Vol. 7 Núm. 14 /Mayo-Junio 2018 91

Artículo de investigación The sustainability of unused industrial areas: an example, historical development of the copper deposit La sostenibilidad de áreas industriales no utilizadas: un ejemplo, el desarrollo histórico del depósito de cobre de Chipre

A sustentabilidade das áreas industriais não usadas: um exemplo, o desenvolvimento histórico do depósito de cobre de Chipre

Recibido: 20 de abril de 2018. Aceptado: 10 de mayo de 2018

Written by: V. Akansu, A. Gertik34

Abstract Resumen

The constitution of industrial facilities in rural La constitución de instalaciones industriales en settlements and the pollution that the deposits asentamientos rurales y la contaminación que los produced affect the liveability of that area depósitos producen afectan negativamente la negatively. The Cyprus Mine Corporation, which habitabilidad de esa área. La corporación Cyprus was an American company between the years of Mine, que fue una empresa estadounidense 1912-1974. The protection of the open-deposits entre los años de 1912-1974. La protección de of the abandoned factory facilities is nowadays los depósitos abiertos de las instalaciones de affecting the ecological parameters in a way that fábrica abandonadas está afectando los they are at risk. The main focus has been on the parámetros ecológicos de una manera que están transformation of the pollution which occur in en riesgo. El foco principal ha estado en la the Lefke settlements into a green-system and on transformación de la contaminación que ocurre the recovery of the lost ecological-values. en los asentamientos de Lefke en un sistema Accordingly, the basic principles of wheeler on ecológico y en la recuperación de los valores the behalf of sustainability have been revealed ecológicos perdidos. En consecuencia, se han aimed at the ensurance of the liveability of the revelado los principios básicos de Wheeler en unused-industrial building environments and nombre de la sostenibilidad con el objetivo de chemical-waste areas. Thus a planning approach garantizar la habitabilidad de los entornos de has been suggested for the protection of edificios industriales no utilizados y las áreas de ecological parameters of problematic areas and desechos químicos. Por lo tanto, se ha sugerido its recovery according to obtained results. Within un enfoque de planificación para la protección de this approach the sample being unused-industrial los parámetros ecológicos de las áreas area in the Lefke-settlement has been examined. problemáticas y su recuperación de acuerdo con In the planning of the cities a suggestion for a road los resultados obtenidos. Dentro de este map to follow for the planning studies of idle enfoque, se ha examinado la muestra del área industrial areas was revealed as a result of the industrial no utilizada en el asentamiento de used method. Lefke. En la planificación de las ciudades, se reveló una sugerencia de una hoja de ruta para Keywords: Sustainability, Rural Settlement, los estudios de planificación de áreas industriales Ecology, Industrial Pollution, Copper Mine, inactivas como resultado del método utilizado. Wheeler Principles Palabras clave: Sostenibilidad, asentamiento rural, ecología, contaminación industrial, mina de cobre, principios de Wheeler

34 Near East University, Faculty of Architecture, -Cyprus.

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Resumo

A constituição de instalações industriais em assentamentos rurais e a poluição que os depósitos produzem afetam negativamente a habitabilidade daquela área. A Cyprus Mine Corporation, que era uma empresa dos EUA entre os anos de 1912-1974. A proteção de depósitos abertos de fábricas abandonadas está afetando os parâmetros ecológicos de uma forma que está em risco. O foco principal tem sido a transformação da poluição que ocorre nos assentamentos de Lefke em um sistema ecológico e na recuperação de valores ecológicos perdidos. Como resultado, os princípios básicos da Wheeler em nome da sustentabilidade foram revelados para garantir a habitabilidade de edifícios industriais não utilizados e áreas de resíduos químicos. Portanto, uma abordagem de planejamento tem sido sugerida para a proteção dos parâmetros ecológicos das áreas problemáticas e sua recuperação de acordo com os resultados obtidos. Nesta abordagem, a amostra da área industrial não utilizada no assentamento de Lefke foi examinada. No planejamento das cidades, uma sugestão de um roteiro para o planejamento de estudos de áreas industriais ociosas foi revelada como resultado do método utilizado.

Palavras-chave: Sustentabilidade, assentamento rural, ecologia, poluição industrial, mina de cobre, princípios Wheeler

Introduction

The island of Cyprus, known for having its name deposits, includings piles Mavrovouni (near from the copper mine, has catched the attention Lefke) and (Cohen, 2002). of many countries with its strategic location, natural resources, natural and historical beauties and has hosted many civilazations. Among these civilisations, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Persians, Helens, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Franks, Genoeses, Lusignans, Venetians, Ottoman, and British are those who influenced the Island most with regard to religion, trade, commerce, culture, way of life and politics (Hill, 1972; Gazioğlu, 1990).

) The natural resources (copper, gold, silver, sulphur) in the island are common in the Lefke settlement which is situated within the valley, Fig. (1). Map of Cyprus Showing the Copper- parallel to the sea and bound to the area of Rich Pillow Lava, the Location of Mines and Güzelyurt (placed northwest in the capital Metallurgical Sites Dating to the Iron Age Lefkosa). The mine deposit (Xeros) is located in (produced by A. Agapiou based on digital the northern foothill and costal plain of the geological data provided by the Cyprus Trodos Mountain in , Geological Survey from Kassianidou, 2013) approximately 40 km west of Lefkoşa. Elevations range from sea level to approximately 300 The copper mine being explored and used within meters MSL (mean sea level) in the vicinity of the the historical process has experienced former Mavrovouni mine (Cohen, 2002). (Fig. 1) developments especially within a period which Starting from the Bronze Age (~1350 BC), the came after the island was rented to the British by fact that rich copper deposits have been found the Ottomans in 1878. has increased the value of Lefke (Christofides, The British have presented new legal practices 2009). Plutarch wrote of the ancient city of Soli, which enabled developments in transportation also located near Lefke, where mining and and communication, education and health, smelting were likely already well-development in agricultural policies and administration in the 575 BC (Lavander, 1962). The most prominent island Tozan, 2008). But in addition to these evidence of ancient workings are the heaps of developments, in cities and rural settlements black slag located on the surface major mineral

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especially for Lefke it has been the beginning of the scope of the study, the aim is to ensure the the biggest environmental holocaust. sustainability of the liveablity and to protect ecological parameters of the environmental The American company which took advantage of pollution which causes abandoned mine waste. It the island being under the British rule started its is essential to overthink the thought of the work on the copper mine in Lefke after receiving refuntioning of the abandoned industrial areas permission of the British rule. The mining activity and the dimension of the sustainability of the has been turned into an important advantage planning studies. between the years of 1912-1974. Lefke, which experienced a great industrial progress with the As a part of the conceptual study, the concept of Cyprus Mine Corporation (CMC) is the first and sustainability aims to meet economical, only sample of a small-scale industrial developed environmental and social requirements as key area in Cyprus. concepts of the attitude of developed countries towards the planning system of ruling a country This artilce will present the change and without harming the living conditions of the development of the CMC Company which was posterity. With this concept, the ecological established between the years of 1912 and 1974 sustanability is being used as a base in order to in Lefke and the issues that came in tow. Besides ensure today´s and future lives in this world. In that, the base was on transforming the the vital loop solutions for the problems we meet problematic area into healthy and peaceful in physical areas such as environmental pollution, liveable areas by correcting the damages from ecological balance and climate change can be the past. Basically there is a threat for the improved by examining them together with the ensurance of the ecological sustainability around concepts of sustainability and ecological concepts the industrial waste in Lefke. In this direction, the with architectural discipline and field of necessity of suggestions for the ensurance of the application (Akgündüz, 2013). Within this protection of the ecological values, along with framework, livability is a multi-concept which is the livability of the CMC area and its not certain and has no universal definition. While environment will be the focus. this concept can be a living environment which is liveable in one part of the world, it can be In this context, Wheeler was looking for a way to perceived differently in another place. The ensure comfort in the cities as green, safe, in meaning of the urban liveability can vary in terms human scale and attractive for women, children, of time, the purpose of the evaluation and the elders and other groups of all individuals of the value systems of the evaluative. community Wheeler, 2003). The fact that a sustainable city is impossible, but the ways to However, the concept of liveability holds its follow for becoming a sustainable city are force in all cases and is a common political target summarized as 9 principles: 1. compact, of different stakeholders (Oktay, 2007). In this balanced landuse, 2. vehicle use and easy access, direction, the concept of liveability should also be 3. wise use of the sources, reduction of wastes, added to the ecological concepts revealed with trevention of environmental pollution, 4. the the sustainability. In this way, the approach of restoration of natural systems, 5. good housing sustainability planning should accompany the and living environment, 6. healthy social ecology, ecological parameters which have been harmed 7. sustainable economy 8. Community in the ensurance of the liveability of the industrial participation, 9. Protection of the local culture areas. and social values. Coming to the working method; on behalf of the sustainability Sustainable Industrial Environment Wheeler´s 9 working areas will be discussed along with the approaches enabling the planning The sustainability of the environment is possible of liveable cities. With this method it will have the at local level with the application of the opportunity to regain its lost economic, sustainability process conditions. The existence ecological and social values. of the institutions and organizations which are concerned especially with refunctioning Theoretical Framework Of The Study abandoned areas supports this idea. Accordingly, the sustainability aimed at bringing into being the The protection of natural environment, liveability areas with wastes is a concept that should play a and ecologic parameters have been presented in part in all scales of planning and development the theoretical framework in the study. Within studies and constitute a frame of a general

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overview. The Rio Convention and Kyoto 4. The restauration of the natural systems protocol bring up the necessity of applying the presents the renovation by protecting the principles in the sustainability of the environment topographical features of the natural structure of for the industrial areas which are active or made the environment, open areas, valleys, channels, a break with their work. guttering, green hallways and areas. Above the environment in which the abandoned waste area It is necessary that principles for the process of is present, problems can be observed in the settlements which protect ecological values formations such as green areas, valley, canals, and for ensuring the living areas which balance gutterings, caves, green hallways and open areas. the relationship between humans and nature are These formations should become integrated being formed by the planning of the areas with with the settlement, supported with walking anthropogenic pollution. tracks and brought into the society. The disturbances caused by the usage should be It is necessary that the nine basic fields of study reconstructed and brought into being. If there Wheeler, are carried out in which the reflection are any ecological restorations, they should put of the succes of the application will be monitored emphasis on it sensitively in achieving buildings and which will direct the development of the and work with experts. sustainability in the industrial areas (Wheeler, 5. Good housing and living environment is an 1998). The principles and the declinations approach which supports the protection of the revealed for bringing the abandoned areas into traditional building areas and natural construct use actively by institutions and/or organizations values. It is essential that the abandoned waste are; areas are being thought along with traditional and nascent housing zones. In case of not making 1. The compact presents the protection of the such planning studies respectfully towards the flora and fauna in the ecosystems within balanced present texture, environment and natural land usage. Abandoned waste areas hinder the structure making the environment liveable would usage aimed at the protection of the ecosystems. not be possible. With this the expected type variety in the area 6. It forms a principle which prescribes the decreases or shows an alteration. conditions necessary for a healthy social ecology, The requests for the land use for these areas social equality, and fulfilment of basic needs of should direct the potentials within the present the people, sufficient job opportunities and social settlements and should be organized in a way life. that the needs within the period of development The abandoned waste areas which affect the can be met within the scope of a productive natural environment negatively becomes the planning. reason for problems in the formation of social 2. Use of vehicle and easy access is a principle of and healthy living areas besides meeting human sustainability which suggests that the usage of an basic needs. The reintegration of these areas into individual motor vehicle causes air pollution and the society matters in the formation of liveable suggests the usage of bicycle, accumulator environments Projects should be developed vehicle and walking. They take on a task as a aimed at protecting and improving natural barrier in the areas as the usage of abandoned systems for social health. These should predict waste aseas are not suitable healthwise. So the social equalization, meeting human needs, healthy access such as walk ways and bicycle forming sufficient job opportunities and essential ways, accumulator vehicle and animal power social life conditions. which can provide for sustainability area not 7. The sustainable economy has been presented supported by these areas. with the formation of conditions which will make 3. The wise use of the resources, the reduction the use of resource easier for the posterity and of the wastes and the prevention of the the development of policies with the equal environmental pollution supports the usage of distritbution of the public welfare. The nature friendly renewable energy resources by abandoned waste areas cause problems in reducing the usage of the nonrenewable energy handing down the next generations with resources to the minimum. The fact that the resource use which is important in ensuring abandoned industrial areas are present as liveablity. In such a situation it is not possible to abandoned waste areas among settlements mention about a sustainable economy in the causes air, water and land pollution. Studies on cities or rural settings. In order to change this, decreasing waste are essential for the planning cleaning the abandoned waste areas becomes studies made to protect the natural resources. vital.

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8. The public participation is one of the principles that supports equality, equal distribution of The prospective unplanned and uncontrolled resources and the right of the community of development of the industrial areas is affecting having a voice in the production of policies that the ecological parameters negatively and is will ensure the distribution of the welfare for bringing up the issues of the unlivablity in the every district. One of the most important living areas. components in the reintegration of the abandoned waste areas into society is to step in The reduction of these effects is only possible the area by forming more functional, free from with planning approaches which enable the politics and local regulations. The way of ensurance of the sustainability by integrating providing this is to form local progress politics industrial idle areas into to liveable areas. For this oriented at abandoned industrial areas. reason, the area has to be a production of a Increasing the non-governmental organizations mutlidimensional integrated planning of the of the area which bring together groups of development before it joins the structuring. sensitive citizen, social involvement and Within the scope of planning, besides the communion are expected. With this, a period is ecologic, economic, socio-cultural features, in progress in which public cooperation or related sectors and social participation should be representation is present in the planning included in the approach. decisions which effects the whole progress of the area. There is a need for an attitude with a method 9. The protection of the local culture and social which should be specific for the planning and values supports the protections of the natural regulation by bringing the anthropogenic resources and local architectural texture. The pollution areas into being. In this direction, the local culture and its sustainability, the traditional data collection and the evaluation process should social life of the community, their relations be taken in hand with data collection and expert among each other and the number of tourists in staff while the systematics of the spatial and the abandoned waste areas are being affected functional analysis are being constituted. negatively. Accordingly, the state and subnational administration should take a role as a follower in The natural resources (water resources, the protective measure taking of the agricultural available natural resources) and physical production, natural resources, local architecture resources (topographic structure, present and settlement texture and its implementation. settlement style of the region, architectural In this direction, liveable conceptual frameworks texture) are factors which need to be taken into and sustainability were used for the abandoned consideration in terms of the liveability of the waste areas (Wheeler, 1998). industrial solid and liquid waste areas.

A Conceptual Framework For The There is the need for determining data which is Sustainability Of The Natural Settlements necessary for the planning by its analysis and synthesize. In this way, with the gathered datait The formerly industrial areas appear to us as is possible to switch to the spatial planning as part settlements whose ecologic and natural areas are of the sustainable ecology and formation of the ruined and whose liveable boundaries are at a conceptual framework of the abandoned waste low level. These areas can be accepted into areas. So the decision-making authorities in the society only if they are thought as a whole within planning can act as counsellors for the liveability the settlements. For this the ecological of industrial waste areas and the sustainability of sustainability through the constituition of the use the ecological parameters. of the non-industrial areasalong with its natural and architectural environment, climatic features, The sustainability of the ecological parameters bio-diversity (flora-fauna), and topographic are of great importance in the Island of Cyprus in structure with natural resources can be ensured. terms of liveability. It is necessary that liveable The ecologic, cultural, social and economic areas are tranferred to the coming years which is resources of the areas which will restored are essential for the protection and sustainability of important factors in the studies of non-industrial ecological parameters and that the living quality regional area planning. Discussing all the is improved. So the principles in Wheeler´s nine parameters of these resources in the decision- work areas should be evaluated ecologically and making process the planning steps will be in terms of the liveability of the industrial areas. formed. In this direction, the principles should be

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considered within the industrial or urban the deposits in Lefke got open to the whole development planning for abandoned waste world. It is a known that the industrial areas. develpment was encouraged by the fact that the island of Cyprus has been rented to the British LEFKE CMC ABANDONED WASTE FIELD colony by the Ottomans and that the CMC DATA company has received permission for the mineral exploration. The Cyprus Mine Corporation (CMC) copper mine deposit waste area, which has been chosen Experts and boring machines were brought from as the field of study involves the situational the United States to Lefke for being used in the assessment of today. Studies can be found for mineral exploration. In 1916, started production abandoned CMC area revealed by public of chalcopyrite from an underground mine at institutions or nongovernmental organisations. Skouriotissa (Foucassa Hill) shortly after the end As part of these studies, they should try to open of World War I. After continued prospecting and areas of high land value and with land clearing for delineation of the orebody under Lefke, work on use as free port. So the fact that the idea of a port the underground Mavrovouni (near Lefke) mine which was important in the transportation of began in 1926. The first production of ore began copper in the period of CMC was reawaken in 1929. Coincident with mine openning was increases the necessity of the sustainability construction of the new village of Xeros, a planning studies. nearby jetty in the bay and new workers homes near Lefke (Lavander, 1962). The workforce The progress of the Lefke region within the consisted of the Turkish Cypriots and Greek historical process, copper mine and CMC Cypriots of that area.

The most important work in the historical The first ores exported from Skouriotissa were literatures for the descried natural resources was shipped from Famagusta and Pendaia. made by the American engineer Charles Godfrey Subsequently, ores from the Skouriotissa and Gunter who came for being present in the Mavrovouni mines were taken to the jetty at mineral explorations in the Middle East in 1913. Xeros by newly-built railroads, and then shipped As a result of the study plenty of sulphur and overseas for concentration and smelting. (Fig. 2) copper mine was found in the hill called Foucassa The only processing of these early ores consisted situated in the town of Lefke. With the evaluation of crushing to uniform size, which was handled of the owners of the American mining companies by primary crushers at the mine sites (Wilson & Philip Wiseman ve SeeleyWintersimith Mudd on Ingham, 1959). In this way expulsion of the the report as part of the sutdies of Godfrey, copper mine was ensured the first time in CMC was oficially established being appropriate Cyprus. In this direction, Lefke continued its to New York state laws in 1916 (Bear, 1963; rapid progress in the industrial field. Lavander, 1962). In this way, it was ensured that

Thickening ponds at Xeros. Behind them are The Original Jerry at Pendayia, a barge and the Tug Units for Leaching, Grinding, and Floating Foam Alongside (Photo:Gordon S.Duncan) (Photo:R. J. Hendricks) Fig. (2). Ports Operated by CMC. History of mining in lefke. www.gucsen.org/.../HISTORY-OF-MINING- IN-LEFKE.doc. 28. August.2017

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Besides that, along with the increasing job began at the CMC plant in Xeros. These would opportunities as a result of the developments in be used to create dilute sulfuric acid from locally the mine in Lefke, domestic migration started. mined pyrite which would then be used to leach With the population increase unhealthy living soluble copper compounds from crushed ore quarters occured. As a result of this, the blood prior to floation processing (Wilson & Ingham, disease malaria came along. First of all, 1959). In this way, very dangerous chemicals eucalyptus trees were planted for drying the were brought to the island for being used in marshes along the way in order to prevent facilities. malaria. As a result of the decrease in the workforce due to deseases the company owners In short, the settlements in Lefke settlement constructed liveable housings so that the achieved improvements in thefields of industry, workers survive those problems with the least health, education and housing between the years damage. The constructed housings are gathered of 1913 and 1939. These developments have in four main groups. These are; bachelor worker been one of the first small scale industrial pads, married worker homes, headworker developments in Cyprus. But the CMC homes and engineer homes (Dağlı, 1999). Company, which made a pause on the acitivites during the Second World War, has turned the Besides that the crowdedness of the area due to workman homes built in Gemikonagi (Xero- working manpower, the fact that the area is ), Suriotissa and Karadağ in 1942 into surrounded with marshes and that the increase a rest camp for the British soldiers who fought in in the diseases such as malaria, pneumonitis and North Africa. Besides that, many Greek citizen cholera due to worsening of social and who flee from the German occupation were also economical conditions causes sickness of the hosted in the CMC buildings. Mining was workers and hinders the normal operation of the restarted after the war in 1946. The method of mine. With this reason eucalyptus trees which tunnel mining was being used until the beginning were imported from England were planted to of 1960. After 1960 there was a switch to dry out the marshes. Also for the treatment of opencast mining which was a mining system with the labour the Pendaya hospital was constructed a complete control over the work tools. With the in that area, which is known today as Cengiz evolution of new methods the process of mining Topel Hospital, in order to reply to the with better usage of machines which are increasing population and to control the health independent to human labour began over time. standards. The industrial development with CMC Health and social aid projects were passed in for the partners and children of the workpeople as a A small reflection of the industrial development result of the ever-growing number of the in the second half of the 18th century in England population. At first education before birth and was seen in Cyprus. As a result of the industrial upbringing education were provided for the child development in Europe a new period of development. Later on seven primary schools development came with the replacement of hand were opened in that area so that the partners labour with mass production and the export of and children of the workpeople could complete goods in a short span of time. The CMC their education and herewith to solve Company enabled the use of resourcesand the educational issues in that area (Lavander, 1962). establishment and development of industrial A factory was built to ensure the mine industry facilities and provided job opportunities for a which was constucted next to the harbor in line great number of people. The richness in terms of with the needs and the increasing job raw materials of that area enabled the opportunities after the second workforce village establishment of fabric cities and the export of was established. The factory which was built in trimmed or raw material to overseas. 1926, built its first pilot copper flotation plant at The Famagusta harbor which showed Xeros in 1939. In this way, the hand-tooled development during the British period and the copper finally transferred to industrial railway mine transport between Lefke- production. 200.000 tonnes of copper mine Famagusta became an important factor (Turner, were produced montly in the facility which is 1979). Especially because it provided an being operated with fabrication method in 1934. opportunity for the export of the deposits produced in CMC to overseas. The railway was In 1950, construction an acid-leaching facility and being used to reach the Famagusta harbour from sulfuric acid-producing auto-oxidation plant the inside of the mine. The Famagusta harbour

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was the only Access to European countries in which were constructed for CMC used to carry that period. For this reason, the use of Famagusta people and cargo. The railway has shortened the harbour for the export of copper made a huge long distances. The facilitation of the contribution to the establishment of a coastal transportation on the island made it possible to town. travel to different cities. In this way, the railway has brought liveliness to all cities. (Fig. 3) While the Famagusta harbour which is open to Europe is still being used the railway is not being used nowadays. The locomotives in the railway

Fig. (3). The Unused Railway Transport of CMC of Today.

In short, it is known that CMC actually had important industrial contributions for the whole island of Cyprus. The first factory buildings and the fact that the first samples of buildings made of worldwide popular tools (beton, steel etc.) in the industrial period were from Cyprus are of great importance for the literatures. The lefke area which was a growing industrial city has stopped the activities due to political reasons in 1974. The CMC which was not able to move on anymore caused the unemployment of many people and the beginning of domestic migration. (Fig. 4)

Here it is important to mention that the demise of copper mining was not the result of lower prices or energy costs. Rather it was the result of the island´s crisis. So we can assume that if the CMC Company would have continued with its actions after 1974 the island might be in a position to compete with important industrial zones worldwide today. But the dimension of destruction might have been worse than its abandoned condition if they would have continued working with high pentrol or low mine costs.

Fig [4]. The Current Idle Situation of CMC Havadis Gazetesi (Lefke’de CMC Konusunda Eylem Yapıldı). http://www.brtk.net/cmc-konusunda-bakan- atuna-cagri-sozlesmeyi-iptal-edin/ 17.Mart.2017.

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In brief, the economic well-being, orderliness and liveliness in Lefke brought by the company whih made the best of the underground treasures between the years of 1912-1974 cannot be ignored. But the open deposits of the abondoned company buildings after 1974 caused serious environmental issues. Scrapping the installation for metal might be helpful to pay the cleanup, but the risk with abandoned wastes are probably high.

The environmental issues after CMC and its effect on the ecologic parameters

Within the scope of copper mine works CMC the majority of the community especially living used a dangerous chemical called “Cyanide” to near the settlement areas close to the wastes had obtain raw materials in the ponds they made to deal with deseases such as goitre and cancer. since 1932.

Cyanide is a chemical that is increasing the poorness of the land, causing air pollution when contacting with air and water pollution when contacting with water. The fact that all deposits of CMC Company were open, the poisened water got mixed into the sea due to the explosion of the cyanosis podsand and the mine Fig. (5). The Chemical Wastes Spreading around dumps unbalanced the ecology in Lefke. the Environment (Altınbas et al, 2002)

Although the effect of the cyanide has lost its The fact that it is forbidden and dangerous to effect today, according to the report of the enter the CMC Company which is now under United Nations Office for Project cover of the British guarantor could not hinder Services (UNOPS) the chemicals which are used environemtal issues. Because, the main pollution in the facilities and are still or might be present at (for instance: waste heaps) which transfer some facilities are: sodium cyanide (NaCN), pathways (surface water, rain or wind-borne sulfuric acid (H2SO4), sodium sulfide particles) and receptors (villages, agricultural and (Na2S.9H2O), potassium ethyl xanthane, sodium pasture fields, sea, pond) are quite effective. ethyl xanthane, carbon disulfade, pine oil, superfloc HX-300, trichloroethylene and In short, CMC has negative effects on the arocholor 1254 (PCB). environmental ecologic parameters on the whole island of Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean. Besides the chemicals containing carcinogen such The problems occuring with the reconsideration as the dangerous xanthate of about 200-250 tubs and cancelling of the “Port Isbi” contract, which which are inside the CMC facility and spread rented the CMC area for a long-term, is around, potassium amyl xanthate, very strong increasing the dimension of the issues. This acid, iron of metallic ion, copper, bullet, contract was signed by PortIsbi Cyprus Free chromium, and Sulphur which is not cobalt and Zone & Marine Logistic Company with the metallic caused the begin of environmental management of free zones in 2008. According to pollution in water, land and air (Bıldır, 2000; the contract; it was compromised of the removal Cansu, A). of the waste mines in Gemikonagi CMC and the usage of the area as free port. Another important point is that pyrites (FeS2) and chalcopyrites (CuFeS2) which occur on the Discussion surface and are sulfurous create pollution parameters in regional surface waters The damages of the idle situation left behind by environmental soils, seaside, sea water and in the CMC Company are much more substantial underground waters and intensify the acidity in than thought for the environment and the human the waters next to the wastes on the land surface health. The damages in the ecological buildings of through the reaction of rain water and free the area should be repaired by bringing up the oxygen (Oktay, 2000). damages the mine wastes continue to give to the environment. Both the flora and the people got seriously affected by this situation (Fig. 5). It is known that

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The handling of the whole Lefke settlement and sustainability. Accordingly, the following schema its participation to liveable areas was seen as is a sample of how to transform the unused appropriate in the ensurance of the sustainability chemical waste areas to liveable areas by in Wheeler´s application in the work field in including them into the compound. (Table 1) which he presented 9 principles in line with the

Table 1: A sample schema aimed at ensuring the liveability of waste areas. Wheeler Assessment of liveable CMC Industrial Area Assessment of Lefke Principles Areas Situation The growth within the development A usage which is oriented Abandoned waste is period and needs should be to the protection of the killing the biological

suppliable with the guidance of the landuse

ecosystems (biological diversity of the land use problematic areastowards diversity) in the land use in the fields. potentials in the settlement areas

1. 1. Compact, should be consitered as within the use of a productive

balanced appropriate.

planning. There is the need for providing the Abandoned waste areas transformation of the abandoned A planning which would offer pedestrian, bycicle waste areas into liveable areas for affect an environment ways, and formations of the reduction of the usage of which has too much usage healthy transportation

individual motor vehicle and the access

of individual motor vehicle such as accumulator increasement of the usage of and less public transport. vehicle and animal accumulator vehicle, bicycle, power. 2. 2. use Vehicle and easy walking or animal power. Importance should be given to an approach which is The fact that industrial In order to prevent pollution and to nature friendly in the areas are causing water, protect natural resources the ensurance of a planned and air and land pollution creation of liveable areas which wise use of natural within the settlements possess revewable energy resources resources. Also the use of prevents the wise use

of wastes, of prevention are being suggested. nonrenewable energy of the natural

resources should be resources. of environmental of pollution

3. Wise use 3. Wise the of sources, minimised.

reduction The environment will Topographical features of not be able to adapt the natural structure of the itself to the change due The beginning of cleaning the environment, green areas, to the ignorance of the abandoned wastes and the gutterings, valleys, present chemical renovation of the environment is

channels, green hallways wastes and the necessary for the ensurance of the systems

and open areas should go in destruction of the liveability in the restauration of the line with the settlement on topographical, green natural systems. behalf of the liveability. areas, valley, gutterings

4. 4. Therestoration natural of and open areas. There is the need for a plan which is Importance should be given The CMC area has left appropriate to present tissue and to the combination of the the present settlement environment in the participating of traditional building areas and is affecting the abandoned waste area settlements

and living and and natural construct natural environment

environment and respectful towards the natural

values in liveable areas. negatively. 5. Good housing 5. Good construct. It predicts the formation of The CMC area which is It presents the process of a planning conditions which are an abandoned waste which will ensure the liveability of necessary in the terms of area is not able able to the CMC area which is affecting the social equality, basic needs

ecology. meet social and healthy health and social life negatively in of people and sufficient job living conditions. that area. 6. 6. Healthysocial opportunities and soical life

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in the ensurance of the liveability.

For making the use of Due to the existence of resources easier for the areas which pose a posterity and for the First of all, cleaning policies aimed at threat to the posterity development of policies handing down the chemical waste industiral chemical conditions should be areas to next generations and the waste areas cannot formed and presented in equal distribution of the public meet the liveability line with an equal welfare should be ensured. conditions within the distribution of the public

7. 7. Sustainable economy sustainable economy. welfare. The community should Even if there is an have a voice in in the association including Some immediate precautions production of policies the participation of the against abandoned wastes are ensuring the distribution of community it should urgent as a response to the reactions welfare for every district further develop for

of the community.

participation 8. 8. Community

and equal distribution of being able to continue resources. its works activey. The chemical wastes Taking precautions for the are also problematic for The area should be cleared of protection of agricultural the architectureal chemical wastes and natural output, natural resources texture due to its bad resources be integrated into the and local architectural influence on the natural society. texture is important for the resources and

ensurance of liveability.

local local culture and values social 9.Protectionthe of agricultural output.

Generally these 9 principles have been presented besides the wise and planned use of the to secure the cleaning of the abandoned waste resources. areas and its liveability. The study results related 4. The restoration of natural system; Problems to the transformation of the abandoned waste arising from the topographical features of the areas into liveable areas; natural structure can be observed in formations such as green areas, valley, canals, gutterings, 1. The compact balance landuse; It was observed caves, green hallways, open areas. These that flora and fauna of the land in which the CMC formations should become integrated with is situated, has lost its persistence throughout settlements, supported with walking tracks and Lefke. Accordingly, the land use requests should gained into the area. be reorganized within a productive planning and 5. Good housing and living environment; it is by directing towards the potentials of the being revealed that the abandoned waste areas present settlement areas in the retrieval of the hinder the development of a liveable ecological values. environment in which traditional and natural 2. Vehicle use and easy access; the common use environment become integrated. It is important of accumulator vehicles are required instead of that the planning approach in which the healthy transportation such as walk ways and settlement texture of the area was integrated bicycle ways which can be effective in the was put into practice. sustainability. With this it is possible to provide 6. Healthy social ecology; The abandoned CMC liveable, healthy and easy access in the Lefke does not offer healty living conditions for the settlements. living due to its destruction in air, water and land. 3. Wise use of the sources, reduction of wastes, Also, social equality is of great importance for the prevention of environmental pollution; It reveals area in meeting human basic needs and that the abandoned CMC area has problems in developing planning studies for job using the natural resouces due to wastes which opportunities. get mixed in water, land and air. The use of 7. Sustainable economy; abandoned waste areas renewable resources should be supported become an issue in the handing down the generations with resource use which is essential

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in ensuring liveability. In this context, the Conclusion necessity of forming politics aimed at the decontamination of the wastes in the area is The abandoned waste areas cause trouble in the being revealed. formation of liveable areas. The politics which 8. Community participation; the necessity of will be carried out within the sustainability increasing the non-governmental organizations planning studies are of great importance in of the area which bring together groups of overcoming this problem. In this direction; the sensitive citizen, social involvement and priority of the purge of the abandoned waste communion with the aim of reintroducing the areas is important in the ensuring of the CMC area has been revealed. With this, sustainability in the city or rural areas. developing a period planning in which public cooperation or representation is present in the The planning studies which will be used for decisions which affect the whole progress of the getting off these areas are: area becomes possible. • Effective in the reintroduction or 9. Protection of the local culture and social protection of the ecological values values; the local culture of Lefke and its considering the user needs of the center sustainability, the traditional social life of the of population and the problematic area community, their relations among each other of the land. and the number of tourists in the abandoned • Creating the transportation network waste areas are being affected negatively by the which supports the easy access which CMC waste area. Accordingly, the necessity of will give opportunity for the integrated starting the planning studies for the measure usage of the problematic area and the taking of the settlement texture and in the centre of population; implementation, the local architecture of the • Supporting the wise use of damage natural resources and the agricultural production prevention of the problematic area with of the state and subnational administration is the natural resources; being highlighted. • Giving opportunity for the remodeling In this way, the existing political disunity in the of the blasted, topography, green areas, island of Cyprus since 1974 caused the valleys, canals, gutterings, green seperation of the CMC Company – one part in hallways and open areas; South Cyprus and one in North Cyprus. A • Giving importance to the current solution for CMC which is the concern for both domicile texture and environmental parts of the island should be found in the joint relations; activities. The suggested work for this area • Providing the community with a healthy includes; social living area in the regulations for the abandoned waste areas; • The cleaning of the present cyanide and • Giving an opportunity in handing down desulphurisation of the area (pods, the next generations with resource use underground waters and land) in the regulations for the abandoned • Environmental formations for the waste areas; cleaned areas • Working together with the community, • The disinfection of the area of the civil society and public organizations; unused industrial material wates of the • Forseeing the formation of politics CMC company regarding the protection of the local All works made on the prevention of land, water culture and social values. and air pollution should be controlled regularly In this direction, there is the thought that the every year on the basis of the European formed planning politics will provide an standards. Also the production of new projects opportunity for the reintegration of the and rasing awareness of the local community is abandoned waste areas into the society and the necessary for a much more liveable region. formation of liveable cities. Otherwise problems increasing day by day are inevitable. In short the abandoned waste areas should be reintegrated into the society and problematic Acknowledgements areas should be prevented for the next generation. This research didn’t receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

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