HUMAN LINKS TO COASTAL DISASTERS THE H. JOHN HEINZ III CENTER FOR SCIENCE, ECONOMICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment Established in December 1995 in honor of Senator John Heinz, The Heinz Cen- ter is a nonprofit institution dedicated to improving the scientific and economic foundation for environmental policy through multisectoral collaboration. Focus- ing on issues that are likely to confront policymakers within two to five years, the Center creates and fosters collaboration among industry, environmental organiza- tions, academia, and government in each of its program areas and projects. The membership of the Center’s Board of Trustees, its steering committees, and all its committees and working groups reflects its guiding philosophy: that all relevant parties must be involved if the complex issues surrounding environmental policy- making are to be resolved. The Center’s mission is to identify emerging environ- mental issues, conduct related scientific research and economic analyses, and create and disseminate nonpartisan policy options for solving environmental problems. About the Social Consequences of Coastal Hazards Study The Heinz Center’s Social Consequences of Coastal Hazards study was con- ducted under the terms of a joint project agreement between The Heinz Center and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Coastal Services Center. This report does not necessarily reflect the policies or views of the organi- zations or agencies that employ the panel members and study sponsors. Library of Congress Control Number: 2002111207 International Standard Book Number: 0-9717592-2-7 Copyright © 2002 by The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment. All rights reserved. 06 05 04 03 02 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America Additional copies of this report may be obtained free of charge from The Heinz Center 1001 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Suite 735 South, Washington, D.C. 20004 Telephone (202) 737-6307 Fax (202) 737-6410 e-mail [email protected] This report is also available in full at www.heinzctr.org Cover Illustration: “Expecting Thunder.” Monotype copyright © 1994 by Mary Edna Fraser. Human Links to Coastal Disasters THE H. JOHN HEINZ III CENTER FOR SCIENCE, ECONOMICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT Board of Trustees G. William Miller (Chair), Chairman, G. William Miller and Company, Inc. Teresa Heinz (Vice Chair), Chairman, Heinz Family Philanthropies Cabell Brand, Chairman, Cabell Brand Center for International Poverty and Resource Studies William C. Clark, Harvey Brooks Professor, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University Jared Cohon, President, Carnegie Mellon University Fred Krupp, Executive Director, Environmental Defense Kenneth L. Lay, President, Lay Interests LLC Thomas E. Lovejoy, President, The Heinz Center William McDonough, Principal, William McDonough + Partners Edward L. Miles, Virginia and Prentice Bloedel Professor, University of Washington Phyllis Wyeth, Environmentalist Sustainable Oceans, Coasts, and Waterways Steering Committee Charles A. Black, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Mardela Corporation Cabell Brand, Chairman, Cabell Brand Center for International Poverty and Resource Studies John E. Burris, President, Beloit College Rita R. Colwell, Director, National Science Foundation Paul Kelly, Senior Vice President, Rowan Company, Inc. Orville T. Magoon, President, Coastal Zone Foundation Joseph P. Riley, Jr., Mayor, City of Charleston, South Carolina David Rockefeller, Jr., Businessman and Philanthropist Henry Vaux, Professor and Vice President of Programs, University of California Admiral James D. Watkins, U.S. Navy (Ret.), President Emeritus, Consortium for Oceanographic Research and Education Phyllis Wyeth, Environmentalist Heinz Center Staff Thomas E. Lovejoy, President Jeannette Aspden, Corporate Secretary Sarah Baish, Research Associate (through 1/15/02) Melissa Brown, Staff Assistant Kent Cavender-Bares, Fellow and Research Associate Pierre-Marc Daggett, Research Associate and Travel Coordinator Sheila David, Senior Fellow and Project Manager Mary C. Eng, Treasurer Robert Friedman, Vice President for Research Judy Goss, Research Assistant Cheryl A. Graham, Senior Fellow and Project Manager Anthony Janetos, Senior Fellow Robin O’Malley, Senior Fellow and Project Manager Elissette Rivera, Research Assistant P. J. Simmons, Fellow PANEL ON SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF COASTAL HAZARDS Betty Hearn Morrow (Chair), Florida International University, Miami, Florida Timothy Beatley, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia Lloyd Cluff, Pacific Gas & Electric, San Francisco, California Robert Collins, Florida Dept. of Community Affairs, Tallahassee, Florida Susan Cutter, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina Laurie Johnson, Risk Management Solutions, Inc., Newark, California Howard Kunreuther, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Robert Lee, Borden/Lee Consulting, North Hills, California Josephine Malilay, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia Donna Moffitt, N.C. Department of Environmental and Natural Resources, Raleigh, North Carolina Michael Orbach, Duke University, Beaufort, North Carolina Doug Rader, Environmental Defense, Raleigh, North Carolina Jackie Savitz, Oceana, Washington, D.C. Paul Scholz, NOAA Coastal Services Center, Charleston, South Carolina Marilyn Self, American Red Cross, Decatur, Georgia Dennis Smith, Vermont Emergency Management, Waterbury, Vermont Heinz Center Project Management Staff Sheila D. David, Project Manager Sarah K. Baish, Research Associate (through January 15, 2002) Judy Goss, Research Assistant Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments xii Summary 1 Understanding Human Links to Coastal Disasters, 1 Conclusions and Recommendations, 2 Human Vulnerability, 3; Human Impacts, 8; Community and Institutional Impacts, 10 1. Introduction and Background 15 Scope of Work, 15 Biogeography of the Coast, 16 Storms, Sea Level Rise, and Coastal Erosion, 17; Earthquakes, 20 The Coast: A Fragile Ecosystem, 20 Human Use of the Coast, 22; Coastal Population Changes, 24; Human Vulnerability, 25 2. Human Vulnerability of Coastal Communities 29 A Framework for Assessing Vulnerability, 29 Human Factors Contributing to Vulnerability, 33 Institutional Involvement in Vulnerability, 34 Disaster Response and Mitigation Programs, 37; National Flood Insurance Program, 39; Capital Improvement Programs, 40; Coastal Zone Management, 41; Tax Incentives, 42; Social and Economic Vulnerability, 43; Measuring Local Variability in Vulnerability, 48 Putting It All Together: Local Experiences, 49 The Loma Prieta Earthquake, 50; Hurricane Floyd, 53 Conclusions and Recommendations, 55 3. Human Impacts of Disasters 57 Physical Health and Safety, 57 Deaths and Injuries from Impact, 58; Deaths and Injuries from Cleanup and Reconstruction, 60; Illnesses Associated with Debris and Pollution, 61 vii viii contents Mental Health, 63 Phases of Emotional Reactions, 63; Signs of Stress, 64 Blending of Physical and Emotional Problems, 66 Factors Associated with Psychological Effects, 66 Nature of Hazard Event, 66; Personal Factors, 67 Populations at Risk for Health-Related Problems, 68 The Elderly and the Disabled, 69; Children, 70; Women, 71; Minorities and the Poor, 73; Evacuation Behavior, 74 Conclusions and Recommendations, 76 4. Community and Institutional Impacts 78 Political Institutions, 78 Economic Institutions, 87 Private Sector Involvement, 91 Need for Private–Public Partnerships, 94; Challenges Facing the Insurance Industry, 95 Educational and Cultural Institutions, 97 Family and Social Relationships, 102 Women’s Role in Household and Community Response, 102; Families and Disaster Response, 104; Some Families and Communities Emerge More Resilient, 105 Conclusions and Recommendations, 108 Appendixes 113 A Glossary 115 B About the Contributors and the Project Staff 119 References 127 Preface Most disaster losses do not stem from unexpected events. Rather, they are the predictable results of interactions among the physical envi- ronment, the social and demographic characteristics of the communities experiencing them, and the built environment. It has become increasingly clear that problems associated with natural hazards cannot be solved in isolation—they are symptoms of broader, more basic social and political issues. Vulnerability analysis has shifted from an emphasis on nature as the cause of disasters toward more contextual approaches to understand- ing the role that humans play in creating vulnerability (Anderson 2000). As documented in a recent national assessment, Disasters by Design, short- sighted and narrow conceptions of the human relationship to the natural environment account for the nation’s failure to reduce the extent to which natural hazards result in disasters (Mileti 1999). Human vulnerability, or those circumstances that place people at risk while reducing their means of response, and its links to the physical and natural environment are integral concerns in the development of disaster policies. To be effective, mitigation must address the social and economic factors at the heart of risk and vulnerability. Communities, households, and individuals need to know the range of alternatives avail- able to them and understand fully the implications of their decisions. Fur- ther, there must be a collective will to seek more sustainable ways of development and resource utilization. In 1999, another Heinz Center panel completed an analysis of methods