com- the “retreat” of a large segment of our white munities cannot be meaningfully separated in community behind a new set of invisible fron- real life. tiers – the homestead, neighbourhood, family, Why is this important? I think its significance cultural club, sports association and church. lies in the fact that a democratic political cul- Racism, in many ways, has been privatised in ture that we must construct should reflect both our new democracy. these aspects: the protection and defense of individual rights as well as communities within 2. CREATING A DEMOCRATIC CITIZENSHIP FOR which such rights are exercised and lived SOUTH AFRICA through. It is only through a particular commu- If we are to succeed in breaking the chains of
31 Stofile this social pathology, we must create a more 3. CULTURE AND DIVERSITY FOR A NEW open, diverse and multicultural society. It will DEMOCRACY require us to create conditions for building If we are to foster a democratic citizenship, we greater interaction – unity, compassion and sol- have to take a closer look at the issue of diver- idarity – at the community and neighbourhood sity and different constructions of this notion of level. diversity. In the first place, it is crucial to relate Today, if one takes a Sunday morning drive the notion of diversity closely with that of through many of our cities and towns, one unity. Both these terms can be seen as two con- would not be surprised to see how many of our tending sides of the same coin – each pulling in countries’ leading churches still function as if another direction, in a pendular relationship. they exist in Verwoerdian apartheid. One “Diversity” – the spectra of cultures, lan- would be surprised to see how many new guages, social and political identities and views “social clubs” have been hastily “privatised” to of our society – is crucial for a vibrant democ- bar the doors to black people – not in the name racy. Without this difference, life would not of “race”, but disguised as class or some other only be utterly boring, but it would also not be category. dynamic at all. Without these sources of differ- This creates a frontier from which the “other” ence, we would probably cease to have the cannot only be kept “outside”, but also because sense of progression, in search of newer, and it is kept “outside”, it is easier to define, carica- hopefully better, ways of living our lives. I ture and debase the “other”. If one does not think diversity and difference are essential con- really “know” or understand the “other”, it is ditions for a progressive culture. After all it is easier to disregard it in one’s own world. In an old principle that “for every action there is professional psychology, this perhaps equates an equal and opposite reaction”. From this with what is known as “depersonalisation”; principle derives action, force and progress what Martin Buber calls the “I–It” relationship. instead of stagnation. In war, it is often said that the way soldiers deal But there is another side to this coin. If dif- with an “enemy” is to depersonalise and debase ference or its emphasis reaches a point where the other side. I suppose a similar process must there is nothing that holds a society together – be at work in the retreat of racism into commu- an underlying sense of unity – then the notion nities today. of “society” itself dissolves. We would then be I think our most important bases are still the rapidly sliding into a nihilistic and arbitrary family and school. These two institutions per- social universe. But we have a notion of “soci- form perhaps the primary socialisation func- ety” precisely because there are those values tions in any society, and have been the bastions and traditions that bind us together in some sort of “racial domination” in apartheid South of broader, corporate identity – as a nation. Africa. These were, after all, the first sites of What constitutes that unity? Our President segregation introduced by the apartheid govern- has consistently called for the need for a deep- ment after 1948 – with the creation of group er-lying sense of patriotism – a basic commit- areas and separate education legislation. We are ment to the interests, history and future of our still living with the structural legacies of this country and the wider continent. Some critics inheritance. Most communities still remain a quickly jump up and construct this call for world apart – despite the inflow of blacks into patriotism as one which suggests the annihila- white neighbourhoods. To these two we must tion of difference or diversity. The call for a add religion and sport. Here too attitudes are new patriotism, in my view, is not at all in con- formed that tend to last for a long time. tradiction with the principle of diversity and To justify this retreat, the notion of “commu- difference. We are not calling for an uncritical nity” is given a new, culturally-inscribed mean- sense of patriotism. We are not calling for Mein ing – one that closes the net, draws the laager land uber alles! tighter in order to insulate what is (self) con- structed as a “minority” from a (self) construct- CONCLUSION ed “majority”. Language is increasingly being I am struck at the stories of South Africans used as a means for separate institutions from abroad actively discouraging foreigners to visit which the “other” can be excluded. our country – sketching out all sorts of horror
32 Stofile stories. The very same people would not have It is quite possible to embrace both principles lifted a finger to warn of the horrors of of unity and diversity in the context of our apartheid. They would have been happy to democracy – if we simultaneously relate them defend the inequities of that system and encour- to our everyday lives. aged people to travel to South Africa because it And my view is that we need to take a closer is “not as bad as others make it out to be”. look at the need to create a wider set of non- Something has to be said about the point at partisan political and social spaces – in civil which one draws a line. It seems quite possible society – where these common values can be to be critical of what is happening in our coun- endorsed and celebrated without scoring a try and yet at the same time also to strongly political point. We still need to find these defend its interests. What explains this inability? spaces.
33 The Sources of Citizenship: The Family and Civic Associations
Cyril Harris
INTRODUCTION with someone of the same sex? Within two Crucial to the successful outcome of South decades, the startling variety of social arrange- Africa’s transformation is the formulation and ments, the change from the stability of the fam- acceptance of a qualitative definition of citizen- ily to the instability which is all too prevalent ship. St Augustine College is once again to be nowadays, is clearly displayed. commended on focusing our attention on a Given the lack of permanence in family rela- most vital component governing our well-being tionships it is too much to expect that correct as a nation. values will be nurtured in the home, that from infancy the difference between right and 1. THE FAMILY wrong, the beneficial and the harmful, as well Whereas in former years it might have been as the development of an unwavering sense of axiomatic that the primary source of citizenship duty to be a good citizen and to contribute to was the family, today one is no longer able to the betterment of society, will be inculcated. In guarantee significant social dividends from it. the world of yesteryear it was usually round the While the family is not just one of our social domestic hearth that the basic principles of institutions but in a very real sense the one on good behaviour, the sanctity of life, the inviola- which all others depend, its stability has been bility of property, and the dignity which should undermined in the past 50 years through the surround every human being, were instilled in debilitating impact of the steep increase in the all family members. rate of divorce and an extraordinary diversity Our social scientists nowadays are virtually of sexual and social arrangements, many of unanimous that neither the home nor the school which are deliberately provisional. system – which tends to be quite strictly utili- A startling example of the incidence of tarian, the aim being to pass examinations and breakdown in family life chanced my way. In to transmit skills conducive to earning a living, 1965 I was obliged to take a medical examina- rather than to cultivate virtuous traits of charac- tion for insurance purposes. Regarding my ter – are the formative influences at work on marital status, the only question on the form the younger generation. The peer group has was: Are you single or married? taken over as the most compelling force, its Twenty years later, I was again obliged to volatile nature, excessive behaviour and alter- take a similar medical test. There were no native lifestyles creating something of a moral fewer than nine spaces for the answer on per- vacuum for the younger generation. sonal status. Was I a bachelor? Was I married – In such an atmosphere the Western-type for the first time? Married – for the second nuclear family is liable to deconstruct. In the time? Was I separated? Was I a widower? Was words of Jonathan Sacks, Chief Rabbi of I divorced first time or second time? And then I Britain: was asked about cohabitation: Was I living “Because at every stage the concept of the with someone of the opposite sex? Was I living family stands counter to the idea of unre-
35 Harris
stricted choice, its ethical foundations are the constitutionally mandated bill aimed at the undermined. To be a child is to accept the Promotion and Protection of Cultural, Religious authority of parents one did not choose. To and Linguistic Communities. be a husband or wife is to accept the exclu- The bill’s aim is indeed praiseworthy, seek- sion of other sexual relationships. To be a ing in line with our Constitution to establish a parent is to accept responsibility for a future non-racial and non-sexist society based on that I may not live to see. Hence families democratic values, social justice and fundamen- only exist on the basis of choices tal human rights, and boldly and courageously renounced. And our secular culture has trying to achieve unity in our diversity. Yet an made that voluntary closure of options hard alarming number of self-interest groups delib- to accept or even understand.” erately seek to preserve their turf rather than Furthermore, regarding the majority population enter the spirit of the proposed legislation, of our country, it should be noted that the which is to allow our rainbow nation to enjoy extended family is the norm rather than the the widest cultural range in an atmosphere of exception. Not only the product of tribal cus- non-discrimination and free association. tom, this is also due to the vagaries of migrant labour and results from economic restrictions 2.1 Rights and duties largely unalleviated by the demise of apartheid. A further drawback is that nowadays we tend to The fact is that family relationships, because of be more interested in our rights than in our size or geographical distance, become attenuat- duties. In every area of civil society, the justifi- ed, the saving grace being a strong sense of able clamour for rights – human rights, gender responsibility among all its members – more rights, labour rights – seems to obviate the par- effective than that which the average European allel necessity of fulfilling our obligations. or American family has displayed – which While correcting obvious injustices, and while allows, for example, a grandmother to willingly recognising the indispensable role of the Bill of accept the burden of looking after her grand- Rights, it remains true that the well-being of children orphaned by AIDS. society rests not only on the protection of rights For all these reasons the domestic scene is – the individual and the group taking from soci- hardly fertile ground for the creation of a solid ety – but just as much on the individual and body of citizenry to uplift our society – alas, the group exercise of responsible conduct towards family in many instances is too busy trying to other people and seeking to be of service to hold itself together. them, giving to society. From Jewish sacred sources we learn of the 2. CIVIC ASSOCIATIONS balance struck between one’s rights and one’s Nor, given the complex circumstances and duties. From the earliest periods of Jewish his- gross inequalities affecting today’s multicultur- tory, popularly elected institutions of local gov- al South African scene, are civic associations ernment dealt with the compulsory financing of automatically the generators of positive citizen- projects needed for the security and well-being ship. of a given town. All citizens without exception Our civil society boasts a plethora of public- were required to participate. Similarly the sup- interest groups, a host of voluntary organisa- port systems for assistance to the weaker and tions, multitudinous well-meaning foundations, impoverished members of society and for com- and a panoply of non-governmental agencies munal health care, were not left to the whims of (NGOs). Just beneath the surface, however, the voluntary sector but fixed minimum contri- there undoubtedly exists an entrenched element butions were required from all citizens. of self-preservation and self-interest on the part Indeed, because suitable conditions allowing of groups on all sides, vitiating worthy attempts one to derive benefit from one’s surroundings to create the right atmosphere in which civil and at the same time contribute to progress are society can come together as a collective force deemed essential, the Talmud some 1700 years towards the achievement of common aims. ago recommended that a sensible person will An example of these regrettable divisions always live in a town which has a court and surfaced last year during the public hearings at charity fund guaranteeing justice and charity; a provincial government level to assess views on house of prayer; a bathhouse and sanitary facil-
36 Harris ities, as well as a doctor, for reasons of health; ure and at the thrust towards creating an and a teacher to teach his children. In such con- improved society. ducive circumstances, the citizen is conscious Parallel with these efforts, the South African of the benefits accruing to him and of the con- NGO Coalition (Sangoco) also produced a sequent need to be of help to all around him. Code of Conduct and a Code of Ethics, empha- sising the necessity of rebuilding the social fab- 2.2 Individualism ric and of creating an institutional framework to Another inhibiting factor is the emphasis on support the shared moral ethos of our society. individualism – a widespread characteristic of our time. Civil society cannot thrive where an 4. CHARACTERISTICS OF CIVIL SOCIETY ethos of self-realisation and self-fulfilment pre- At its liveliest, civil society – according to Sir dominates, the pursuit of personal ambition Ralph Dahrendorf, a former director of the edging out any concern as to civic duty. In this London School of Economics – possesses three climate even charitable organisations find it dif- critical characteristics. These are plurality, ficult to attract a sufficiency of volunteers, not autonomy and civility. enough selfless people being around to worry Concerning civil society, “plurality means about the general good. that there is never just one association without competition in a given field … a single state 3. MORAL CRISIS AND RENEWAL church, for example, like any other single asso- But all is not lost. The family may be a wound- ciation or organisation, is incompatible with the ed institution but it still survives, and retains its notion of civil society, and plurality of associa- potential to be the bedrock of social life. Our tions and organisations is part of the concept civic associations may sometimes be misdirect- itself”. ed, but at least we have them, and must endeav- Regarding autonomy, Dahrendorf insists that our to make the most of them. The challenge is NGOs can never be the creatures of govern- to effect improvement by a concerted effort led ment. Many civic associations were initially from the front by all those who realise the defi- sponsored by the state and subsequently had to ciencies and earnestly seek to upgrade our fight for a rightful degree of autonomy. In this social infrastructure. connection he cites the struggle of universities In this connection it is worth mentioning the for autonomy. Moral Summit held in October 1998, at which Regarding civility, Dahrendorf concentrates political and religious leadership combined to on people’s attitudes: “An important feature of deal with our country’s moral crisis. Clearly in civil society is civic sense, civic pride; the a situation in which the correct values were not readiness on the part of people to make use of coming across, a partnership of religion and their opportunities for association …” politics could possibly encourage a process of In the South African context it is refreshing moral renewal involving all the citizens of the to note that plurality undoubtedly exists in all country. At the summit the Ubuntu Pledge was key areas, and while much bridge-building still launched. This asks citizens everywhere to requires to be done, the scene is not dominated strive to be good and do good; to live honestly by monopolies. Similarly, state interference is and positively; to respect all people’s rights; rare. and to promote peace, harmony and non-vio- The cultivation of civic pride is another mat- lence. Due to the prevalence of corruption, a ter. I recall visiting the United States (US) for Code of Conduct for “persons in positions of the first time some 30 years ago. During a six- responsibility”, which concentrates on virtues week stay I hardly met a native American. I such as integrity, incorruptibility and account- met Irish Americans, Italian Americans, Afri- ability, was also signed. can Americans and American Jews. Neverthe- The cynics could scoff that given the monu- less the crucial common denominator of which mental levels of crime and misbehaviour, the they were all intensely proud was their loyalty whole exercise would prove futile. Others to the US as such; a genuinely overriding alle- believed the call to proper behaviour in society giance sufficiently strong to dominate any eth- was long overdue and were impressed at the nic or sectarian feelings they also espoused. evaluation of the reasons for current moral fail- Hence the key to effective South African citi-
37 Harris zenship is pronounced South Africanism; that hardship and misery is the call of the hour. whatever group we spring from, or belong to, However we choose to define the South we can aspire to an overall national identity. African predicament – Bishop Stanley Magoba We all live within many circles of involvement insists that “while apartheid is dead, its corpse and concern, but only when we feel part of the still stinks” – it will not be solved by the privi- wider circle, which is our whole civil society, leged living lives sealed off from the underpriv- can we begin to do justice to the bonds which ileged, nor by the separation of intellectual acu- that allegiance should call forth from us. We men from social awareness. Any worthwhile can only be proud and positive citizens of solution must depend on the sensitivity of our South Africa when we feel a sense of belonging social conscience, finely honed by our intellec- to the country as a whole. tual appreciation of the human condition, and on the wise application of our collective 5. THE CARING SOCIETY resources. The fundamental task in the South Africa of In making the caring society a reality, we today is poverty alleviation. Government struc- need to take on board all the ideals central to tures alone – whether national, provincial or the theme of helping people and aiding them in metropolitan – cannot cope with the millions of such a way that they eventually become self- persons in need, so that the prime challenge to sustaining. In developing character-building civil society is to encourage and promote a sig- among his students, the 19th century moralist, nificant range of upliftment projects which can Rabbi Israel Salanter, put forward the powerful make a meaningful difference to the disadvan- notion that “you express your relationship to taged. God in your obligations to your fellow human Clearly what is required at the present junc- beings. The other’s physical and material well- ture, and in the foreseeable future, is a degree being is my spiritual and moral responsibility”. of kindness commensurate to the colossal need. Moreover, a successful development para- Civil society has a crucial role in this process in digm must be holistic in nature. Industrialisa- promoting levels of interdependence which can tion and scientific pressures have together create practical avenues for the expression of demoted the role of moral values, so that inte- good neighbourliness. gral development is a rare occurrence. A huge educational exercise must also be ini- In a recent report the World Faiths Develop- tiated. It is misdirected to suppose that progress ment Dialogue states that poverty is the “out- lies solely in the advancement of technology, come of economic, social and political process- rather than in the realm of intellectual power es that interact with each other, but until cultur- being utilised to fulfil the dictates of con- al processes, values and beliefs are added to science. Postulating an ideological foundation this list, the analysis will never be complete and which would allow collective conscience to recommendations for change will lack essential bear fruit in social responsibility, Rabbi ingredients”. Samson Raphael Hirsch, a German-Jewish The reluctance on the part of many civic teacher, spoke a century ago the following, institutions and associations, busy with devel- somewhat prophetic, words: opment work, to address the issue of values “Those who have the welfare of human may arise because those involved are more at beings truly at heart, in whose ears the cry ease when thinking in economic or political, of misery which goes up from human souls rather than socio-philosophical, terms. The dan- is not drowned by the songs of praise ger is that this leads to a lack of understanding offered up to the brilliant intellectual of the need for a holistic view of development, achievements of modern times, are often a failure to see that unless the process incorpo- haunted by the thought that the human rates all aspects of life it will remain fragment- genius must lower its head in mourning as ed, incomplete and unlikely to attain adequate long as the net result of our culture is not success. greater and more widely diffused human In defining a new citizenship for South happiness.” Africa and the fundamental values that will That the net result of our current polyglot cul- shape it, we would do well to incorporate a uni- ture should be displayed in the alleviation of versal outlook. That great thinker Vaclav
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Havel, President of the former Czechoslovakia, the idea of ‘world citizenship’, and think in a lecture in 1991 defines citizenship in the globally while acting locally, so that human widest terms: solidarity may flourish. “I am in favour of a political system based The intellectual and moral solidarity of on the citizen and recognising all his funda- mankind is a form of solidarity targeted at mental, civil and human rights in their uni- social disparities, one which strives against versal validity and equally applied. In other intolerance, jolts indifference and builds words, I am in favour of what is called a bridges between haves and have-nots, civil society. A civil society based on the between Muslim and Jew, between prince universality of human rights best enables us and pauper. It is an active kind of solidarity to realise ourselves as everything we are, between individuals who may be poles apart not only members of our families, our com- in many ways, a sense of community in munity, our region, our church, our profes- diversity. And it is that solidarity, which sional association, our political party, our grows up between different languages and country, but also our supranational commu- cultures, beliefs and customs, ways of being nities. And to be all of this because society and of thinking, and soon becomes inde- treats us chiefly as members of the human structible, that makes people accept the idea race, that is as people, as particular human of sharing, and indeed want to share.” beings whose individuality finds its prima- Hence a South African citizenship which turns ry, most natural and, at the same time, most inwards and suffers from national tunnel vision universal expression in our status as citi- is out of keeping with the global sentiments of zens, is citizenship in the broadest and our day. On the contrary, by bringing people deepest sense of the word.” together across cross-cultural lines, by making In a similar vein, Professor I. Mayor of the people more aware of each other, our society United Nations Educational, Scientific and can upgrade human consciousness, and at the Cultural Organisation (Unesco) has urged us all beginning of the 21st century ennoble the con- to think on the following lines: cept of citizenship. “For human beings to be worthy of the name, they must ‘belong’ to the human CONCLUSION species and experience that sense of belong- Our definition of citizenship can learn much ing. If they know and feel themselves to be from the African concept of Ubuntu, which members of the human family, they will begins with blood relations, our near and dear have no difficulty in assisting their fellow ones, continues with one’s local community beings without ranking people close to them and then extends to include the whole tribe and any higher than those who are far away. We then the entire nation. This should become a must multiply our bonds of allegiance, that trans-racial and international concept, a caring is to say, build more bridges between the and sharing that is gloriously expansive, and individual and communities of different which in its love to be of help to others crosses kinds and sizes, strengthen ‘community citi- over all barriers to affirm our essential oneness zenship’ while at the same time promoting and our common humanity.
39 Competence, Character and Compassion as Values in Education
Emmanuel Ngara
INTRODUCTION: THE CONTEXT – GLOBAL to higher education is no longer restricted to AND LOCAL national boundaries. Globalisation also means The discussion of competence, character and that the way we conduct business, run our gov- compassion as values in education should be ernments and provide education is at least in located in a particular context because the edu- part determined by new computer and informa- cational experience takes place in a specific tion technologies which we can only ignore at context. the risk of being left behind by the rest of the The educational experience is influenced by world. Thus we have to be part of the global the environment in which the learner learns and village and our higher education system has to the teacher teaches. By this I mean that there keep abreast of international trends in educa- are external and internal factors that impact tion, such as the use of information technology upon the educational process in any country at systems and infrastructure, the introduction of any particular point in history. In present day quality assurance measures, the promotion of South Africa I see several factors that have a lifelong learning and the adoption of the pro- decisive impact on higher education and on gramme and outcomes-based approaches to what goes on in higher education institutions. education. On the other hand, we must be cog- These are globalisation, the local socio-politi- nisant of the tensions that exist between the cal environment and higher education legisla- imperatives of globalisation and the demands tion and policy. of our own local context. Consequently, we The White Paper on Higher Education says must at once aspire to operate as part of the of globalisation: global village and to take full account of local “This refers to the intensification of world- realities. wide social relations and to multiple By local realities I refer to an intricate combi- changes in the economy, culture and com- nation of historical, economic, social, cultural, munications of advanced economies. The political and other factors. For example, South associated ‘knowledge society’ has particu- Africa is a country in which the First World and lar implications for the higher education the Third World exist side by side. It is in many system.”1 ways a technologically advanced country, but Among other things, this means that local insti- some sections of its population suffer from eco- tutions will find themselves having no choice nomic deprivation of the worst kind. It is for but to employ modes of delivery used by insti- better or for worse a part of the African conti- tutions located in more advanced countries. Of nent where some of the least developed coun- particular importance are developments in tries of the world are located, and where some information technology. These developments leaders have enriched themselves and have created an environment in which local entrenched their own power while driving their institutions find themselves competing for stu- countries deeper and deeper into a state of eco- dents with foreign institutions because access nomic chaos and underdevelopment.
41 Ngara
An important aspect of our current reality in that speak to African realities and adopting a South Africa is that our history has brought clear strategy of responsiveness to national and about a situation in which the moral fibre of the community needs. It also means designing the society has been destroyed and badly needs to curriculum on the basis of sound principles of be restored. It is not always helpful to blame education, which enable higher education insti- the ills of society on past history, but it is also tutions to produce rounded and fully developed true to say that South African society is today graduates who are capable of operating effec- reaping the fruits of the oppressive system and tively in the global village while remaining an discriminatory practices of the apartheid era. integral part of their own society. People were dehumanised by apartheid and At this juncture let me turn to what I have today people have lost respect for the sanctity identified as the third of the factors that current- of human life. We are daily bombarded with ly impact on higher education institutions in news of gruesome stories about human beings South Africa: namely, government policy and who seem to have no compassion and no feel- legislation. Since the present government came ings for fellow human beings. Men rape three- to power in 1994, the Ministry of Education has year-olds; husbands murder their wives after attempted to steer higher education in a certain taking insurance policies on them; people kill direction. There was first the report of the others for cellphones or for a mere few hundred National Commission on Higher Education rands; not to mention how many people lose (NCHE) in 1996, followed by the Green Paper their lives at the hands of hijackers. and the White Paper. In December 1997 the Yes, there is little regard for human life these Higher Education Act was promulgated, pro- days, and human existence has in a certain kind viding a regulatory framework for both public of sense been reduced to a dog-eat-dog situa- and private higher education institutions. The tion. Consequently, this land is crying out for latest document is the National Plan for Higher healing, for the restoration of its moral fibre, its Education, which again provides for both pub- respect for human life and concern for the poor, lic and private higher education institutions. the wounded, and the hurting. It is crying out The introduction states that the primary purpose for the restoration of its compassion for vulner- of the Plan is to ensure that: able women and children, for AIDS sufferers • The higher education system achieves the and for the victims of broken families, among transformation objectives set out in the White others. In this matter the government has a role Paper and is responsive to societal interests to play; the Christian Church and other reli- and needs. gions have a role to play; business has a role to • There is coherence with regard to the provi- play; and higher education certainly has an sion of higher education at the national level. important role to play. • Limited resources are used efficiently and And so as we strive to be part of the global effectively and there is accountability for the village, competing with international institu- expenditure of public funds. tions in the use of the latest technologies and • The quality of academic programmes, includ- the most innovative methods of delivery, we ing teaching and research, is improved across should always be mindful of this other reality. the system.2 The danger exists that anxious to be part of the It is sensible to argue that the National Plan international community after decades of isola- will have a greater impact on public institutions tion as a result of apartheid policies, higher than on private institutions; on the other hand, education institutions in South Africa could it is true to say that no institution will be left respond uncritically to the demands of globali- untouched by the provisions of the Plan. It is sation and fail to respond meaningfully to the also appropriate to state that constructive South African and African contexts. This sug- engagement with higher education policy and gests that higher education institutions should legislation is not only beneficial to the institu- consciously seek to mediate between the imper- tions concerned but also ensures that govern- atives of globalisation and international trends ment gets the full benefit of its policies by on the one hand, and the demands of the South receiving feedback from higher education prac- African and African realities on the other. This titioners. entails, among other things, designing curricula The point of discussing these three factors
42 Ngara that form a major part of the context in which development and one level of value formation. higher education provision is taking place in A university programme based on this philoso- South Africa today, is to suggest that if we phy will therefore be designed to achieve the want to ensure that competence, character and following exit outcomes: compassion become values that are enshrined • Mastery of discipline in our education system, then the education we i.e. knowledge of the subject (or subjects), its provide should speak to these realities. Institu- principles, its methods, etc. tions that wish to foster these values should ask • Operational competence in the world of themselves how they can promote such ideals work, e.g. in this kind of context. This has implications – the ability to transfer knowledge to practi- for the degree structure, for the content of what cal situations is taught and for the approach of the institutions – the capacity to adapt concerned to teaching and learning. Owing to – management and leadership skills time constraints, I shall not dwell at length on – computer literacy, numeracy and language these very important aspects of higher educa- proficiency tion provision and shall, in the next section, – research skills confine the discussion to a consideration of • Higher order skills, e.g. guiding principles for achieving the desired – an enquiring and critical mind educational outcomes. – a sense of good judgement – the capacity to make meaning of the 1. COMPETENCIES AND VALUES AS world EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES – the capacity to solve problems through a If we regard competence, character and com- process of rational disputation passion as values that a graduate acquires, we – the ability to see a relationship between are saying that these values are outcomes of the the formal curriculum and co-curricular educational experience because the graduate is activities a product of the educational experience. The • Character formation and the development of question that arises, then, is what kind of edu- values, e.g. cational experience ensures the achievement of – a sense of social responsibility these outcomes? What this means is that we – a sense of cultural identity and an appreci- should clarify the epistemological or philosoph- ation of cultural diversity ical basis of the programmes or courses we – acceptance and appreciation of the value offer and ensure that these programmes or of ethical behaviour courses are designed to enable the learner to – appreciation of democratic principles, acquire certain predetermined competencies including acceptance of different views and and capabilities to assimilate certain desirable opinions values and to develop certain qualities. – a spirit of service and concern for fellow Now competencies and capabilities are mea- human beings surable in terms of the knowledge and skills – development of spiritual values and acquired during the learning process and in acceptance of religious pluralism.3 terms of operational competence in the world Some of these outcomes, especially those in the of work. Values are more difficult to measure, fourth category, may be achieved by supple- but they can certainly be cultivated as a result menting formal programmes with co-curricular of an appropriate curriculum and an appropriate activities such as community service, and philosophy of education. There are three identi- building elements of practical experience into fiable levels of skill that higher education the curriculum. Outcomes relating to manage- develops in learners and many educators are ment and leadership skills, negotiation skills only concerned with these. If we are concerned and character formation require of institutions with values, however, we should go beyond the that they put in place well constructed student acquisition of skill and add a fourth outcome, development programmes, which seek to inte- which relates to character formation and values. grate students’ academic activities with their I therefore see four levels of educational devel- co-curricular or so-called extra curricular activ- opment at university level – three levels of skill ities. Service learning that involves an element
43 Ngara of community engagement is an important gic framework for action. It is a living docu- strategy for character formation and the nurtur- ment that is regularly updated to take account ing of values that have to do with showing con- of the challenges facing the institution and cern for fellow human beings. It is perhaps the changes taking place both at the institu- appropriate to mention at this juncture that the tion and nationally. The skills and values that term compassion has a religious and Biblical students are expected to acquire are referred ring to it and does not seem to be one that sits to in the document. comfortably as part of professional educational • The university has a Leadership Centre discourse. The closest educational term I would which, among other things, exists “to pro- associate with it is that of service. However, mote new, appropriate forms of leadership in compassion would be an extremely desirable the African context”. outcome of a programme that is designed to • It has an Ethics Centre whose particular con- promote character formation and the nurturing cern is “to understand the ethical dimension of values. of human existence in relation to the opportu- nities and challenges of three great contem- 2. SKILLS AND VALUES – THE EXAMPLE OF A porary realities: democratic transformation, PUBLIC AND A PRIVATE INSTITUTION cultural diversity and economic empower- In this section, I refer briefly to the efforts of ment”. The centre seeks to offer a contribu- two institutions that have in some way attempt- tion to the quest for what it calls “the ethical ed to address the issues discussed here. My renaissance without which our African focus will be on character formation and the Renaissance will be much harder to development of values, though not to the com- achieve”.4 plete exclusion of competence. It is not my • The university also has a Student Services intention to describe the curricula of these insti- Division which has initiated a major student tutions in terms of the hierarchy of skills and development programme. In this regard a values that I have identified. I will instead refer Student Development Plan has just been pro- in very broad terms to mission statements, duced with guidelines that focus on ways to structures and activities which serve as indica- build an effective student affairs and services tors of each institution’s concern with issues of operation that supports students in their acad- character formation and the development of emic endeavours and enhances their personal, values. I have chosen the University of Natal social, cultural and cognitive development. A and St Augustine College of South Africa as Student Leadership Development course for examples – or case studies, if you wish. I am student leaders, which includes a module on aware that what I have to say about each of the concept of the Alternative to Violence these institutions is woefully inadequate, but Project (AVP), is part of the student develop- my choice of the two institutions enables me to ment programme. comment on the observation I have made about • The university is actively supporting AIDS secular institutions and institutions that are research through the Africa Centre for based on a religious foundation. Population Studies and Reproductive Health. An AIDS policy is in place and the university 2.1 The University of Natal is developing practices in relation to HIV/ The University of Natal is a public university AIDS based on principles of human dignity, that has demonstrably shown its concern for compassion and non-discrimination. matters relating to skills development, character I hope these examples are able to demonstrate formation and the promotion of certain values that the University of Natal is one of those in students. I cite the following as evidence of institutions that is not just providing higher this approach to education on the part of the education without a philosophy, but is con- university: cerned about how to engage in human resource • The University of Natal has a framework development, taking into account the problem document called Strategic Initiatives for the of producing citizens for tomorrow. University of Natal which articulates the mis- sion and vision of the university and gives a 2.2 St Augustine College succinct overview of the institution’s strate- Issues of morality, service and compassion are
44 Ngara given a firm foundation if they are part of one’s in mind and body, and in social, moral and philosophy of life; if they are not just abstract spiritual awareness; and are aware of the ideals, but are an integral part of one’s ideology prophetic mission of Christ in the world and and belief system. This is where institutions seek to proclaim and live it out by the testi- which have a religious foundation are in some mony of their daily lives.”5 ways better equipped to shape a student’s life in With the passage of time it was finally decided terms of character formation and the assimila- that while its long-term aim was to develop into tion of values than secular institutions. The a full university with a Catholic ethos, offering likes of St Augustine College of South Africa is undergraduate and postgraduate studies, St in that respect potentially better placed than Augustine would initially offer students the public higher education institutions to produce opportunity to read towards the Master of graduates who cherish such values. Philosophy and Doctor of Philosophy degrees. Allow me at this point to take a step back to In its current mission, St Augustine clearly 1993 and 1994 when the Planning Group for articulates its commitment to the following val- what was then called CUSA (the Catholic ues: “Truth in every sphere of life, intellectual University for Southern Africa) had a vision of freedom in the search for truth, the virtue of the future St Augustine College of South Africa critical thinking, individual self-knowledge and as an undergraduate university with a three- responsibility for society, open and reasoned pronged mission. In terms of that vision the dialogue between different religious and cultur- university would be conscious of its commit- al traditions.” The Mission Statement states, in ment to three realities: society; its students; and part: “As a Catholic educational institution we the Church and the Kingdom of God. are committed to moral values, and to making With regard to society, the university was them the foundation and inspiration for all that going to be especially sensitive to the problems we teach and study.”6 of development in Southern Africa and would This seminar is a clear demonstration of St seek to address these problems in its teaching Augustine’s commitment to its mission and to mission. In terms of its commitment to the the values that led to its establishment. It is one Church and the Kingdom of God, the university way in which the college can make a positive would create a Catholic and ecumenical intel- contribution to the building of a new South lectual ethos, and would, among other things, Africa and I hope that these seminars will actively promote a holistic and integrated become a permanent feature of South African approach to education whereby, for instance, intellectual life. the search for the material needs of society is harmonised with the cultivation of spiritual, CONCLUSION moral and humanitarian values. As far as the I have cited the University of Natal and St Aug- university’s commitment to its students was ustine College of South Africa as institutions concerned, the full statement read as follows: that are committed to making a contribution to “With regard to students, CUSA will design the defining of a new citizenship and to helping an integrated and interdisciplinary curricu- their students acquire the fundamental values lum with the aim of providing an education that will shape that citizenship. It is encourag- which produces rounded and fully devel- ing to note that the philosophy of these institu- oped graduates who have a sound mastery tions accords in some degree with the vision of knowledge in their fields of specialisa- articulated in the National Plan for Higher tion, an adequate grasp of related disci- Education. The Plan states, in part: plines and a sufficient understanding and “It is crucial to equip all graduates with the appreciation of both the natural and social skills and qualities required for participation environments of human kind, with special as citizens in a democratic society and as reference to Southern Africa; Christian men workers and professionals in the economy. and women who are capable of assuming This should not be seen in a simplistic voca- leadership positions in their communities tional sense as there is evidence to suggest and have a sense of responsibility and com- that narrowly [sic] technical skills are mitment to their societies; well-formed becoming less important than knowledge agents of evangelisation who are developed management and organisation skills. What
45 Ngara
evidence there is suggests that employers, education system, namely, character formation in addition to technical skills, want gradu- and the development of values. Earlier on I ates who can ‘demonstrate a strong array of posited that institutions that are built on a firm analytical skills and a solid grounding in religious foundation, such as St Augustine writing, communication, and presentation College, are potentially better equipped to skills’.”7 deliver these kinds of outcomes than secular The Plan goes on to quote Michael Gibbons institutions. What this suggests to me is that who says the skills that all graduates in the 21st there could be a very useful conversation century require are “computer literacy, knowl- between government, Church-related institu- edge reconfiguration skills, information man- tions like St Augustine and public institutions agement, problem-solving in the context of such as the University of Natal, about the kind application, team building, networking, negoti- of graduates that should come out of our uni- ation/mediation competence and social sensitiv- versities and technikons. This conversation is ity”.8 necessary as we seek to address the problematic These words echo what the Strategic of defining a new citizenship for South Africa Initiatives document says about graduates of in the context of the need for restoring the the University of Natal. What the University of moral fibre of our society. Natal and St Augustine College are also saying I would suggest, in this regard, that St is that in the context of present-day South Augustine College of South Africa and the Africa, higher education should in addition put Konrad Adenauer Foundation seriously consid- more emphasis on what the National Plan calls er hosting a seminar that focuses on higher edu- “social sensitivity”. In other words, the two cation and human resource development for institutions would put more emphasis than the South Africa, with a view to encouraging high- National Plan, on what I have characterised as er education institutions to engage these issues fourth level outcomes of an effective higher in a more systematic way.
46 Ngara
ENDNOTES
1) Republic of South Africa, Draft White Paper The African Renaissance, Institutional on Higher Education, Government Gazette Vision and Outcomes-Based Education: No. 17944, Pretoria, 18 April 1997, p.10. Implications for Curriculum Development. 2) Ministry of Education (South Africa), 4) The information summarised in these first National Plan for Higher Education, two bullets is taken from brochures of the Pretoria, 2001, p.6. University of Natal Leadership Centre and 3) The concept of competencies and different Ethics Centre respectively. levels of skill was first developed in E. 5) See E. Ngara & C. Lagan (eds) A Catholic Ngara, Africanisation, Transformation and University for Southern Africa (CUSA). the Curriculum: The Imperatives of Report on a symposium held at the Relevance and Quality, Published in the Schoenstatt Family Centre, Bedfordview, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Forum of Johannesburg, 29 January 1994, pp. 42-43. the Southern African Association for 6) Extracts from the brochure titled St Institutional Research (SAAIR), UNISA, Augustine College of South Africa, April Pretoria, 26–29 October 1997. The concept 2000. was subsequently further developed by the 7) Ministry of Education, National Plan for same author in an unpublished paper read at Higher Education, Pretoria, 2001, p.31. the University of Natal circa 1998 titled, 8) Ministry of Education, op.cit., p.31.
47 Competence, Character and Compassion as Values in Education
Neil McGurk
INTRODUCTION we are called upon to try to find this pristine This century has seen the attempt to reduce our place within the spiritual and psychological understanding of language to a purely empiri- depths of our own beings, that we also try to cal system and a logical construct. After sever- originate again the intrinsic meaning of the al efforts to refine this approach to language words we use. I suppose this is what poetry is and meaning, Ludwig Wittgenstein finally all about; creating anew the meaning of words aborted the attempt. His final conclusions were with all the mystical and spiritual qualities of that language could not be circumscribed in their first expression. this way. It emerges from the depths of the per- The word competence relates to the technical son’s life world, and meanings are attached to a order of things; a person’s ability to relate to lived experience with others who share the and to act upon his/her society with ability and same day-to-day cultural reality. skill in the interests of the common good. This type of knowledge Aristotle called techne. It is 1. LANGUAGE AND MEANING certainly a value that needs to be developed The failure of the attempt to reduce language through education in the broadest meaning of and meaning to empiricism and logic should the word, but largely limited to the utilitarian come as no surprise. As a cultural creation of or technical order. Nevertheless, it is an impor- the human person its origin is as mysterious as tant value that should permeate the body politic the human personality itself. When we use if the common good is to be realised. words such as competence, character, compas- However, when we begin to use such words sion, values and education, at a certain level as character, we move to the moral order. they belong to a common discourse in which Character is to be honed by growth in the we engage uncritically, because their meanings virtues through an endeavour within a practical seem quite clear. This is so until we begin to order of things. Character is what belongs to bring a deeper reflection to bear on what they the virtuous man or woman of action. It really mean to us. If we decide to take a more describes both an attribute of the human per- critical perspective in distancing ourselves sonality as well as a judgement of peers striv- from the meanings within the common par- ing together for the common good. If we really lance of experiences largely determined for us want to give full justice to what we understand through our unthinking participation, we can- by the word character, then we need an appre- not but begin to delve into the mystical and ciation of both the dignity of the human person spiritual depths of our own beings. and the nature of the communities it forms. This place where the human merges with the This then leads us to a more philosophical divine is also where language emanates as a reflection if we really want to explore the deep- creative achievement of the human person er meanings and the connectedness of the together with its own creative emergence from words, which form the topic of our considera- the divine. It is on occasions such as this, when tions here today.
49 McGurk
2. VALUE also the fundamental thesis of its social doc- Alasdair Macintyre, perhaps the leading con- trine is based on the nature of the person as temporary moral philosopher, has exposed the spirit, to be able to achieve an identity in com- failure of the Enlightenment rationality as a munion with other persons, yet remain integral philosophical basis for moral enquiry. In so in personhood. As with the triune God, the doing he has endeavoured to recommit the pre- human person is essentially orientated to com- sent generation of moral philosophers to the munion with other persons. Communion is inte- Thomist tradition. I believe the essential con- gral to personhood, and the invitation to be able clusion to be taken from Macintyre’s thesis is to share in the community of the triune God is the failure of our modern liberal democracies, the defining dignity and final destiny of the which sprang from the Reformation and the human person. All else in its life in society is Enlightenment, to provide a sufficiently deep subordinate to this, and all the other forms of experience of fellowship beyond the individual, community only have value in as much as they which has to be the final meaningful context for help to serve this end. human endeavour and the moral order. However, throughout our personal and col- Related to this consideration is the notion of lective histories we have always had to continu- value, where we are also confronted by a simi- ally remind ourselves of this astounding tenet lar breakdown of meaning in our modern liber- of our Christian faith. While we need to strive al mentality. A generation earlier, Max Scheler for the continual emergence of vital new values had turned to a phenomenological approach to in our personal and collective lives just to try to revitalise the notion of value from the rel- maintain the social orders in which we find our- ativism into which it had fallen. His protagonist selves, these new values are soon seen to be in was Kant, the philosopher of Protestantism, reality old values, which in the course of time which had become the spiritual ideology of the had been lost in some form of rationalisation, modern secular world. Scheler related moral and have to be discovered and re-discovered choice to an order of values deeply ingrained in ever so often. The final values needed to main- the spiritual dynamism of the person orientated tain a social order of justice and peace are fun- in its actions and within a community of other damentally religious in character, since they are persons. This order of values, known as the attached to the dignity and destiny of the ordo amoris, was hierarchical from the basic person, and its innate need for a profound expe- utilitarian values and the good of order, to life rience of community, that goes beyond any pre- and health, to aesthetic and spiritual values, and sent social expression. These values, however, with the final order that of the absolute or the always remain ineffable and mysterious, there- realm where the human meets the divine. The fore, tenuous and so easily lost. Preserving order of the values shared by a community them demands a continual ultra-human com- defines its fundamental ethos. This value- mitment and always in a suffering context, in intending structure is inherent in the intention- order to nurture what always seems so fragile. ality of the human person, defining the nature of its communities and transcending all its cul- 4. COMPASSION AND CHRISTIAN EDUCATION tural manifestations. This consideration immediately relates to the notions of compassion and Christian 3. PERSON AND THE COMMON GOOD Education. Compassion, as I understand the This now leads us to the key concepts of the etymology of the word, means to “suffer with”, Thomist moral and social philosophy: the con- which for the Christian goes to the essential cepts of person and the common good. In this heart of his/her faith in identity with the tradition, while society needs to be at the ser- Crucified Christ. Christianity relates suffering vice of person and its highest good (summum as the essential condition of the human person bonum), there is a clear articulation of a recip- in community – an awful reality, which we find rocal subordination and a mutual implication of so difficult to accept in our own lives, yet readi- the dignity of the person and the demands of ly acknowledge in the lives of those who after the common good. As with the Thomist thesis many years of suffering have acquired that wis- of human knowing as a profound spiritual act dom only to be found in identity with the of identity of the knower with the known, so Crucified as the defining meaning of their lives.
50 McGurk
5. THE PRESENT SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT self-appropriated and affirmed, and their final, Before we delve into these considerations and deliberate choices informed by their faith. relate them to what we have already reflected However, if this injunction is properly under- upon, we will have to develop what really must stood, then it really becomes an all-embracing be the context of our discussions here today: objective and final term for Christian educa- our present South African situation, and how it tion. confronts us as Christians, especially those involved in the practice of Christian education. 6. COMPASSION AND DEATH The present South African context in which What role does compassion then play in this Christianity finds itself is but one in an already Christian education endeavour? Again we need long series of other significant historical thresh- to relate things at the level where they acquire olds for it, and in which it has again to retrieve their essential meanings – the challenge we set its essential nature as a revealed religion in ourselves at the beginning of this paper. relation to society generally. A fundamental Compassion has to be connected to suffering, understanding of this question involves psycho- and especially to the role death plays in our logical and theological considerations of how personal and collective lives. Death is the final the Christian should conceive of his/her essen- frightening reality we have to confront so that it tial identity in relation to any existing social plays an extraordinary symbolic role in our order. We really need to take a depth psycho- everyday lives. logical perspective, if we are to understand the The profoundest insights of the philosophical significance of the ethical and religious dimen- tradition, from Plato through to Freud, locate sions of the type of historical-cultural process the origin of all inhibition to human freedom in in which we currently find ourselves. society to the problematic role death plays in I do hope we have all now moved from the the psyche of the individual person. Fundamen- appeal to a false Christian classicism as some- tal to the human condition is a radical denial of how superior and normative in a conjunction of death in the need to invest a personal existence culture, religion and civilisation, as opposed to in an identity greater than itself, and then to primitiveness in this contact between peoples. rationalise that affiliation. Group immortality It was used to justify the imperialist expansion ideologies of race, class, tribe, nation, or reli- of Europe into Africa during the 19th century. gion, especially in times of social crisis, carry This attitude should now be submerged by the those rationalisations with an investment that is new awareness of the complex historical often absolute. process of the interaction between cultures, and It would be useful here to understand how the of mutual acculturation. The question for the powerful symbols of Christian identity help us Christian educator now becomes: “What is the confront this reality and thereby to define our significance of the life and death of Jesus of role as social actor. These symbols have also Nazareth for my own life and endeavours in been fundamental in the development of the this situation?” democratic ideal. They are archetypal in the Perhaps, the current historical imperative is psyche of the person, but have become explicit to accommodate the liberation of peoples with- for the Christian through the historical exem- in the globalising context of Western secular plar of the life and death of Jesus of Nazareth. humanism. This is a major task for any contem- They mediate the identity and action of the porary Christian educational endeavour, to seek Christian in the world. genuine cultural alternatives to its secularising In the symbol of the virgin birth and spiritual dominance. The first essential role of Christian fatherhood, early Christianity replaced both Education would then be to mediate the signifi- biological and social fatherhood with a spiritual cance of the life and death of Jesus Christ in the fatherhood into a timeless and stateless spiritual lives of people for the preserving of their per- succession. Thereby, Christianity endeavoured sonal and cultural integrities in these historical to save the person from being submerged into processes. At the personal level, this implies the socialised cultural self, which had been ensuring that people remain dramatic subjects created in order to escape the fate of individual of their own lives, their values refined and mortality. It therefore became a continuing life- strengthened, their own intelligence and reason creating revolutionary movement of a son/
51 McGurk daughter type against a cultural type carrying out within the context of the fully autonomous the burden of the immortality of the father. At liberties and deliberate choices of the persons the same time, it offered the dispossessed equal involved. In fact, this can only be possible participation in a spiritual re-birth of the true within a value-ethos, in which these persons self of the person. can be dramatic subjects of their own lives in The Christian is therefore called upon to live self-possession of their personal and cultural the authentic life of a person in a radical accep- integrities, while partaking in a communicative tance of death in identification with the symbol interaction with other persons. This process is of the Crucified. It is also the symbol of self- essentially dynamic, open-ended and dialogical sacrificing Love through which the Christian is in character, directed by the logic of love, called upon to create a new cultural reality for which is the guiding vision: it is not prescrip- the succeeding generation, in accepting the tive, but a lamp of knowledge in a sensitive death of his/her cultural type which always apprehension and respect for the other; it does involves some form of the rationalisation of the not try to abolish the pluralism into a single denial of death. In the symbol of the Crucified cultural or religious identity; it cherishes and there is death, but that death is in dialectical cultivates what is of value in the other, thus tension to new life. However, the new life preserving both the pluralism and the freedom comes from God, neither from the individual in this higher unity; it is a vision incorporating nor its social environment. Men and women the possibilities of these values and the correla- cannot raise themselves to new life; a power tive life-informing community, and is creative that belongs only to God. Death is the final of their existence; in the course of its own frightening reality that consummates our pre- movement it effects the continuous emergence sent lives. Living in the tension of life and of these values in the other. death in the symbol of the Crucified, the Of course, for the Christian, if the value- Christian helps to re-create human meanings ethos of the education community is love, and values within the culture in a self-effacing understood in this non-prescriptive, transforma- spiritual succession of the Risen Christ. tive, reconciling, creative and prophetic sense, Therefore, the Christian is called upon to live a then his/her endeavour is mediated through the universal compassion in a radical identification symbols of Christian self-identity, in sharing in with the symbol of the Crucified. the unity of creation restored in the Incarnation For the Christian, his/her religious identity is of the Word, and in collaboration with the always distinguishable from all its cultural divine Spirit in the creating, healing and grow- manifestations, including the cultural form of ing of the children of God at that precise histor- the Christianity into which he/she is born. The ical moment. Christian’s religion is inherently a missionary religion, since it operates through this ordinary CONCLUSION historical interaction between cultures in a reci- Our conclusion, therefore, is simple – the chal- procal and critical process, in which it itself is lenge for Christian education is no less than a transformed through its ministry of reconcilia- historical encounter with Christian orthodoxy’s tion. In remaining authentic to its missionary triune God, who is Love, which must always be nature, its message becomes reinterpreted and it the goal of a truly Christian Education. is vitally renewed. The truth of Christianity as a We can take these considerations further to revealed religion can only be preserved in its actually formulating the appropriate method for unlimited cultural re-expression and its pro- an educational practice. Firstly, we require an gressive disclosure of God as Love, revitalising analogical understanding of the nature of the the culture which it informs. In this way, it dialogue among cultures (again another enables that culture to relativise itself, through Thomistic concept). The idea of analogy with contact with other cultures, and by inspiring in respect to culture, as opposed to simplistic, uni- it a readiness to transcend its limitations. vocal conceptions, expresses the complex reali- This is the soul of Christian education. sation that cultures are diverse precisely in the However, as a practical or moral endeavour, values that unite them. A proper analogical Christian education should ensure that these understanding of culture is fundamental to the historical-cultural processes play themselves self-consciousness of a pluralistic society in the
52 McGurk recognition that differences are essential ingre- meaning and value affirmed by the group as a dients in the expression of its unity. whole. This exercise is also diagnostic of dis- An analogical understanding places immedi- torting historical and social biases, and, through ate emphasis on the person as a subject of the the dialogue, the new affirmations become ther- educative experience in a process of self-dis- apeutic of these same distortions and biases. covery, self-affirmation and self-appropriation. Therefore, within this analogical experience of The fundamental challenge for the educational culture, extra attention needs to be given to activity is a method for the realisation by the restoring persons from historically oppressed person itself as a subject of culture in a truly groups as subjects of their own history and cul- analogical experience. This implies that persons ture. are invited to self-discovery as cultural beings Understanding education as a moral practice in coming to terms with their cultural particu- within this context requires distinguishing the larity in relation to other cultures in which there religious and moral elements within the cultur- is recognition of an essential similarity in the al, political and economic realms at the level of diversity. meeting basic social values. In the ordo amoris, Interculturation is the experience of moving the communication of higher order religious imaginatively into other cultures and faiths, and moral values are essential, through a com- then returning to one’s own culture and faith plex interaction with the political and economic with renewed insight and creativity, in order to order, to resolve the problems of distributive share common higher order universal values as justice. These values keep in perspective an a basis for mutual enrichment. It is the process authenticity in the cultural transformation, pre- in which the persons themselves become multi- serving integrity in the process, through cultural, so that the term applies to a single cul- addressing the profound mysteries informing tural experience of a community, and not to a the spontaneous need of people to form com- community of different cultures. Inculturation munity. This involves an explicit recognition is then simultaneously the affirmation of the and freeing of the human values fundamental to culture of the erstwhile dis-empowered in their all cultures and religions to give practical acquisition of a range of cultural competencies expression to the civic friendship of a truly through interculturation. democratic order in an embrace of its pluralism Given this analogical understanding of cul- within its unity. ture and the very real process of in- and inter- This also implies recognition and develop- culturation, the approach to any education cur- ment of the authentic multiculturalism that riculum is then a communicative interaction. It emerges as the present cultural forms undergo becomes a person-centred, hermeneutical and complex transformations in the process. In turn, dialogical exercise carried out by the learning this provides the basis for a just society, in facilitator, in which persons coming from which the distribution of persons in the social diverse cultural and religious backgrounds are structure meets the needs of all its communities invited to appropriate their histories and cultur- in the equal deployment of the competencies of al and religious backgrounds within the wit- language, knowledge, science, skills and tech- ness-consciousness of the others. The role of nical expertise for the sake of the common witness-consciousness exercised by the group good, and the elimination of racial and religious ensures that these new appropriations have oppression and exploitation.
53 Economics and Redistribution – the Role of Business: Can a Corporation be a Citizen?
Kenneth Goodpaster
INTRODUCTION – USEFUL QUESTIONS organisations, that I propose to examine. As We all are aware of the artistry of Socrates as Goldwyn might say, for your information, let he used questions to foster learning – and of me ask you this question: “Can a corporation, a course we all know that it got him into difficul- company, be a citizen – or take on a ‘new citi- ties with the authorities in Athens. About 2500 zenship’ in a society?” I believe the answer to years later, American movie producer Sam the question is “Yes”, particularly in an envi- Goldwyn is reputed to have said: “For your ronment (such as South Africa) in which citi- information, let me ask you a question!”1 Now zenship in its more conventional sense has Goldwyn may have misspoken – he was cer- taken on new meaning and significance. The tainly no Socrates — but it does seem to be importance of business organisations, especial- true that certain questions are useful, so much ly in developing economies, can hardly be so that the asking of them invites a new level of overstated – to employment, to infrastructure, understanding for questioner and respondent to public revenues, to the attraction and growth alike. I believe that for us “Can a corporation of new talent. I further believe that the institu- be a citizen?” is such a question. tionalisation of corporate citizenship calls for Our paradigm for a “citizen” is a natural substantial commitments by business leaders,2 human person. Thus the idea of “a new citizen- so after attempting to clarify the idea of corpo- ship” – the theme for this seminar – naturally rate citizenship, I will expand on the practical suggests a new social contract in which the implications of such an idea. rights and responsibilities of citizenship are extended to persons who have hitherto been 1. WHAT IS A CITIZEN? disenfranchised or treated as less than full citi- Consulting a dictionary for the meaning of the zens (on the basis of race or gender, for exam- word “citizen” reveals an interesting common ple). thread. Its central referent is “a person owing But the idea of “new citizenship” might also allegiance to a nation or state and entitled to its have an institutional interpretation. It might protection”.3 Essentially, citizenship is a recip- signify new ways of regarding the basic institu- rocal relationship between a natural or juristic tions of a society: person and that person’s nation or community, • the family a relationship with normative expectations. The • non-profit organisations such as schools, reciprocity calls for loyalty or allegiance on the churches, hospitals, etc. part of the person – and for protection and • private sector business organisations, and respect on the part of the community. even Taken in a strictly legal sense, citizenship • the public sector institutions of government amounts to reciprocal rights and duties that at all levels. may be enforced in a court of law. But if we It is this latter sense of “new citizenship”, par- look at the idea of “citizenship” not so much ticularly as it applies to private sector business legally as morally, the essential reciprocity has
55 Goodpaster to do with acknowledging the dignity of the cit- the same duality obtains between functional izen in the community and the responsibility of mission responsibility and societal responsibili- the citizen for the common good. ty to the community or nation as a whole. (See Figure 1, below.) 2. RECIPROCITY AND DUALITY The citizen owes something to the nation or Figure 1: Dual responsibilities of both community – loyalty, support, avoidance of individual citizens and corporate citizens destructive behaviour, compliance with legiti- mate authority. At the same time, the nation or Individual citizen community owes something to the citizen – due process of law and equal protection from domestic and foreign threats. So a characteristic of citizenship is a basic reciprocity of responsi- bility between citizen and community or nation. Mission COMMUNITY Societal Each has obligations to the other. responsibility OR NATION responsibility Another characteristic of citizenship is that the responsibility of the citizen to the commu- nity or nation has a certain duality to it. A citi- zen contributes to the community or nation in a functional way by participating in various insti- Corporate citizen tutional arrangements such as the family, the education of children, and private or public sec- tor work. This represents the first aspect of a 3. WHAT IS CORPORATE CITIZENSHIP?6 citizen’s dual responsibility. Basically, the citi- I mentioned earlier that citizenship is a relation- zen lives out his or her calling and serves the ship between “a natural or juristic person” and a community or nation in the process of doing so. community or nation. It is the concept of a But there is a second aspect of the citizen’s “juristic person” that provides a platform for the dual responsibility. A citizen contributes to the idea of corporate or institutional citizenship.7 community or nation as a whole by respecting In its most robust moral sense, a citizen is a national offices, contributing a fair share of member of a community or a nation who, while taxes, civic involvement and coming to the contributing functionally by fulfilling a role or community’s or the nation’s defence in the a mission, nevertheless accepts responsibility event of external aggression.4 If we imagine for the whole as well – beyond his or her func- our field of moral responsibility by analogy tional role. Can (and should) an organisation be with our field of vision, we focus on the obliga- a citizen in this sense? Yes, very much so. tions at the centre of the field, but we must also Moreover and reciprocally, like an individual attend to the boundaries of the field with our citizen, an organisation can be valued by the peripheral vision. From the point of view of the community or nation not only functionally, but citizen, the duality is that a community or also as having a certain worth in itself.8 As nation is served indirectly through service to sociologist Philip Selznick wrote over 40 years subordinate institutions (parts) at more local ago in his classic book, Leadership in Adminis- levels, but the community or nation also needs tration (1957): to be served as a whole – with a measure of “From the standpoint of social systems loyalty and devotion. We can call the first rather than persons, organisations become aspect the “mission responsibility” of the citi- infused with value as they come to symbol- zen, and the second aspect the “societal respon- ise the community’s aspirations, its sense of sibility” of the citizen.5 identity. Some organisations perform this We are now in a position to discern the two function more readily and fully than others. characteristics of citizenship – reciprocity and An organisation that does take on this sym- duality – as they apply to corporate citizenship bolic meaning has some claim on the com- as well. For corporations, the same reciprocity munity to avoid liquidation or transforma- of obligation obtains in relation to the commu- tion on purely technical or economic nity or the nation, and even more importantly, grounds.”
56 Goodpaster
The impact and (so potentially) the value of both the public and the private sector must businesses on society can extend beyond the share the work.”9 [Emphasis mine.] functional roles as providers of employment In other words, even when individuals and and sources of tax revenue. They can become organisations are clear about their roles and models of civic involvement and catalysts for missions as citizens, they cannot remain single- individual citizens (e.g., management and minded about those responsibilities, for there employees) to fulfill their civic responsibilities. remain social needs that the division of labour Through corporate foundations, civic problem leaves unmet. Families and communities cannot identification and problem solving can be flourish when individuals and organisations brought to the attention of both public sector focus effort narrowly on their specific missions. and private sector institutions. An example of A community or nation needs some assets that this modelling activity in the United States are greater than the sum of its citizens’ individ- (US) is the Target Corporation, formerly the ual assets, such as a culture of civility, health, Dayton Hudson Corporation, with its track and environmental protection. record of extraordinary corporate leadership This perspective, as articulated by Drucker, and community involvement in both the arts echoes the duality in what I am calling corpo- and social services. This kind of corporate rate citizenship. For Drucker insists that there activity, by both multinationals and local com- are two requirements that must guide private panies, can be especially important in newly sector organisations, not just one. First, compa- developing democracies like South Africa. nies must perform their “specialised missions” Management guru Peter Drucker, in a 1994 with intensity, mobilising capital to produce Atlantic Monthly article entitled “The Age of goods and to provide services in the new Social Transformation”, argued that at the end knowledge economy. But this requirement must of the 20th century, we had passed through the be balanced with another critical requirement, agricultural and industrial ages and had entered the need to share the responsibility of the the information age, the age of knowledge “social sector,” the responsibility for the com- workers and knowledge organisations. In this mon good. Despite the challenge of duality, the new age of specialisation, Drucker said, compa- corporation, like any other citizen, must per- nies are inevitably concerned with their own form its specific functional role while at the purposes and missions, claiming power over very same time sharing responsibility for the nothing else in a society with clear divisions of community or the nation as a whole. The culti- labour. But then he asked “who, then, is con- vation of the mindset of a citizen is not the cul- cerned with the common good?”. His answer tivation of a single-purpose mindset, and is for was interesting: that reason more challenging. “We have to think through how to balance The duality of corporate citizenship is echoed two apparently contradictory requirements. again by Pope John Paul II in his encyclical on Organisations must competently perform market economies in the wake of the fall of the one social function for the sake of which communism in the Soviet Union. One of his they exist – the school to teach, the hospital principal messages was that corporations must to cure the sick, and the business to produce avoid single-minded fixation on goals and pur- goods, services, or the capital to provide for poses that can blind them to their broader social the risks of the future. They can do so only responsibilities. To quote Centesimus Annus if they single-mindedly concentrate on their (1991): specialised mission. But there is also soci- “The purpose of a business firm is not sim- ety’s need for these organisations to take ply to make a profit, but is to be found in its social responsibility – to work on the prob- very existence as a community of persons lems and challenges of the community. who in various ways are endeavouring to Together these organisations are the com- satisfy their basic needs, and who form a munity. The emergence of a strong, inde- particular group at the service of the whole pendent, capable social sector – neither of society. Profit is a regulator of the life of public nor private sector – is thus a central a business, but it is not the only one; other need of the society of organisations. But by human and moral factors must also be con- itself it is not enough – the organisations of sidered which, in the long term, are at least
57 Goodpaster
equally important for the life of a and political, instead of principled decision business.”10 making from within corporations. They insist John Paul II’s observations, like Drucker’s, that corporations are not up to accepting a place suggest that if we are to avoid the social risks as responsible citizens in the community; they associated with a highly-specialised, knowl- are at best second-class citizens. The market edge-based society, organisations need to and the law provide the needed discipline. achieve societal awareness, a holistic concern In my opinion, it is a serious mistake to with the common good that goes beyond the believe that surrogates such as the market and narrower purposes and strategies of economic the law are sufficient. Market externalities are competition. widespread and legal requirements are often too late, even when they do not serve special inter- 4. CORPORATE CITIZENSHIP: FROM IDEA TO ests. Corporations need to claim their citizen- ACTION ship and communities and nations need to call At this point, a business leader might step back them to this responsibility. from these observations with mild impatience. What, we must now ask, can a company do to “Yes, I understand conceptually the idea of cor- institutionalise a citizenship mindset? There are porate citizenship being described here, but this seven key steps that business leaders must take does not tell me what such an idea might look in order to implement corporate citizenship.11 like in practice, particularly if I want to make a • Articulate a corporate citizenship philosophy, difference in my country.” including basic principles of conduct, and In the remainder of this paper, I will sketch share it with employees, suppliers, cus- some practical ways for leaders to “institution- tomers, and the wider community. This step alise” the idea of corporate citizenship, with its establishes the “talk” with which the “walk” built-in dual responsibilities. And I shall identi- can then be compared. What is the corporate fy some key areas in which we might expect to mission – and what responsibilities as a cor- find policies and practices distinctive of true porate citizen do we have that extend beyond corporate citizens, such as workplace safety, our mission? Perhaps no company in the US equal opportunity, community involvement, exhibits this step more thoroughly than med- and environmental protection. ical device manufacturer Medtronic, Inc. The Often the mindset that I am attributing to the “Medtronic Mission” to restore patients to a corporate “citizen” has been elusive or hard to fuller life is enculturated deeply in the organ- find – not necessarily because of selfishness or isation. greed on the part of business executives, nor • Assign executive responsibility for transform- because of some deep flaw in market econo- ing these basic principles into action. This mies. The absence of corporate citizenship step takes general “talk” and translates it into (when it is absent), I believe, comes from a specific operational “talk.” Who in the com- belief that such citizenship is ultimately unnec- pany is charged with stewardship over the essary. Many prefer to believe that there are company’s citizenship practices? Beware if more reliable forces in the world of business the answer is nobody or everybody. General than invoking corporate citizenship as a moral Motors is one corporation among many that imperative. There are surrogates, as it were, for has institutionalised this kind of stewardship. a citizenship mindset in guiding decision mak- • Educate managers and employees about the ing. meaning of such principles. This step, espe- Adam Smith and his modern-day disciples cially in medium to large organisations, helps have found one such a surrogate in the “invisi- ensure that those who work for the company ble hand” of the free market system. Corporate understand, through training, how to “walk” citizenship is unnecessary when corporate eco- the “talk” in circumstances related to their nomic competition keeps companies honest. own work responsibilities. What is their Others have found surrogates in the various training on appropriate behaviour among co- “visible hands” of the government – whether in workers, workplace safety, questionable gifts its executive, legislative, or judicial branches. and payments, environmental protection? A What these perennial viewpoints have in com- growing number of global companies make mon is reliance upon external forces, economic this kind of education a central part of their
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employee development programmes. In addi- They must serve on not-for-profit boards and tion to Medtronic, Cargill, H.B. Fuller, IBM, share their executive expertise with the less General Dynamics, 3M, and General Electric advantaged. Moreover, these leaders must, are just a few of the companies with which I through their example and their explicit per- have had direct experience in this regard. mission, empower managers and lower level • Audit operations at home and abroad with employees to play similar citizenship roles regularity and with attention to conflicts (e.g., through released time and/or matching between the corporate principles and other donation programmes). Again, Medtronic’s organisational incentives that might under- recent CEO, William George, serves as an mine it. This step helps to identify and example, as do numerous other corporate remove unintended hypocrisies – practices leaders who encourage employee civic that are leading to gaps between the “walk” involvement. and the “talk” due to unnoticed pressures These seven steps generate an organisational from inside or outside the organisation. Does analogue of individual citizenship responsibili- the company leadership conduct “hypocrisy ty: a feedback loop of ethical awareness. Many exercises” in connection with topics such as global companies have embraced the Caux hiring and promotions, financial reporting, Round Table Principles of Business Conduct as sales commissions and agents’ fees? One of a starting point or a checking point in their the first US companies to develop an ethical efforts to articulate principles of citizenship. audit system was Dow Corning Corporation The Caux Principles are the product of cross- in the late 1970s.12 Many others, such as cultural dialogue among corporate leaders from Medtronic mentioned above, have followed around the world and are available in 12 differ- suit – sometimes using employee surveys as a ent languages (www.cauxroundtable.org). preliminary tool. • Report on difficult cases to the corporate CONCLUSION leadership. The results of the audits need to Anthony DeMello, S.J. was a Jesuit priest-psy- be brought to the attention of those in the chologist who was born in India and was raised company who are in a position to do some- as a Buddhist before becoming a Catholic in his thing about any discovered conflicts. Do early adulthood. For this reason, his work senior management and the board of directors exhibited a pleasing blend of Eastern and maintain awareness of the company’s citizen- Western values. DeMello tells a charming story ship responsibilities as clearly as they main- about an eager young disciple who went to his tain awareness of its fiduciary responsibilities master and said, “Could you give me a word of to stockholders? It is not uncommon for com- wisdom? Could you tell me something that panies to have “ethics committees” of the would guide me through my days?” Since it board, or to assign such a role to existing was the master’s day of silence, he picked up a audit committees. pad and wrote on it. He wrote, “Awareness.” • Learn and continuously improve upon corpo- When the disciple saw it, he said, “This is too rate policies and practices. This step helps to brief. Can you expand on it a bit?” So the mas- ensure that a corporate citizen develops a ter took back the pad and wrote, “Awareness, healthy self-awareness from the earlier steps awareness, awareness.” The disciple said, “Yes, and the humility to change when change is but what does it mean?” The master took back called for. Do changes, and particularly the the pad and wrote, “Awareness, awareness, reasons for the changes, get communicated awareness means — awareness.”13 when citizenship problems are addressed? DeMello’s story offers us a fitting way to end • Last, but not least, provide a leadership our own story about corporate citizenship. I model of citizenship. The top company asked at the outset, “Can a corporation be a citi- leader, president or CEO, must himself or zen?” hoping that it would be a useful question. herself become a model to the community We have seen that the idea of citizenship and to company employees of civic engage- includes reciprocal awareness between citizen ment. Company leaders must participate in and community. And we have noticed an (even champion) civic initiatives to enrich important duality called for in the mindset of the community and to solve social problems. the citizen: awareness of one’s station or mis-
59 Goodpaster sion and its duties, and awareness of one’s moral of the story remains: awareness, aware- broader societal obligations – awareness of the ness, awareness. whole that is more than the sum of its parts. US President John F. Kennedy, in his inau- Institutionalising this awareness for corporate gural address to the American people over 40 citizens, we have seen, calls for a number of years ago raised our awareness when he said: practical steps on the part of business leaders. “Ask not what your country can do for you, but It also calls, we should add, for the participa- what you can do for your country.” Kennedy tion of what Drucker would call the “social sec- was not forgetting or denying the responsibili- tor” (business schools, universities, technikons) ties of a nation to its citizens, but he was in educating future business leaders. The emphasising that they were in fact reciprocal, responsibilities of corporate citizenship, like and that citizens – let us add, corporate citizens those of individual citizenship, must be learned – must remember their responsibilities as well. by the next generation in the relevant learning In this spirit, let us hope that corporations in environments. South Africa – multinational and local, large Like the disciple in DeMello’s story, we and small, wealthy and struggling – like corpo- might wish for more complex, mechanical rations throughout our global economy, will answers – surrogates for citizenship. But the embrace their full calling as citizens.
ENDNOTES 1) American movie producer. Malapropos but entitled by birth or naturalisation to the pro- expressive “Goldwynisms” – such as tection of a state or nation; 2. A resident of “Include me out” – were widely quoted and a city or town, especially one entitled to attributed to Samuel Goldwyn, often apoc- vote and enjoy other privileges there; 3. A ryphally. civilian; 4. A native, inhabitant, or denizen 2) Not only by business leaders, however, of a particular place: “We have learned to since government and the general public be citizens of the world, members of the must also play a role. human community” (Franklin D. 3) cit·i·zen 1. A person owing loyalty to and Roosevelt).
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[Middle English citisein, from Anglo- ship; and equally subject to the duties and Norman citesein, probably alteration of Old responsibilities of citizenship.” It goes on to French citeain, from cite, city; see city.] say that “A provision of the Bill of Rights The central meaning shared by these nouns binds a natural or a juristic person if, and to is “a person owing allegiance to a nation or the extent that, it is applicable, taking into state and entitled to its protection”: an account the nature of the right and the American citizen; a British national; a nature of any duty imposed by the right.” French subject. And the constitution makes clear that Source: The American Heritage® “Notwithstanding the repeal of the laws Dictionary of the English Language, Third mentioned in Schedule 2 by section 3, any Edition. Copyright © 1996, 1992 by existing company shall continue to exist as Houghton Mifflin Company. a juristic person. The Companies Act shall 4) Reciprocally, the nation or community must apply to all existing companies…” protect the citizen not just in a socially func- 8) See Philip Selznick, Leadership in tional way, e.g., in relation to the citizen’s Administration (New York: Harper & Row, employment or utility, but also (a second 1957). Selznick goes on to say: “In what is “pole”) in relation to the citizen as a whole perhaps its most significant meaning, ‘to person, with full rights of participation and institutionalise’ is to infuse with value equal protection under the law. From the beyond the technical requirements of the point of view of the nation or community, task at hand. The prizing of social machin- the citizen must be more than a functional ery beyond its technical role is largely a contributor; the citizen must be seen as hav- reflection of the unique way in which it ful- ing intrinsic worth or value. fills personal and group needs.” To the 5) Actually, the duality alluded to here is an same point, one might argue that just as the oversimplification. In fact, persons belong to participation of employees in an enterprise an indefinite number of nested and overlap- cannot and should not be reduced merely to ping social units, each of which carries reci- their functional roles, ignoring their human- procal obligations. What I am calling “mis- ity (and therefore the community of the sion responsibility” is really shorthand for workforce), so too the participation of com- living honourably in the mediating institu- panies in a society should not be reduced to tions between the individual and the most a mere functional role without recognising embracing societal institution, the communi- the citizenship involved. Citizenship is ty or nation. So while my focus in this paper about responsibilities to the community, but is on a duality within citizen responsibilities, it is also about respect from the community. a full treatment of this subject would include 9) Peter Drucker, The Age of Social a plurality of citizen responsibilities. Transformation, The Atlantic Monthly 6) The newly-formed Journal of Corporate (November 1994), p. 80. Citizenship www.greenleaf-publishing.com 10)Centesimus Annus (1991), paragraph 35. is a multidisciplinary publication devoted to 11)These steps are based loosely on the US reflection on the growth of global business Federal Sentencing Guidelines promulgated and the global and local impact of business in November 1991. Informally, they repre- operations. As defined on this new journal’s sent a schema for identifying commitment web site: “Corporate citizenship is a broad on an institutional level about values that term that is being increasingly used by busi- individuals in a company may or may not ness, governments and academic research- live up to. ers to develop an understanding of the 12)Dow Corning’s entanglement with breast changing relationship of business and soci- implant litigation in the US during the past ety, or indeed, business in society.” decade, notwithstanding. In fact, the busi- 7) The Constitution of the Republic of South ness unit involved may not have been audit- Africa (October 11, 1996) says that “(1) ed in the same way as other units were There is a common South African citizen- audited. ship. (2) All citizens are equally entitled to 13)Anthony DeMello, S.J., Awareness, (NY: the rights, privileges and benefits of citizen- Doubleday, 1990), p. 56.
61 The Fight Against Poverty: Social Security, Job Creation and Responsibility
Anthony Asher
ABSTRACT 1.2 Poverty is subjectively degrading Poverty is a reality for millions of people in • People live in degrading circumstances. South Africa. These notes provide something of – Housing and infrastructure is degraded. an overview of its nature and causes, and con- – Personal hygiene is difficult. sider how it might be addressed. Consideration – Cheap and worn clothing may be humili- is also given to our joint responsibility to act. ating. • Interactions with the rich(er) and with INTRODUCTION bureaucrats are degrading. I am currently serving on a committee of • Their cultural experiences can be stultified. inquiry into a comprehensive social security system for South Africa. This set of notes was 1.3 The accumulation of physical and social written to provide me with a coherent frame- capital to escape poverty is difficult work to address the numerous questions at • Few jobs are available. There are many caus- stake, and to give some sense of priority and es: responsibility. It does not necessarily represent – Apartheid education has left many people the views of other members of the committee. inappropriately skilled. It is offered here as it argues the need for pub- – Apartheid limits on urbanisation prevent- licly held moral values as part of the fight ed earlier generations from moving to against poverty. industrial sector jobs. – Overpopulation has rendered subsistence 1. THE REALITY OF POVERTY farming impossible. 1.1 Poverty is an objective reality – The exhaustion of the gold mines has cost • People have insufficient income to feed jobs. themselves. Some 20% of people report – Technological change has made many going hungry from time to time and a similar unskilled jobs redundant. percentage of children display physical – A reduction in barriers to international symptoms of malnutrition. trade has made previously protected South • They have limited access to health care. African industries uncompetitive. They are disabled and die of preventable dis- – South African entrepreneurial energy has eases – of which AIDS is a crisis. focused on growth internationally rather • Housing is inadequate: than locally. – It does not offer protection against the – Changes in the international business cul- elements. ture have encouraged greater inequality, – There is limited access to water for drink- and over-emphasised financial issues at the ing or washing. expense of people. – Sewerage and rubbish removal is inade- – The bitterness of labour relations (partly quate. as a result of the political pressures that pre-
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viously had no other outlet) means that future are not pursued in a sustained manner. many managers aim to reduce labour as an Attendance is often sporadic, while much is end in itself. of limited value. – There are increasing numbers of women • Spare resources are invested or spent inap- in the workforce. propriately (further defeating the accumula- • Physical capital is exposed to fire, flood, ac- tion of capital). cident and crime particularly. Rampant crime – Fly-by-night and poorly designed and is likely to destroy what assets are accumulat- managed education. ed. This also has a number of causes: – Low interest deposit accounts with high – There is limited respect for the rule of law charges, and insurance saving schemes with both as a relic of apartheid and to the extent very high lapse rates. that it has been largely un-enforced. – Borrowing for consumption at excessive – The justice system (this includes the interest rates. police, the courts and the chiefs) is under- – Wasteful consumption – flashy clothes, staffed and ineffective. cars, etc. – People frequently observe unjustifiable – Excessively expensive funerals and wed- inequalities in wealth. dings. – Young men are inadequately socialised as – Multiple households (urban and rural) are they have been brought up without role maintained. models or discipline – in their families, • Sexual promiscuity leads to teenage pregnan- schools or at work. cy and sexually transmitted diseases, especial- • Income is at risk of job losses and drought. ly AIDS, which lead on to further poverty. People therefore try and spread their sources of income. This means that they do not devel- 1.5 Poverty undermines ambition and vision op real expertise in any area, and incomes • People expect that they will always be poor. remain low. • They wait for others to help and to lead them. • Many children are brought up without ade- • They make little effort to escape poverty. quate adult care and education is therefore compromised. 1.6 Poverty affects both sexes • Even well-intentioned attempts by the non- • Women suffer. They: poor to intervene can create greater obstacles: – have lower incomes from employment – Means tested government grants and sup- – are more likely to be left to look after ports create “poverty traps”, which penalise children formal job efforts. – inevitably carry a higher proportion of – Aid can undermine production – food aid domestic work and subsidies being particularly harmful. – are more likely to be victims of physical – Support for the informal sector and mar- abuse. ginally viable production (such as vegeta- • Men can fare worse. They are more likely to: bles and crafts) means that effort is directed – be excluded from the family (living alone) into risky jobs that will never pay much. – be malnourished (Carnegie figures from – Support for rural living likewise discour- the mid-1980s found 20% of rural men to ages urbanisation and formal employment. be malnourished as against almost no women.) 1.4 Poverty can lead to a cycle of despair and – be mentally disabled – twice as likely – self-destructive behaviour often because of substance abuse • Alcohol abuse is rampant – leading probably – be hospitalised or murdered to over 25 000 deaths annually through mur- – be in jail (20 times more likely) der and road accidents, many more assaults, – die early (their mortality rates are two to and physical abuse of wives and children. three times higher than women’s). • Family breakdown leads to the inadequate care and socialisation of children (particular- 2. INITIATING CHANGE ly boys). 2.1 Poverty can be created and perpetuated • Education and other “investment” for the by dysfunctional institutions
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• Laws (in South Africa both formal and cus- • Existing institutions are not subject to the tomary) can create additional burdens for the monitoring of social society: such as ratepay- poor in the form of taxes, red tape and out- ers’ associations, consumer or parent bodies. right harassment. • Private contracts can be unfair in that they 2.4 Institutions can be changed and take advantage of the lack of knowledge, developed gullibility or desperate conditions of the poor. • The laws and contracts governing formal – The laws and organisational structure of organisations can be changed. government, markets and firms can be unfa- • The organisations can be made more accessi- miliar and inaccessible to the poor, who are ble by changing the behaviour of their mem- thereby excluded from participation. bers, which may require education, persua- – Pay scales in excess of market rates can sion or merely encouragement. undermine otherwise viable enterprises. • Institutionalised destructive behaviour can be This has many forms: reduced by incentives and appropriate regula- – Aid organisations, both domestic and tion. It can also be influenced by opinion for- international, attract the ablest and most mers – politicians, managers, the media, reli- energetic. gious leaders, academics and teachers. – Failure to make regional allowances price some firms out of those regional 2.5 Institutional change is a social function markets (e.g., the closing of bank branch- that requires individuals to initiate es in rural areas). • Change requires the agreement of a signifi- – High minimum wages can encourage cant number of participants in an institution. automation and high “reservation” wages, • Specific changes have to be discussed and where people would rather wait for good sufficient consensus found. They then need to jobs than accept less well paid ones. be energetically pursued if they are to be implemented. 2.2 Destructive behaviour can also be • Someone must start the discussions, and oth- “institutionalised” ers must energetically pursue agreements and • Abusive treatment of the poor by bureaucrats, implementation. private firms and employers undermines their self-esteem and excludes them. 2.6 Individual initiatives will depend on • Spending patterns of both rich and poor can peoples’ moral beliefs be orientated to capital and import intensive • Institutions affect the lives of people, and it is goods and services that displace expenditure wrong to interfere in people’s lives. To allow on local jobs. (This category would include dysfunctional interference to persist is also hi-tech defence equipment and other luxuries. wrong. To do one thing may be wrong, but it The point is that this consumption appears to may be better to do it and not a greater owe as much to general opinion and market- wrong. Compromise as such is not immoral. ing hype as to its real benefits.) • Institutional change is creative. We have a • Within poor communities, the self-destruc- moral obligation to ourselves to exercise our tive behaviour listed in 1.4 above, is rein- creative powers. forced by poor role models. (Many boast of • Membership of a community creates a moral their own abuse of alcohol, of promiscuous obligation to seek the general welfare of the behaviour and of their violence towards community. When the community is a formal women.) organisation that pays salaries to its mem- bers, the obligation is clearly stronger. 2.3 The absence of appropriate institutions is • Compassion is a moral obligation. The suf- another element of poverty fering of poor people ought to lead us into • The poorest communities have no function- compassionate actions. ing local government to provide infrastruc- • Some people resist change in order to protect ture and services. their vested interests. Facing them requires • Jobs would be available if there were more courage, which is a moral virtue. firms. • People behaving maliciously may have to be
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restrained or punished. Morality should gov- the civil service and other places of work and ern the use of compulsion, and provide mech- encouraged in all social interactions. anisms for forgiveness and reintegration. • Public institutions, school, religious organisa- • Self-destructive behaviour is the result of tions and media, need to be conscious of the moral failure. Prudence and self-control are cultural sensibilities of the poor, and work to basic moral virtues. enrich them.
2.7 Moral responsibilities must be taught 3.3 The accumulation of physical and social and supported capital to escape poverty needs to be made • The value of the moral virtues mentioned easier above is self-evident to those who have con- • The creation of jobs needs to be a priority: sidered them. Like physical and intellectual – Education needs ongoing reform, in par- skills, however, they have to be acquired and ticular the development of numeracy, which practiced. will require the importation of maths and • Family, school and religious organisations science teachers. have the most important roles in the early – Urbanisation needs to be encouraged by formation of all the virtues. The workplace the development of appropriate infrastruc- and the media appear to play roles that are ture, and the formalisation of rights in com- more important in later years. Marches, peti- munal areas (which will allow people to tions and other expressions of indignation migrate to urban areas and then return to and solidarity can also be important. rural areas when they retire). • Institutional change therefore ultimately – Ways of influencing corporate gover- depends on people’s moral beliefs and com- nance in the private sector, and reducing mitments. Moral beliefs need continuing conflict in labour relations, in order to mutual support and encouragement. encourage the development of local employment, need to be developed. 3. WAYS OUT OF POVERTY – Recognition needs to be given to different This section addresses the problems of section patterns of household earning. The tradi- 1, mindful of the methods of section 2. tional pattern – of husband fulltime in the workforce and wife either at home or in part 3.1 Physical deprivation can be addressed by time employment – is sufficiently wide- grants and direct services spread to be recognised in employment • Old age assistance, disability and children’s equity quotas. The newer pattern, of equal grants can provide for those who cannot do participation in the workforce and at home, so themselves. requires development and encouragement in • Nutrition programmes can address the ques- both settings. tion of malnutrition directly. – Government must adopt labour-intensive • Public hospitals and clinics address the ques- methods in all its operations. tion of health directly. – Labour-intensive methods should be • The provision of minimum water require- encouraged in the private sector by shifting ments and sewerage and waste removal can taxes to capital (company tax rates and per- address other basic needs. haps VAT) from labour (RSC and training levies). This could include making domestic 3.2 The humiliation of poverty can be wages deductible. addressed by the provision of • Crime has to be reduced. infrastructure and the development – Respect for the law requires a much closer of a culture of mutual respect match between laws and enforcement. Until • Urban housing and infrastructure, where the justice system can be expanded and comparisons with the wealthy are more acute, made more efficient, some offences should need to permit the development of self-suffi- be decriminalised, and punishments adapted ciency and respect. until they are practically enforceable. (Most • Respect for the dignity of others, and cour- of those who have dealt in drugs, stolen, tesy in interactions, needs to be enforced in beaten their wives and infected others with
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HIV need to be given opportunity for con- • Family breakdown can also be addressed by trition, restitution and re-acceptance into education and greater enforcement of paren- society. The argument here is that these tal maintenance obligations. The impact of groups number together well over a million, the role of bride price on family formation so they cannot be accommodated in the needs investigation, and consideration given 100 000 places available in our jails.) to developing a culturally acceptable method – The formal and traditional justice systems that contributes to the security of children. must be reconciled. • School truancy (by pupils and teachers) – Unjustifiable inequalities in wealth have needs to be policed. to be addressed. This includes the recovery • Consumer protection regulations need to con- of stolen money (from both blue and white sider the needs of the poor particularly. collar crime), the refocus of black empow- – Education providers need to be licensed erment from the creation of millionaires to and monitored. the creation of jobs, and ongoing redistribu- – Financial instruments sold directly to the tion of wealth using a reasonable and pro- public need to be standardised. The United gressive tax system. Kingdom approach of CAT (charges, access – The socialisation of young men has to be a and terms) standards need to be applied to particular priority. Migrant labour, which all products available to the lower income sees the majority of poor boys brought up market. without a father, needs to be actively dis- – Wasteful consumption (including that on couraged by pro-urbanisation policies. funerals) can perhaps be addressed by opin- Schools have to consider the particular ion formers. Of critical importance is a needs of boys in the design of the curricu- health regime to treat AIDS that does not lum. Service organisations for teenagers and lead to people wasting their assets in an young adults need to be supported and attempt to find a cure. developed. Employment equity also requires – The keeping of two households will be that poorly trained and unruly young men be addressed by the urbanisation strategies incorporated into the workforce. suggested above. • Social and private insurance need to be developed to encourage specialisation in 3.5 Ambition and vision need encouragement labour markets. This includes cover against • Success stories need to be told. death, disability, retirement and physical loss. • Government, charitable and development Benefits for the unemployed need develop- agencies need to work at not creating depen- ment to allow those made redundant by struc- dency. tural change to redeploy their skills else- • Schooling should not only encourage active where. Some non-contributory benefits are citizenship, but also traditional family values essential for the poor and those in the infor- and entrepreneurial aspirations. mal sector. • It is clear that children are best brought up by 4. ADAPTING THE SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM their natural parents. Family life needs Social assistance grants currently cover pen- strengthening: the improvement of urban life sioners, the disabled and children. Other sup- is critical. port to the poor applies to health care, housing • State means tests should be abolished. The benefits, subsidies for schooling, transport and pressing need for formal urban jobs needs local rates, and the recently introduced free clearer recognition in the development agenda. minimum water provision. Free water provision would appear to offer the ideal pattern for 3.4 The cycle of despair and self-destructive redistributive grants providing a minimum behaviour needs to be addressed directly package. It is targeted by means of its limited • Alcohol abuse can be limited by the appropri- size rather than by any means test. ate control of its distribution. Restrictions on advertising and education in media and 4.1 Some reforms could be effected without a schools are necessary. Closing times need to significant increase in tax be introduced and enforced. • The means test for pensions and existing chil-
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dren’s grants could be removed and the abandoned children creates perverse incen- amounts largely recovered by adjusting the tives. tax bands and tax rebates. • Public hospitals and clinics already effective- 4.3 Support given to the disabled has to be ly offer an almost free public health service rethought to anyone prepared to queue. Means tests • Many of the disabled are willing and able to should be abolished and additional costs work, but are unable to do so because of the funded by reducing the tax subsidy on med- lack of jobs. Their problems are similar to ical aid contributions. those of the unemployed, but they have spe- • The charging structure for electricity charges cial needs for access. and local taxes could be patterned on the • Many others have needs that are not water charges: minimum first tiers free, with addressed by cash grants. rising charges thereafter. – Grants to caregivers and community sup- port networks can be more effective than 4.2 More support for children will require institutionalisation. additional money (costs are annual and are – Mental health and crime are often related very rough guesses) and need to be addressed interdepartmental- • The growing number of AIDS orphans will ly. cause increased costs regardless of the – Problems of access are not limited to find- approach taken. ing work. – More money could be allocated to social welfare and foster grants. If this is set at 4.4 The needs of the structurally some R8000 per orphan a year, this will unemployed have to be addressed come to R16 billion by 2010, in addition to • There are three basic alternatives: its administrative costs. – The first is a basic income grant (BIG) – Simpler administratively, would be a payable to everyone (R50 billion although reduced grant of say R3000 annually to most could be recovered through adapting those whose natural mother has died. Total VAT and income tax). costs would be R6 billion by 2010. – The second is a limited unemployment • The cash child support grant for those under grant payable (R10 billion). six years of age addresses the most acute – The third is a massive job creation pro- malnutrition problems. gramme paying low wages and focused on – It needs the continuation and extension of the construction of urban houses and infra- nutrition programmes (R1 billion). structure (R10 billion plus R20 billion for – Stronger systems to extract maintenance three years). from fathers and grandparents are also • Unemployment benefits suffer from moral needed. (R500 million for maintenance offi- hazards, some regard as insuperable. A BIG cers?) would avoid this, and in addition would • Extending the child grant to older ages has to incorporate support to caregivers, but the be considered. Grants for their primary care- affordable benefits are small. A job creation givers could also be considered. There are a programme has the benefit of socialising number of issues that make this an unlikely those who participate, and actually creating solution. useful goods and services. It is probably to be – Costs are significant – at over R1 billion a preferred. year it is extended. – As children get older they get more 4.5 Other urgent priorities relate to the expensive, but require less care so their management of government caregivers are able to earn more. • Proper systems of feedback are essential to – Young and abandoned single mothers are effective governance. They must include particularly vulnerable because their own means to judge the effectiveness of all pro- youth and disrupted schooling makes grammes and staff. This requires regular income earning more difficult. internal reports and external performance – Targeting benefits at poorly treated or audits. Money must be re-directed in all
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departments for this purpose. The allocation 5.3 The transformation must be multifaceted of budgets at national level must be governed • The new African Renaissance metros should by external performance audits as to the take local culture and conditions – such as effectiveness of programmes. weather, plentiful labour and scantier • Limitations in government’s institutional finances - into account. capacity must be recognised. This requires • They should be seen as providing restitution the ruthless pruning of programmes offering for apartheid, and be focused on reversing the marginal benefits, and a thorough simplifica- consequences of migrant labour by reuniting tion of procedures and staffing structures. Of families. particular importance are the restructuring of • They would provide a focus for all levels of the disability grant and its administration and government, business and civil society. the child foster grant system. • They will also create opportunities to address • Customary law needs to be made consistent crime from a new vantage point, and to intro- with the Constitution and formal laws: duce the community service necessary to – Rights to farm on communal land need to reintegrate social misfits. be formalised in a way that encourages util- isation and improvements. If necessary, 5.4 The vision must be supported by most some monetary compensation could be paid leaders to facilitate the process. • Government must act. In order to create a – Rights to housing need to be formalised. real impact, additional amounts should be – In the normal course of events, wives budgeted from the state’s relatively under- must inherit from their husbands. utilised borrowing capacity to build houses and infrastructure in the major cities. The 5. DEVELOPING A CREATIVE VISION proceeds of privatisation (of about R50 bil- Some vision of a future without poverty is lion) would be of the right order if spent over needed to mobilise the resources and to encour- the next five years. Savings on unnecessary age necessary behavioural changes. armament expenditure could be usefully redi- rected. 5.1 The vision must be positive; job creation • Business must also act. alone is inadequate – The first business of business is business. • Job creation is both necessary and sufficient Managers ought to be more actively on the to eliminate most material need. look out for expansion. Boards should insist • It will not have much power to inspire if it on being provided with regular reports on involves digging and filling holes. the most attractive growth prospects avail- • The inspiration will come from challenges to able. New projects will usually be in urban create something worthwhile. areas and should expand jobs and build infrastructure, which in turn creates new 5.2 It must include transformation of the markets. major metropoles – The greatest asset of a business is its peo- • If jobs are to be created in sufficient num- ple. Human resources and social spending bers, they will be in the cities. should begin with the housing and urban • If families are to live together, they must be environment of staff. where the jobs are. – Firms can collaborate in the renewal of • To live in cities, they will require houses and the urban environment with each other and infrastructure, and building these will create with all levels of government. Chambers of many of the necessary jobs. business can play a role here.
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REFERENCES
ALIBER MICHAEL, 2001. An Overview Study of tion with the Chronic Poverty Research the Incidence and Nature of Chronic Poverty Centre, Institute for Development Policy & in South Africa Programme for Land and Management, University of Manchester. Agrarian Studies, School of Government, DRUCKER, PETER F., 1977. Management Pan, University of the Western Cape in conjunc- London.
70 Role of the Church in a Country of Religious Pluralism
Wilfrid Napier
INTRODUCTION This is achieved by proclaiming moral truth When South Africa emerged relatively and helping those being evangelised to apply it unscathed from its historic first democratic on a daily basis to real life situations including election in April 1994, many people were con- their personal life and life in community with vinced that they had lived through a miracle. others. As many again ascribed that miracle to sus- What happened on election day is an inspir- tained prayer and sacrifice rather than political ing example of what can and does happen maturity. when conscience is freed from the usual per- The truth is that for more than 11 years a sonal and societal constraints (in other words campaign of prayer for Peace and Justice had “prejudice”) and is allowed to direct our lives been the daily practice of thousands of and interpersonal relations. Then we are capa- Christians throughout Southern Africa. The ble of extraordinary deeds. months and weeks preceding the election wit- Indeed when conscience is infused with nessed an intensification of that campaign by grace it can become an irresistible force for ordinary men and women of faith whose life good, enabling us to act not simply out of experience had left them with little else to decency (because it is the right thing to do) but believe in or trust. What they prayed for with out of charity, i.e. the love that comes from yearning was an end to the conflict and vio- God (because it is what we want to do). lence that for years had disrupted peace and Whenever the word love (meaning caritas) harmony in family as well as community life. occurs we have to understand respect and The miracle did not consist solely or even esteem that go beyond our normal moral primarily in the amazing respite from violence options. This is because we have to add that during the elections, but rather in the incredible quality that stands out in the life, the teaching spirit of fellowship that pervaded entire groups and the spirit of Jesus. Love (caritas) in the life of voters, as they stood together in queues for and mission of Jesus was a force that could not long hours on end. Total strangers were seen be contained, let alone restrained. When that doing acts of kindness and consideration love (caritas Christi) is in us it will impel us to (ubuntu). Given our long and bitter history of go beyond our natural condition. racial and social separation and estrangement That, I believe, is in essence what happened this ubuntu could be ascribed to a change of on those fateful days surrounding the miracle heart that only God’s grace can bring about. election. We experienced the meaning of the Surely, this was the answer to those long years words – caritas Christi urget nos. of prayer! Sad to say since then as a nation we have been showing less and less evidence of that 1. POWER OF CONSCIENCE miracle, and more and more of the harsh reality A central aspect of evangelisation is the educa- of the world today. tion and formation of the moral conscience. Mention of the word conscience is a reminder
71 Napier that the harsh realities of life are none other than tionships, those that ought to exist between us the impact of sin and evil on us and our world. and our Creator, between us and those near and Be that as it may, the fact that in April 1994 dear to us, between us and others out there. It is nearly the entire adult population of our coun- therefore difficult to understand how political try was able to release the power of the Spirit leaders (almost all of whom were educated in over our social and political reality, must serve Church-based institutions) could espouse poli- as a perennial sign of hope – hope that together cies and programmes that exclude religion and we can build a happy, harmonious and prosper- religious values. Since policies and pro- ous future. grammes are by their nature about values, how will these succeed when they exclude religion – 2. CONDITIONS FOR A BRIGHT FUTURE the very source of the values needed to make If we are to have real prospects of a bright life together possible? And where are these future, then we have to apply the lessons more clearly expressed than in the teachings learned in that crucial period in our history and practices of religion? 1990–1994. That was when we moved from the Does anyone really imagine that political ide- liberation struggle, through the negotiations and ologies will transform society? Ideologies are the miracle election to democracy. not equipped to address the question of evil, Now as a lively but fledgling democracy we least of all sin, which is the conscious and need to apply the following lessons: deliberate submission to or embracing of evil! • Lesson One. When political leaders leave it Equally hard to understand is how we will to the people, the outcome can be outstand- resolve the relational and societal problems of ingly positive. our nation without addressing the fact that we • Lesson Two. When the people know it is up have a plurality of religions, each with some- to them to make it work they will use every thing to contribute. This makes inter-religious resource available including their own per- dialogue an urgent necessity. No one should sonal gifts both material and spiritual. underestimate the difficulty of doing this. • Lesson Three. While politicians may thrive Ecumenical dialogue is difficult enough, and it by aggravating ideological differences, as a occurs among spiritual brothers and sisters who rule people thrive when given the space and profess faith in the same Lord and Saviour, freedom to come together to do what is nec- Jesus Christ. essary for their progress in life. Both these points – ecumenism and inter-reli- gious dialogue – emerged as concerns during 3. THE ROLE OF RELIGION the recent extraordinary Consistory. The The above is just another description of the role Consistory agreed that the best way of ensur- of religion in society. It is there to free people ing fruitful dialogue is for each participant to be from all that inhibits them from being fully fully informed about, fully formed in and fully themselves. Foremost among these is the influ- convinced of the truths of his religion, and con- ence of people and the “in” ideas that they sequently fully committed to it. Anything less propagate. leads to either indifference (settling for the low- Why? Because these shape and form our val- est common denominator) or syncretism ues and attitudes which in turn determine our (matching and mixing truth and fallacy). Open behaviour towards others, whether we regard and honest dialogue is the only way to a better them as there for us to be used and exploited, or understanding, more meaningful cooperation there to be valued and respected; to be part of and peaceful coexistence among the different us or to be ignored, shunned or even rejected religions. from our vision of life. The situation in Zimbabwe is a case in point. 5. INTER-RELIGIOUS UNDERSTANDING It is a timely warning of what happens when During his presidency Nelson Mandela often one person or group puts personal or group called together the religious leaders to discuss self-interest above the common good. with them the major problems facing the coun- try. President Mbeki has done the same and is 4. WHAT RELIGION DOES asking them to help turn around the moral slide By definition religion is there to regulate rela- that has overtaken us in recent years.
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On the one hand this call for help is a very morals and ethical behaviour. Meanwhile the positive sign because it acknowledges that reli- whole herd of horses has bolted. gion has a role to play in all areas of life, even in politics. It is even an admission that ideolog- 7. THE WAY BACK ical indoctrination, vigorous policies of trans- The way back is for us all to return to basics. In formation and even an aggressive legislative the first place let us give God His rightful place programme to remove all traces of apartheid’s in our personal, political, economic and social pervasive philosophy and practice, have not lives, as a nation without God in its life, is a been successful. nation without hope or future. On the other hand this approach by the presi- Second, let us respect his commandments, dents reveals a general weakness among especially that concerning respect for life – his African leaders. They have tended to put their greatest gift to us – from conception to natural faith too easily in political and social systems death. Are we really serious when we decry the whose foundations do not seem to go much unacceptably high incidence of murder, rape deeper than political slogans. When these fail to and abuse of women and children and yet con- produce results, they resort to legislation. The tinue to keep on the statute book laws that reasoning seems to be: “We got rid of undermine and devalue life! apartheid/colonialism through legislation, sure- Let us be honest and admit that these evils ly we can do the same with injustice, racism, are a logical consequence of a philosophy and inequality, sexism, etc.” practice that is extremely anti-life, the nadir of It is sad that they do not just acknowledge the which is the Termination of Pregnancy Act. Is fallacy of side-lining religion and replacing it it any wonder that we have lost all sense of with a plethora of laws. Inevitably these will respect for life? prove to be as fruitless as the slogans, for nei- Third, we cannot continue to allow corrupt ther addresses the cause of the malaise. and corrupting films, shows, publications and broadcasts to whittle away the weak remnant of 6. BACK TO GOD moral norms and standards of behaviour that Why? Well, as we know from the history of have survived the ill-considered policy of creat- God’s people, whenever the people failed to ing a valueless society. Even in its campaign to live godly and moral lives; whenever they stave off the HIV/AIDS pandemic, government turned their backs on God and his command- is making safe sex the prime, if not the only, ments, they came to grief. value. The consequence is a total disregard for Has our nation not also abandoned God and the moral imperative that sexual intercourse is sought its salvation in, among other things, free to be reserved for marriage alone. enterprise, globalisation, a bill of rights, an Fourth, when it is drafting legislation neces- ultra-liberal constitution, and a multiplicity of sary in terms of the constitution, government laws to implement these? As in the past there is must have due regard for the welfare of mar- only one way back: to recognise and acknowl- riage and family life. We cannot have a sound edge that only the grace of God can bring the and healthy society without sound and healthy human heart back into communion with Him, marriages and families. its source and purpose. But this requires a faith- filled life with God. CONCLUSION What a pity our leaders did not learn the les- In short, to ensure a healthy and sound nation son long ago that evil cannot be legislated out we must review and, where necessary, restore of the human heart. Then they would have those moral and ethical norms and standards accepted that for a nation to survive and pros- which were swept away together with all the per after liberation it needs to put the funda- dross that had accumulated during the apartheid mentals firmly in place. And the most basic of era. these is submission to God and his ways. It was a grave mistake to throw out the baby By turning to the religious leaders to help at together with the bath water. That is something this stage is in a sense asking them to close the that our government is doing repeatedly and stable door which government opened by legis- we, the religious leaders, are letting them get lation and that has utterly undermined good away with murder – literally, at times.
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