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School of Oriental and African Studies University of London Myth And School of Oriental and African Studies University of London Myth and Masculinity in Japanese Cinema: Towards a Political Reading of the 'Tragic Hero' A Thesis Submitted to the Department of the Languages and Cultures of East Asia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Isolde Standish London, May 1997 ProQuest Number: 11010406 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 11010406 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Myth and Masculinity in the Japanese Cinema: Towards a Political Reading of the 'Tragic Hero' This study argues that in Japanese popular cinema the 'tragic hero' narrative is an archetypal plot-structure upon which male genres, such as the war-retro and yakuza films, are based. I address two central questions in relation to these post-war Japanese film genres and historical consciousness: What is the relationship between history, myth and memory? And, how are individual subjectivities defined in relation to the past? Chapters two and three examine the role of the 'tragic hero' narrative as a figurative structure through which the Japanese people could interpret the events of World War II and defeat, offering spectators an avenue of exculpation from a foreign- imposed sense of guilt. This narrative became part of a wider discourse which developed as a backlash against the criminalization of Japan through the conviction of her wartime leaders. In these chapters I analyse the ideological construction of the filmic 'tragic heroes' and their relationship to the popular interpretation of historical events. War-retro films are examined from the contextual perspective of the structuring opposition of a nativist Confucian ethic, and culture as defined in terms of western 'civilization' and encoded in the War Crimes Charter. Chapter one has traced the roots of this opposition to the formation of a nationalist consciousness through the invention of the kokutai in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to counter western imperialism. I argue in chapter four that the fantasy world of the nagare-mono (drifter) or yakuza film is also based on this underlying consciousness of opposition. However, in the case of the nagare-mono, the archetypal outsider, this opposition is found between the yakuza moral code, jingi, and the restraints to spontaneous male freedom imposed by modem culture and the law - the law in this instance being both the police and courts and the more subtle constraints imposed by social institutions such as the family. In this chapter I therefore conclude that one of the reasons for the great popularity of these films in the 1960s and 1970s lay in their ability to offer men meanings that could help them understand the contradictions between the reality of their everyday experiences and the ideological construction of masculinity. Thus while the earlier chapters were concerned with an ideological deconstruction of the 'tragic hero', the fourth chapter analyses masculine subjectivity as defined by the 'tragic hero' of the nagare-mono fantasy from a psychoanalytic perspective. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Prologue Yoshida Shigeru and the Banning of 'A Japanese Tragedy' 5 Censorship 7 Introduction 13 Discursive Traditions 17 Theoretical Framework 20 Hegemony 23 Myth 25 Chushingura, Myth or History? 27 Illustrations 1-11 35 Chapter One Backgrounds - The Invention of the Kokutai and Early Cinema 39 The Quest for the Pure Self and the 'Samurai-isation' of the Lower Classes 47 The Death of Romance 61 Illustrations 12-22 74 Chapter Two The Kamikaze Film and the Politics of the Collective 78 Fallen Blossoms 87 Illustrations 23-49 114 Chapter Three Uniformed Politicians and the Enemy Within 123 The Post-war Rebirth of Romance 125 The Individual Versus an Anthropocosmic World-View 130 The Individual and the Multifarious Relations of Power 134 I Want to be Reborn a Shellfish and the War Crimes Trials 140 Illustrations 50-70 153 Chapter Four Facts, Fictions and Fantasy 160 The Nagare-Mono: Takakura Ken, Metaphorical Representation of Iji 161 The Nagare-mono and the Symbolic Meaning of Violence 165 'Reflexive Masochism' and the Aesthetics of Violence 170 Jingi naki tatakai and the Crisis of the Patriarchy 177 Illustrations 71-91 185 3 Conclusions Historicity and the Sensual Imperative of Imaged Masculinity 194 Appendices Appendix 1 - Chronology of Films based on Chushingura 200 Appendix 2 - Chronology of Films based on the 26 February 1936 Incident. 211 Appendix 3 - The Imperial Rescript on Education 213 Glossary of Japanese terms 214 Notes 222 Sources 236 Bibliography 237 Japanese Bibliography 248 Filmography 255 4 PROLOGUE Yoshida Shigeru (1878 -1967) and the Banning'A of Japanese Tragedy' The water flows, but the river remains. (Kanamori - quoted in Dower 1988:325)^ On 2 August 1946, Prime Minister Yoshida Shigeru invited Brigadier General Frayne Baker, a close associate of General MacArthur, and Colonel D. R. Nugent, head of the Civil Information and Education Section, to a private screening at his home of the film A Japanese Tragedy (Nihon no higeki). 2 The film, although passed by both the occupation civil and military censors in June of that same year, was subsequently withdrawn from cinemas and banned. A Japanese Tragedy, directed by Kamei Fumio, a left-wing sympathizer who had been imprisoned during the war for making films contrary to government policy, was a documentary compiled from Japanese and American newsreel footage. ^ It covered fifteen years of Japanese military rule and was obviously critical of the Emperor and his role during this period. As Shimizu explains, Kamei is an excellent editor. In the last scene of A Japanese Tragedy, he slowly superimposed a shot of the Emperor dressed in a suit over a shot of him dressed as a full general of the army. This montage sequence symbolized the Emperor's statement of humanity [the renunciation of his status as a god], while at the same time giving the impression that the Emperor had simply taken off the uniform, but was still responsible for the war. (Shimizu 1994:189) 4 Lieutenant Colonel D.S. Tait and Lieutenant Colonel Thomas P. Davis who actually attended the screening at Yoshida's home concluded their reports by stating that the film should be banned 'in the interests of public order7 as ' its radical treatment of the Emperor might well provoke riots and disturbances'. Hirano (1992) makes the point that, during the two weeks A Japanese Tragedy was shown in cinemas, there was no evidence it provoked disorderly conduct amongst the spectators. Davis later stated that it is patently obvious that we had been invited to the showing in the hope that SCAP [Supreme Command for the Allied Powers] might be influenced to take some action in banning this and other films of this kind. (quoted in Hirano 1992:134) The political machinations leading up to and culminating in the banning of A Japanese Tragedy raise two inter-related questions regarding interpretations, both academic and popular, of Japan's modem history. First, why was a film made by the Japanese and critical of the Emperor banned by the occupation authorities? Relatedly, to what extent has 'continuity' been a defining concept in Japanese historical interpretations? 5 In the immediate post-war period, the Americans, in their capacity as leaders of the Allied Occupation Forces, engaged in an hegemonic struggle with conservative elements of Japan's ruling elite led by Yoshida Shigeru, Prime Minister for most of the occupation (May 1946 - May 1947 and October 1948 - December 1954). General Mac Arthur's Occupation Forces had a mandate to ensure that 'Japan will not again become a menace to the peace and security of the world...' and to establish new and 'democratic' institutions so that Japan could once again become a 'peaceful member of the family of nations...' (Beasley 1990:214).^ Yoshida, on the other hand, while often supportive of the superficial structural changes the Americans sought to make, was purportedly opposed to any radical change to the ideological principles upon which Japanese social institutions were founded. He saw ideological 'continuity' as a bulwark against the radical elements which had sprung up in the social and political chaos that was characteristic of Japanese society in the occupation period. In November 1945, and in his capacity as Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), General MacArthur received a directive from the United States Government which set out in broad terms the objectives of the Occupation Forces. These objectives were to ensure the abolition of militarism and ultra-nationalism in all their forms; the disarmament and demilitarization of Japan, with continuing control over Japan's capacity to make war; the strengthening of democratic tendencies and processes in governmental, economic, and social institutions; and the encouragement and support of liberal political tendencies. (quoted in Beasley 1990:214) The Occupation Forces quickly mobilized the popular media as a forum to promote, at the ideological level, the ideals of 'democracy' which they wanted to disseminate. On the day the Occupation Forces first arrived in Japan, 27 August 1945, General MacArthur established the Information Dissemination Section to control the media. On 22 September, this section became known as the Civil Information and Education Section (CIE). The CIE was charged with expediting the establishment of freedom of religious worship, freedom of opinion, speech, press and assembly by the dissemination of democratic ideals and principles through all media of public information.
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