ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW

Number 22 ISSN 0701-1776 Spring 1991

Copyright © 1992 by the publisher, The Archaeological Society of Alberta

Inside: • Lu Bayrock Obituary Ribstones page 3 page 11

• Medicine Rock Artifact Photography page 6 page 20 Archaeological Society of Alberta Charter #8205, registered under the Societies Act of Alberta on February 7, 1975

PROVINCIAL SOCIETY OFFICERS FOR 1990-91 Rep.: Lawrence Halmrast (elected April 1991) P.O. Box 1656 Warner, Alberta T0H 2L0 President: Dr. Brian O.K. Reeves (403) 642-2126 #16, 2200 Varsity Estates Dr. N.W. , Alberta T3B 4Z8 South Eastern President: James Marshall (403) 286-8079 Alberta Archae­ 97 - 1st Street N.E. ological Society: , Alberta T1A 5J9 Executive Secretary/ Mrs. Jeanne Cody (403) 527-2774 Treasurer: 1202 Lansdowne Avenue S.W. Rep.: David Jamieson Calgary, Alberta T2S 1A6 409 - 8th Street N.E. (403) 243-4340 Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 5R8 Editor, Review & Dr. Michael C. Wilson (403) 529-1681 Publications: Department of Geography Alberta Underwater President: John Marczyk University of Archaeology Society: 4323-115th Street 4401 University Drive , Alberta T6J 1P5 Lethbridge, Alberta T1K 3M4 (403) 427-3608 (bus.) (403) 329-2524 Rep.: John Marczyk Past President: John H. Brumley Group Box 20, Centre: President: Morris Burroughs Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 7E5 9205-111th Avenue (403) 526-6021 , Alberta T8V 3L7 (403) 532-9588 Vice-President: (position not filled) Rep.: Morris Burroughs Elected Secretary: Beth (Mrs. E.A.) Macintosh #314, 4516 Valiant Drive N.W. • • • Calgary, Alberta T3A 0Y1 (403) 288-1837 Members of the Archaeological Society of Alberta receive a copy of the Alberta Archaeological Review. Non-members and institutions may subscribe to the AAR for $12.00 per cal­ REGIONAL CENTRES AND MEMBER SOCIETIES endar year. Cheques should be made payable to the Archae­ (election dates vary) ological Society of Alberta and should be sent to the Executive Secretary. Calgary Centre: President: A. Geoffrey Payne Unsolicited contributions are welcome for consideration for 2510-21st Street N.W. possible publication. The AAR welcomes submissions concern­ Calgary, Alberta T2T 5A8 ing Alberta archaeology or of special interest to practising or (403) 244-5296 avocational archaeologists in Alberta. The views expressed are Rep.: Wes Johnston those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect those of the 27 Hendon Drive N.W. Archaeological Society of Alberta: we welcome healthy debate. Calgary, Alberta T2K 1Y6 Communications regarding submissions to the AAR should be (403) 289-9657 sent to the Editor at the address given above. Communications regarding membership in the Archaeological Society of Alberta Edmonton Centre: President: G.F. (Jerry) Paschen or other society matters should be addressed to the Executive 11911 University Avenue Secretary/Treasurer, Mrs. Jeanne Cody (address given above). Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1Z6 Partial funding for this issue is provided by a grant from (403) 436-4913 Alberta Culture and Multiculturalism. Rep.: Nick Sheptycki Cover: Postcard view of Blackfoot camp, southern Alberta, enti­ 5811 -113A Street tled "Medicine Lodge, Blackfoot Indians." The postcard Edmonton, Alberta T6H 1A9 was published in 1907 by "A.Y. & Co." and is part of a (403) 424-2316 series of photographs that appear to have been taken in the Fort Macleod area. The second lodge from the left has Lethbridge Centre: President: Robert F. Shore a vertical pole with a streamer and may be the medicine 937 - 16th Street South lodge of the title. This postcard is in the Editor's collec­ Lethbridge, Alberta TlJ 3C1 tion; a print of the photograph is in the National Archives (403) 327-8007 of , Ottawa (neg. #18739). OBITUARY

Luboslaw Antin Bayrock (1930-1989)

Lu Bayrock touched the lives of a great many Albertans on the fact that heavy stones would not naturally occur in flu­ because his enthusiasm and inquisitiveness led him to delve into vial sand deposits. Wood from the lower stratum at the Bay­ and make contributions in so many fields. Among many other rock Site was dated to about 11,000 B.P, which would be things, he chased meteorites, recorded the movements of surg­ among the oldest reported dates for humans in Alberta. The ing glaciers, grew emeralds, competed in chess tournaments, fact that the Whitemud Road site predates the first advance of collected bison skulls in order to obtain relative dates on ancient ice over Edmonton from Hudson Bay means that it must be deposits, and recorded boulder outline figures. older than about 25,000 years, although at the time of discovery Lu believed the fractured pelvis was much older. Neither of these Lu was born in the Ukraine, where his family became both dates would now be considered exceptionally old as there are decimated and dispersed by political upheavals; they managed many older sites south of glaciated North America. to group in Edmonton after World War II. He obtained his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in Geology at the University of Alberta, and Lu's greatest involvement with Alberta archaeology started in 1960 finished his Ph.D. dissertation on the glacial geology while he was mapping the prairies around Medicine Hat. He of Alberta, at the University of Wisconsin. Starting in 1957, kept encountering rings and more complex alignments of he spent 15 years at the Research Council of Alberta trying to stones that unquestionably had been emplaced by people and unravel the complex glacial history of this province. During not by nature. He sought advice from Richard Forbis, who had that time he mapped (using any conceivable means of trans­ recently been hired by the Glenbow Foundation as Alberta's port) the surficial geology of more than 100,000 square miles first resident professional archaeologist. Dick encouraged him of terrain, most of it in Alberta. to record his finds on site forms, but Lu's enthusiasm eventually led well beyond this, to formation of the Archaeological Soci­ As well as attempting to paint the big picture, Lu was alert to ety of Alberta. Lu recognized the importance of recording as small details. Near Taber, he discovered a flaked cobble inside the many as possible of the unusual boulder outline figures, includ­ skull of an extinct bison in a sand stratum. In a higher stratum ing medicine wheels, human and animal effigies, and tipi rings, at the same locality, he discovered broken bison bones associ­ before they were destroyed. He realized that he could not do ated with flakes, a scraper, and a complete Alberta point. This the job by himself, so he cajoled assistance from members of the site was described as the Bayrock Site in Marie Wormington's Research Council and the University of Alberta. After thinking and Dick Forbis' introduction to Alberta archaeology (1965: about how he could increase the efficiency of recording, he de­ 116-118). On the banks of the in vised a portable grid for rapid and accurate mapping. He en­ Edmonton near Whitemud Road, in a pre-glacial sand stratum, couraged other amateur archaeologists to pursue their interest in he found a horse pelvis with a depressed fracture that surface collecting as long as they recorded their finds on site appeared to have been made by a nearby flaked pebble. Such forms; he reasoned that interested people could record impor­ anomalies were carefully recorded, although archaeologists do tant information while doing no harm at all if they recorded not consider them to constitute proof that the pebbles were boulder outline figures and rock art. With the objectives in placed by humans. Lu's probably correct hypothesis was based mind to preserve prehistoric artifacts, sites, and structures, and to promote the study of archaeology in Alberta, especially at PARTIAL LIST OF PUBLICATIONS BY L.A. BAYROCK the universities, he conceived of organizing a society of all (compiled by M.C. Wilson) people in the province having an interest in Alberta archaeology. Barton, R.H., E.A. Christiansen, W.O. Kupsch, W.H. Mathews, An organizational meeting of the "Archaeological Society C.P Gravenor and L.A. Bayrock of Alberta" was held in Edmonton in March, 1960. Lu's intent 1965 Quaternary. In: R.G. McCrossan and R.P Glaister was that the society should include members from the entire (eds.) Geological History of Western Canada.195- province, but soon thereafter a separate society was organized 200. Alberta Society of Petroleum Geologists, Calgary. in Calgary. Although known by its members as the Calgary Archaeological Society, it was officially organized as "The Bayrock, L.A. Archaeological Society of Alberta, Calgary Centre," so the group 1955 Glacial Geology of an Area in East-Central Al­ in Edmonton added "Edmonton Centre" to its name. Soon berta. Research Council of Alberta, Earth Sciences thereafter, a new chapter was organized as the "A.S.A. Leth­ Report 55-2. 46 p. Edmonton. bridge Centre." After many meetings between the executives of the three centres, a provincial organization of the Archae­ 1958a Glacial Geology, Alliance-Brownfield District, Al­ ological Society of Alberta, as Lu had envisioned, was finally berta. Research Council of Alberta, Earth Sciences chartered and registered under the Societies Act in 1975. But Report 57-2. 56 p. Edmonton. in the meantime, in 1972, Lu had left the Alberta Research Council to establish his own consulting firm in Vancouver. He 1958b Glacial Geology, Galahad-Hardisty District, Al­ intended to finish a final report on boulder outline figures in berta. Research Council of Alberta, Earth Sciences Alberta, but more financial assistance than he could muster Report 57-3. 35 p. was required in order to draft the many maps into publishable form. His wife, Evelyn, has assured that his notes and maps 1962 Heavy minerals in till of . Journal of are available for research, and it is hoped that the study will the Alberta Society of Petroleum Geologists, someday be published as an honor to his memory. 10(4):171-184. 1963 The Consort Site: a preliminary report for the 1963 field season. Archaeological Society of Alberta ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Newsletter, 1:1-8. Special thanks are offered to John Godfrey of Edmonton 1964a Hunting for artifacts in Alberta: Part 1. Archae­ for the portrait of Lu Bayrock and to Maryanne Protz, of Cor­ ological Society of Alberta Newsletter, 2:1-3. porate Communications, Alberta Research Council, for the loan of a copy of the 1959 annual report with the photograph 1964b Fossil Scaphiopus and Bufo in Alberta. Journal of of Lu and the bison skulls. Paleontology, 38(6): 1111-1112. 1964c Recent orogenic uplift in western Canada indicated REFERENCE CITED by tilted glacial Lake Edmonton. Proceedings, 22nd International Geological Congress, New Delhi, Wormington, H. Marie and Richard G. Forbis Sec. 16:71-81. 1965 An Introduction to the Archaeology of Alberta, Canada. Denver Museum of Natural History, Pro­ 1965a Hunting for artifacts in Alberta: Part II. Archae­ ceedings, no. 11. Denver, Colorado. ological Society of Alberta Newsletter, 5:1-4. 1965b The Consort Site: a progress report. Archaeologi­ Alan L. Bryan cal Society of Alberta Newsletter, 5:6-8. Department of Anthropology 1966a Bison in Alberta. Archaeological Society of Alberta University of Alberta Newsletter, 8:1-3. Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H4 1966b A.D. 2466; Mapping of boulder outline figures. Archaeological Society of Alberta Newsletter, 9:2-4. 1966c Incomplete glacial continental record of Alberta, Canada [abstract]. Archaeological Society of Al­ berta Newsletter, 9:6. 1967a Surficial Geology of the Wainwright Area (East Half), Alberta. Research Council of Alberta, Earth Sciences Report 67-4. 10 p. Edmonton. 1967b Catastrophic Advance of the Steele Glacier, Yu­ kon, Canada. University of Alberta, Boreal Institute, Occasional Publication 3. 35 p. Edmonton. 1969 Incomplete continental glacial record of Alberta, Canada. Proceedings, 7th International Congress, International Quaternary Research, Boulder, Col­ orado, Aug. 30-Sept. 6, 1965:99-103. Publication Lu Bayrock and fossil bison at the Research Council of Alberta, 1701, National Aacademy of Sciences, Washing­ Edmonton, about 1959 (from the RCA 1959 annual report). ton, D.C. 1971 Surficial Geology of the Bitumount Area, Alberta, Area, Alberta, NTS 83B. Research Council of NTS 74E. Research Council of Alberta, map. Ed­ Alberta, map. Edmonton. monton. Fuller, W.A. and L.A. Bayrock 1972a Surficial Geology of the Area, 1965 Late Pleistocene mammals from central Alberta, Alberta, NTS 74L. Research Council of Alberta, Canada. In: R.E. Folinsbee and D.M. Ross (eds.) map. Edmonton. Vertebrate Paleontology in Alberta-.53-63. Univ­ ersity of Alberta, Department of Geology, Bulletin 1972b Surficial Geology of the Edmonton Area, Alberta, no. 2. Edmonton. NTS 83H. Research Council of Alberta, map. Ed­ monton. Gravenor, C.P and L.A. Bayrock 1972c Surficial Geology of the Map-area, Al­ 1955a Glacial Geology of Coronation District. Research berta, NTS 841. Research Council of Alberta, map. Council of Alberta, Earth Sciences Report 55-1. Edmonton. 38 p. Edmonton. 1972d Surficial Geology of the Peace Point and Fitz­ 1955b Use of indicators in the determination of ice move­ gerald Map-areas, Alberta, NTS 84P and 74M. ment directions in Alberta, Canada. Bulletin of the Research Council of Alberta, map. Edmonton. Geological Society of America, 66:1325-1328. 1956a Stream-trench Systems in East-central Alberta. Bayrock, L.A. and T.E. Berg Research Council of Alberta, Earth Sciences Report 1966 Geology of the City of Edmonton. Part 1. Central 56-4. lip. Edmonton. Edmonton. Research Council of Alberta, Earth Sciences Report 66-1. 30 p. Edmonton. 1956b Use of indicators in the determination of ice move­ ment directions in Alberta, Canada, a reply. Bulletin Bayrock, L.A. and J.M. Hillerud of the Geological Society of America, 67:1105- 1964 New data on Bison bison athabascae Rhoads. 1110. Journal of Mammalogy, 45:630-632. 1961 Glacial deposits in Alberta. In: Robert F. Leggat Bayrock, L.A. and G.M. Hughes (ed.) Soils in Canada: Geological, Pedological and 1962 Surficial Geology of the Edmonton District, Al­ Engineering Studies:33-50. Royal Society of Can­ berta. Research Council of Alberta, Preliminary ada Special Publication no. 3. Toronto. Report 62-6. 40 p. Edmonton. Jeffrey, W.W., L.A. Bayrock, L.E. Lutwick and J.F. Dormaar Bayrock, L.A. and J.F. Jones 1964 Land-Vegetation Typology of the Upper Oldman 1963 Surficial Geology of the Vauxhall District, Alberta. River Basin, Alberta. Canada, Department of For­ Research Council of Alberta, Preliminary Report estry and Rural Development, Forestry Branch Pub­ 63-2. 4 p. lication no. 1202. 61 p. Ottawa. Bayrock, L.A. and S. Pawluk Pawluk, S. and L.A. Bayrock 1967 Trace elements in tills of Alberta. Canadian Jour­ 1969 Some Characteristics and Physical Properties of nal of Earth Sciences, 4(4):597-607. Alberta Tills. Research Council of Alberta Bulletin 26. 72 p. Edmonton. Bayrock, L.A. and T.H. Reimchen 1974 Surficial Geology of the Waterways Area, Alberta, Trylich, C. and L.A. Bayrock NTS 74D. Research Council of Alberta, map. Ed­ 1966 Bison occidentalis Lucas found at Taber, Alberta, monton. Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 3: 987-995. 1980 Surficial Geology of the Alberta Foothills and Rocky Mountains, NTS 83L, 83F, 83B, 820, Westgate, J.W. and L.A. Bayrock 82J, 82G, 82H. Alberta Research Council, maps. 1964 Periglacial structures in the Saskatchewan gravels Edmonton. and sands of central Alberta, Canada. Journal of Geology, 72(5):641-648. Bayrock, L.A. and J.D. Root 1972 Geology of the Peace- Delta Re­ Williams, G.D. and L.A. Bayrock gion, Alberta. Research Council of Alberta, Open 1966 Surficial geology between Edmonton and File Report 1972-1. 52 p. near Highways 16 and 17. Edmonton Geological Society, 8th Annual Fieldtrip Guide-book.105- Boydell, A.N., L.A. Bayrock and T.H. Reimchen 133. Edmonton. 1974 Surficial Geology of the Rocky Mountain House THE MEDICINE ROCK INDIAN BATTLE PARK, LETHBRIDGE, ALBERTA

by James H. Carpenter1

Long before the first miners came to Lethbridge the river dist missionary to the Blood Indians in the Lethbridge area and valley between east and west Lethbridge was known to abo­ was one of the "Sky Pilots" to the early Nova Scotia miners riginal peoples as Sikodhkotoki, meaning "black rock," in ref­ working for the North Western Coal and Navigation Company erence to the coal seams that were present along the Oldman in 1882. He was very interested in Indian mythology and on River valley. Within this area was a sacred rock called returning to his home in Port Arthur, Ontario, wrote other Mi'k(i)atowa'si. Both of these names were used by the Indians articles on this subject, one of which is quoted later in this to identify the area we now know as Indian Battle Park. The report. name of the rock has been transcribed in many ways over the years (for example, the late Dr. Alex Johnston [1967; John­ Annie L.S. Peet (1978:13-14) had the following comments ston and Peat 1987] provided the versions "Mek-kio-towaghs" about the Medicine Rock in her posthumously published and "Miiksskoowa"), but the spelling given here seems more account of nineteenth-century life in Lethbridge: in keeping with Blackfoot usage.2 The Indians were a very superstitious people. They were sun worshippers and were fearful of evil spirits. THE ROCK They loved all the small animals and birds, and they only killed for food. They kept many dogs around their There is no doubt the Medicine Rock, Mi'k(i)atowa'si, exist­ camps. They used the wild berries and herbs, and the ed. It was written up by early European settlers and recalled by bark of trees for medicine, and baked earth and berries many of them. Geologist George M. Dawson recalled hearing for paints and dyes... in 1881 that Native people called this area "Painted Rock" A popular place of worship among the Indians was (Morgan 1973). The Lethbridge News, 1 February 1893, car­ 3 the Medicine Stone, situated on the opposite bank of ried an article by John Maclean describing the stone and the from Lethbridge.4 The rock was said related topics in some detail: to have been hurled by the Great Spirit from heaven and A score of years have passed by since a famous battle turned the tide of battle in favour of the Blackfeet and was fought between the united tribes of Bloods and Pie- against their bloodthirsty Cree foes. The shrine was gans against the Crees on the banks of this river, oppo­ noted by the geologist George M. Dawson about 1881, site the coal city of Southern Alberta. Interested story­ and by the early Lethbridge resident David A. Stafford tellers still sit in their lodges, surrounded by a group of about 1896. The Medicine Stone has since been lost. young men, relating the stirring deeds of that memo­ Mrs. Annie Laurie Stafford (Mrs. Norman B. Peat) was the rable day when the Cree Indians were subject to a terri­ youngest child (born in 1890) of Mr. and Mrs. William Staf­ ble defeat. ford. The Staffords were one of the first families in Lethbridge Upon the lower banks of the river, formed by the and had a ranch home in the river bottom. alluvial deposit, there stands a sacrificial stone which, The William Stafford family included nine sons and four during the regime of the whiskey traders, was rever­ daughters and Mrs. Peat's book contains a copy of a drawing enced by the natives, a sacred stone of mysterious or sketch of the Medicine Rock made by her brother, David import. Numerous gifts encircled this stone of mystery, Gibb Stafford (born 8 June 1881), when he was a young man emblem of the devotion of the Red men. It was painted (Figure 1). This may be the only illustration of the original with the brown earth, a near approach to the red color, rock available. David Stafford described the rock as "a block of symbolic of the sacrifice for sins, and the cleansing iron stone placed in a buffalo wallow" (Morgan 1973). power of blood. Memory lingers a while to seize upon the ideas common to the red and white races, which are J.D. Higinbotham (1933:106) had this to say about the found in the religions of these people, the hope of rock: immortal life, an over ruling providence, punishment for sin, the power of prayer, salvation by means of sacrifice This locality was known, even prior to the opening of and the blessedness of a pious life. the Sheran mine, firstly as Coal Banks (Indian, Si-ko-ko-to- ki, meaning black rocks.) Secondly, as Medicine Stone, The Reverend John Maclean came west prior to the turn of from a large granite boulder which stood at the mouth the century to minister in western Canada. He was a Metho­ of a , due west of the present Gait hospital, and

^117 - 14th Avenue South, Lethbridge, Alberta T1K 0V3. Dr. Donald Frantz, of the Native American Studies Program at the University of Lethbridge and co-author of a Blackfoot dictionary (Frantz and Russell 1989) translates sik-66hkotok-i as "black rock," or "coal." Mi'k(i)-atd.-a'si seems to be what is represented by Alex Johnston's "Mek-kio-towaghs" (see also Gannon 1985) and would mean "red-holy-become," or "that which has become red-holy." John Maclean (1893b) elsewhere offered the version "Mikiotouqse," which he translated as "the red stone," but the word for "stone" or "rock" is oohkotok (as in the name of the town of Okotoks) which has one more syllable than is in the recorded name. It is also worthy of note that the Blackfoot word for "medicine" or "powers of healing" is saaam, as in the name for Medicine Hat, usually transcribed as Saamis. The newspaper gives his name incorrectly as "McLean." This appears to be an error in the writing or editing of the text (see below). upon which the Blood Indians placed votive offerings of Mike Mountain Horse, a prominent Blood elder, many years beads and various trinkets. Thirdly, as Coalhurst... ago recorded his own version of the story of the Medicine Rock. His manuscript was held by A.B. Hogg, Q.C. and Mr. Higinbotham came west in 1884 from Toronto and set­ appeared first in the Jubilee Edition of the Lethbridge Herald tled in Lethbridge in 1885. He was the town's first druggist (Mountain Horse 1935): and its second postmaster. In addition, he served as Senator of the University of Alberta, chairman of the Lethbridge School Indian Legend of the Medicine Rock Board, and director of the Y.M.C.A. while in Lethbridge. He at Lethbridge retired to his home town of Guelph, Ontario, in 1929. In primitive days countless herds of buffalo roamed the prairies due west of where the city of Lethbridge is now situated. A branch of the powerful Blackfeet Indian Confedera­ cy, the Blood tribe, made their winter quarters along the St. Mary River bottom. The camp of the Bloods general­ ly extended as far north as Kipp, and in the southern direction as far south as Paddy Hassan's crossing. So it was customary that the Indians, hunting buffalo, came as far east, and very often to the river bottom where Lethbridge is now situated. One day an Indian in quest of the bearded monarch c3< cZ^i <=r^<^«^3 of the plains stood on top of the knoll above Ashcroft mine. This warrior looking across the river, observed someone walking down toward the river on top of the FIGURE 1 first knoll, south of the present road known as the Brew­ ery road which leads to the river bottom. This sketch of the Medicine Rock was made by David G. Staf­ "There's someone over there. I wonder who it could ford when he was a young man, probably around 1900. It is be?" this warrior queried of himself. "I will go over and taken from the book, Nineteenth Century Lethbridge (Peat see him," he added. 1978), page 11. This warrior turned north and somewhere in the vicinity of the C.P.R. high level bridge, descended to the LEGEND OF THE MEDICINE ROCK river to cross. On crossing the river, he looked again and saw the same person standing still at the edge of the The Medicine Rock was undoubtedly of special significance knoll, apparently in quest of something. to Native people, especially the Blood Indians. This gave rise to statements that they "revered the rock," but it could be bet­ "He is a medicine pipe man," this fellow exclaimed on ter to say that they had a special reverence for what it repre­ closer scrutiny. - A medicine pipe man always paints his sented. With the coming of white men and the placement of blanket or robe which he wears, with dark red paint, the Bloods on their reserve, this "popular place of worship" also wears a tuft of his hair in a little knot about three or lost some of its significance. The legend, however, is kept alive four inches long on top of his forehead; his face and through the early writings. hair are painted the same colour - an insignia of his position. This fellow was finally observed by the warrior John Maclean (1893b) provided an early version of the to descend the hill, apparently making for the river bot­ Native tradition concerning the stone: tom. He squatted down in the Indian fashion facing south, when he gained the foot of the hill. Legend of the Red Stone The hunter riding up, discovered nothing but a solid On the river flat at the mouth of one of the ravines at reddish rock, resembling a man in a sitting position. Our Lethbridge, and not many yards distant from the coal warrior ascended the hill looking in all directions. mine, lies a stone, which oftentimes I have seen painted and surrounded by numerous Indian trinkets which have Failing to see a living soul in close proximity, he been given to it by the Indians. The Blood Indians called ascended [sic; descended] again. A panorama of strange it "Mikiotouqse" (The Red Stone). Tradition states that a pictures must have passed before his eyes, for he offered long time ago a young man lay down beside this stone devotions in close proximity to the rock. and fell asleep, and as he lay there he dreamed that the The night following a person appeared to the hunter stone spoke to him and said, "Am I the Red Stone?" And in his dream. "My son, I am the rock you saw. I want the young man said, "Yes, you are the Red Stone." When you and your children to come to offer me peace offer­ he awoke he felt that this must be a mysterious stone that ing^] at all times." could thus converse with him, and he made offerings to it. Until the present day these offerings are made, the This is the paramount reason why the medicine rock Indians believing that by giving to it reverence they will at Lethbridge was the recipient of numerous presents in be blessed in all things that concern them in life. by-gone days, both from the Indians and the white coal miners. Maclean's paper had been read at the Third Annual Meet­ ing of the fledgeling American Folk-Lore Society, in Cam­ I may mention that, according to the Indian legend, bridge, Massachussetts, on the 29th of December, 1892. this rock never came out of the heaven at the height of the battle between the Blackfoot confederacy and the on the lower banks of the river, formed by alluvial de­ Crees, at the river bottom at Lethbridge. posits (Maclean 1893a); At all times this rock was laden down with gifts, such on a river flat at the mouth of one of the ravines (Mac­ as wearing apparel, tobacco and food, left by the Indi­ lean 1893b); ans, but it is now covered by dirt and coal slack. south of what became the Brewery Road (Mountain Horse Mike Mountain Horse was born in 1888 on the Blood 1935); and Reserve. He was a scholar and historian and although his lim­ due west from the present Gait Hospital (Higinbotham ited education confined him to labouring jobs he spent many 1933); or, in contrast, hours lecturing to the children in Lethbridge schools. An edit­ ed version of the Medicine Rock story was published in 1945 on the opposite bank of the Oldman River (Peat 1978). in the Alberta Folklore Quarterly (Mountain Horse 1945). His longer manuscript about the Blood tribe was edited by Dr. The Oldman River in this area flows northwesterly, and a Hugh Dempsey and published by the Glenbow-Alberta Insti­ compass sight-line from the Gait Hospital (now the Gait Muse­ tute and Blood Tribal Council in 1979, and contains the same um) does pass close to the point where the Brewery Road version of the story as the 1945 article (Mountain Horse entered the valley. 1979:117). During the early years of the City's history there were many The Ashcroft Mine, on the west side of the river, was a drift small drift mines opened in the river valley, both within the mine with its opening just north of Whoop-Up Drive bridge. boundary of the City of Lethbridge and to the north and south The Brewery Road is no more, but was south of the present of Lethbridge as well. That the Medicine Rock may have been CPR. high level bridge. It followed the bottom of the ravine covered with coal dust and slack is feasible as there were eight that runs from the brewery site to the river bottom. to ten mine shafts driven into the coulee face within a short distance of where the Rock was seen (Figure 2).

THE SEARCH FOR THE ROCK Mr. Andrew Staysko, an old-timer and railroader, was con­ vinced that the Rock was within the ravine of the coulee south The historical records cited above therefore place the Medi­ of the Brewery Road. In 1964, with the help of Mr. A. Jarvie, cine Rock of Lethbridge Concrete Products, Ltd., the entire area was ex-

FIGURE 2 Early photograph (1890) by Steele and Wing of mines on the east wall of the Oldman valley in the Brewery Road area. The Medicine Rock location should lie within this photograph. Pillar-like piles adjacent to the mine shafts seem to be stacks of ties. Photograph courtesy of the archives of the Sir Alexander Gait Museum, Lethbridge (reproduced with permission). cavated and no rock resembling the Medicine Rock was un­ with water and we were unable to get near enough to see the covered. Again in June of 1973 a portion of the coulee was rock. It was not until 24 September 1982 that the time was excavated with Mr. Staysko's guidance, this time by Alberta appropriate and the river low enough for Mr. Harris and the Historical Productions Society (Anonymous 1974; Morgan author to wade out to the weir. At the upstream terminus we 1974). Again, no rock was found. found the large rock that Mr. Harris had placed there in the 1930s. The gneiss rock was encrusted with grey carbonate In February of 1966 Mrs. Peat took members of the Arch­ and lay on its side. One end was roughly oval, 41 x 80 cm, aeological Society of Alberta to the place she remembered see­ and the other end tapered off to a rounded peak; the length ing the Medicine Rock. The location she pointed out was on the (height) was approximately 1.17 m. It was the only large rock east side of the river and therefore at variance with the loca­ of this type in the weir, the other fill consisting of much smal­ tion described in her book (see above). The location did, how­ ler rocks and concrete rubble. ever, agree in general with what was described by others. It is felt that the error must have occurred in either the editing or Mr. William Roth was an operator of heavy equipment who typing of the manuscript. This area was also probed and exca­ owned his own construction company based in Coaldale, Al­ vated and no Medicine Rock was found. berta. He was the operator of the front-end loader that re­ moved a rock from near the C.P.R. high level bridge to the weir In 1970 the author took up the search and the following site. His description of the work tended to corroborate the persons were interviewed: Glen F. Hamilton, Elaine Conybeare story of Tom Harris. In a letter to the Lethbridge Herald in Fisher, Edna Watmough, Thomas E. Harris, William Roth, 1985, Mr. Roth said that he moved the rock in 1954. William Brown, and Tracy Nemeth. These interviews provided additional information about the former location of the rock, Mr. William Brown, Superintendent of City Parks, and Ms. and led to the conclusion that the rock had been moved in the Tracy Nemeth, Urban Parks Development Officer, were in 1930s during the construction of a nearby weir on the Oldman charge of the upgrading of the river valley park system in the River. late 1970s and early 1980s. Both of these people, like the author, were anxious to see the Medicine Rock restored to its Glen F. Hamilton was born in Lethbridge in 1911. He lived original site and in late February of 1985 I took them to the for a time in the river valley and owned a drift mine almost weir site. When Indian Battle Park was in the final stages of directly east of the present-day Helen Schuler Nature Centre completion the rock was removed from the weir and returned building. He recalled an old wagon trail running close to the to the area near the old Brewery Road. coulee bluffs and stated that the Medicine Rock was on the west side of this trail at the mouth of the ravine where the Mr. Roth's letter to the Lethbridge Herald made the claim Brewery Road enters the river flat. that it was not, in fact, the Medicine Rock that had been Elaine Conybeare Fisher was the daughter of Dr. C.F.P moved; according to him the rock that was moved "is almost Conybeare, who was the first lawyer to practice in Lethbridge. twice as big as the original rock" (Roth 1985; see also Parsons She was born in what is now known as the Magrath House. In 1985). However, from the above descriptions it is clear that later years she moved to Toronto and resided there until she this is not the case. died. The house is on the extreme western end of 7th Avenue A South and Elaine recalled walking to the point of the coulee at this location and looking toward the C.P.R. high level CONCLUSIONS bridge and seeing the Rock quite plainly. There is no doubt that the Medicine Rock did exist, and Edna Watmough is the daughter of another of our early that it was of special ceremonial significance to the Indians, families. She recalls, as a young girl, walking to school from especially the Bloods. There is also reason to believe that it the river valley and passing the Medicine Rock at the mouth of was originally located south of the C.P.R. high level bridge, on the coulee on the Brewery Road. Edna stated that she usually the alluvial terrace surface at the mouth of one of the ravines. gave the Medicine Rock a propitiatory pat as she went past in the daytime and she gave it a wide berth at night because of In moving the Medicine Rock into the old weir, both verifi­ the evil spirits. Mrs. Watmough also told us that many people cation and continuity were lost. In the 1930s, as the late histo­ told her in later years that "her" rock was now in the weir on rian Alex Johnston pointed out, interest in Native culture and the river. history was at a low ebb, and some people even held these subjects in contempt (Gannon 1985). No-one took the trouble Thomas E. Harris worked for the Public Works Department to identify the rock to Mr. Harris or Mr. Roth, although some of the City of Lethbridge and rose to become foreman, then people must have known it was used in the weir when "they" superintendent. He has been retired now for many years. Late told Edna Watmough, "Your Rock is in the weir." It is logical to in 1969 the author spoke to him and he said that he recalled assume that others, who saw the Rock only occasionally, may taking a large rock from that area near where the Brewery have thought it was buried with coal slack and mine rubble as Road came out onto the river valley and that the rock was there were 12 drift mines opened along the base of the valley placed in the Lethbridge powerhouse weir as rip-rap. It was wall and near where the Rock stood, and debris was the author's understanding that this was in the 1930s (see dumped at random around the area. Gannon 1985 and Parsons 1985). Mr. Harris repeated this account to the Lethbridge Herald in June of 1973, at which The author believes that the rock taken from the weir by time he noted that the rock came from a location only 50 feet William Brown and Tracy Nemeth is the Medicine Rock. It re­ from the place where Andrew Staysko and volunteers from sembles, and is the right height of, a Medicine Pipe Man squat­ the Alberta Historical Productions Society were digging. He ting down in the Indian fashion (Figure 3). It is of gneiss (a meta- described the rock as "five feet long and six to eight feet in morphic rock similar to granite in appearance), although at the diameter" (this must be a typographical error for six to eight present time it is coated with a greyish carbonate crust and its feet around) but this time apprently suggested that it had been reddish colour is not fully apparent. At any rate, early accounts moved about 15 years prior (Morgan 1973). At the time of suggest that it had been daubed with reddish mud, and iron-rich the author's interview with Mr. Harris the weir was covered sediment is readily available locally. The author believes that the Medicine Rock can only be ings. Dr. Michael C. Wilson located additional news clippings brought back to its former prominence when it is accepted by and provided critical comments. The early photograph of the all peoples for what it is. This will surely happen, for Native Oldman valley at Lethbridge was located in the Archives of the people are already leaving offerings at the site. Sir Alexander Gait Museum, Lethbridge, with the assistance of archivist Pat Marshall; it is reprinted here with permission.

REFERENCES CITED

9H|iBi|H Anonymous 1973 Historic Indian rock sought in city park. Lethbridge Herald, 14 June 1973. Frantz, Donald G. and Norma Jean Russell 1989 Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems, Roots, and Affixes. University of Toronto Press, Toronto. 470 p. Gannon, Kathy 'HlliilllUJlMBI 1985 Legendary rock being recovered from Oldman. Lethbridge Herald, 2 March 1985. Higinbotham, John D. 1933 When the West was Young. Ryerson Press, Toronto. • 328 p. »yN^...... -.., r*i Johnston, Alex * 1967 Indian place names. Lethbridge Chapter, Historical Society of Alberta, Newsletter, 2:1-4. FIGURE 3 Johnston, Alex and Barry R. Peat This photograph shows the Medicine Rock as it is today, 1987 Lethbridge Place Names. Whoop-Up Country Chap­ northeast of the Fort Whoop-up complex in Indian Battle Park, ter, Historical Society of Alberta, Occasional Paper Lethbridge. It stands on a rise of ground on the terrace surface 14. Lethbridge. 80 p. near the valley wall and the coulee banks. Maclean, Rev. John 1893a Out west. Lethbridge News, 8(10):2. 1 February 1893 [apparently reprinted from Western World]. Large stones have played important roles in the history of many peoples. This Medicine Rock is part of our history, just 1893b Blackfoot mythology. Journal of American Folk- as the London Stone is part of the history of London. The Lore, 6(22): 165-172. London Stone is believed to have been the central milestone Morgan, Joanna of Roman London, or of early Saxon religious usage. It is now set in the wall of the Bank of China, Cannon Street, London, 1973 Medicine rock may be in river. Lethbridge Herald, England, close to its original resting place. 15 June 1973. Mountain Horse, Mike Another rock that comes to mind is the Stone of Scone. It 1935 Indian legend of the Medicine Rock at Lethbridge. was once on the hills of Tara and was where the kings of Tara Lethbridge Herald, Jubilee Edition, 11 July 1935: 107. were installed. It was taken by the Scots to Scone and enclosed in a wooden chair and used for the same purpose. 1945 Medicine Rock, Lethbridge. Alberta Folklore Quar­ King Edward I brought it to England where it is now incorpor­ terly, 1(4): 133. ated into the Coronation Chair. It still serves its original pur­ 1979 My People the Bloods. Edited by H.C. Dempsey. pose and is a tourist attraction. Glenbow Museum and Blood Tribal Council. Cal­ The Medicine Rock, Mi'k(i)atowa'si, is now relatively safe gary. 146 p. in Indian Battle Park. Indeed, there is still evidence of its con­ Osborne, Jim tinued significance to some people. On Sunday, 25 February 1964 Sacred altar may be buried in river bottom. Leth­ 1990, I was in the area taking photographs, and on the Medi­ bridge Herald, 16 May 1964. cine Rock I found a number of small items - a cigarette, a small round stone, a candy, and two pennies - carefully placed on the Parsons, Judy rock. Were they offerings? Perhaps, but some persons are cer­ 1985 Which rock is the Medicine Stone? Lethbridge Her­ tainly obeying the edict spoken to the hunter in his dream, "My ald, 12 September 1985. son, I am the rock you saw. I want you and your children to come to offer me peace offerings at all times." Peat, Annie Laurie Stafford 1978 Nineteenth Century Lethbridge. A Composite Group of Writings. Edited by G.E. Orchard. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Whoop-Up Country Chapter, Historical Society of Alberta, Occasional Paper no. 8. 52 p. Lethbridge. The author thanks the late Dr. Alex Johnston for providing copies of early Medicine Rock articles, and Prof. Don Frantz of Roth, Bill the University of Lethbridge for providing improved transcrip­ 1985 'Medicine Man Rock' used in dike [letter to the edi­ tions of the Blackfoot names and for indicating their literal mean­ tor]. Lethbridge Herald, 12 September 1985.

10 PREHISTORIC ART AND SPIRITUALISM: A PERSPECTIVE FROM PINE COULEE, ALBERTA

by Gloria J. Fedirchuk and Edward J. McCullough1

Two recently discovered sites in Pine Coulee, along the East­ stylistic periods defined by Dewdney (1964) and King (n.d.). ern Slopes west of Stavely, Alberta, express facets of prehistoric According to Dewdney (1964) the figures with "pointed shoul­ world views and, perhaps, suggest the relative significance of the ders" are earliest, dating from ca. A.D. 1650 to 1700, where­ locality to native groups. Both are examples of native rock art as the square-bodied type and triangular-bodied type postdate types that are relatively rare phenomena on the northern Plains. A.D. 1760. King, on the other hand, associated the round However, the presence of these pieces has broader implications, shield figures with pre-A.D. 1700 dates, the pointed-shoulder particularly with respect to native spiritual perceptions. type with about A.D. 1700, and the square-shoulder type with about A.D. 1850. The pure simplicity of the Willow Creek petroglyph could be taken to suggest that it represents either WILLOW CREEK PETROGLYPH the earliest petroglyph style or the latest, "degenerate" style. One figure at the Cline River Pictograph Site is identical to the Situated in the broad valley bottom, near the mouth of Pine Pine Coulee stick figures (Brink 1981:78) (Figure 2). Based Coulee, is a large erratic on which are portrayed four groups on Keyser's (1978) argument that human stick figures such as of petroglyph figures facing the rising sun and at least an iso­ these are characteristic of Plateau rather than Northwestern lated figure on the opposite face. Each of the figures is an Plains art styles, Brink (1981) suggests that the Cline River identical, static, stylized stickman in frontal view. The eastern Site is part of the Plateau Interior artistic tradition. As such, face contains three panels of four figures in which three are the stickmen in the Pine Coulee petroglyphs may also indicate arranged side-by-side with an associated isolated figure (Figure a Plateau cultural affiliation. 1). One set is faded and appears to represent an earlier glyph. On the western face is a single stickman with an adjacent The occurrence of the Willow Creek panels on a glacial vague and unidentifiable figure. erratic may be related to the ethnographically recorded use of these features. For example, Wormington and Forbis (1965: Stylistically, these representations are totally unlike the fig­ 134) indicate that large glacial erratics were used as burial plat­ ures in the nearby Pine Coulee pictographs and those at Writ- forms. That anomalous rocks had special significance to native ing-on-Stone (Habgood 1967). They do not conform to the groups is further indicated by the description given by Leechman, Hess and Fowler (1955:47) of a sacred rock on Willow Creek, into which Pine Coulee drains. To the local Stoneys, this rock had supernatural powers.

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FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2 Stickman panels at Willow Creek Petroglyph Site (EaPk-180). Note two groups of three figures at center with outlier in left Stick figure, Cline River Pictograph Site (FaQf-1). Photograph center of photograph, and three figures with outlier above at courtesy of J. Brink, Archaeological Survey, Provincial Museum lower right of photograph. General view west. of Alberta. fedirchuk McCullough & Associates Ltd., #200, 1719 - 10th Avenue S.W., Calgary, Alberta T3C OKI.

11 Jill

FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4 Pine Coulee Ribstone (EbPk-18). Note definition of head and Purported ribstone on Ribstone Hill (EhPa-1). Photograph scored ribs along back and nose of bison. courtesy of Glenbow Museum (B234-1).

Whenever a brave wished to obtain 'good luck' for some Forbis 1965). The authenticity of the specimen at this site particular deed of daring, he would sleep on this ledge (now redesignated EhPa-1) was questioned by Forbis (1962), the night before his venture. who suggested that it is not a ribstone (Figure 4). He noted that although some of the markings could not have been natu­ The location of this rock has never been verified but the geo­ rally produced, the more recent markings could easily have graphical description could easily fit the Willow Creek petro­ been made by mechanical equipment, perhaps when moving glyph erratic. In the description of this sacred rock it was re­ the specimen. As such, it is difficult to identify this specimen corded that there were no pictographs on the rock faces. How­ with the progenitor stone. ever, it should be noted that although the Willow Creek petro­ glyph erratic is highly visible from the nearby country road, the There apears to be some confusion as to the location of petroglyphs had not been identified until 1990. The glyphs were Ribstone Hill, as the Berry Creek Ribstone is also reported to not recorded in 1968 when a crew from the University of Cal­ occur on Ribstone Hill (Forbis 1962) and this site (EhOv-1) lies gary surveyed the Willow Creek/Pine Coulee drainage system. immediately northeast of Sunnynook. It would appear that Even in 1990, they were undetected during the initial course Wormington and Forbis (1965) were referring to Berry Creek of the archaeological investigation of stone circles associated ("The Lizard") as the progenitor and the Borden numbers with the erratics. It was only after three days of on-site inspec­ were confused. According to the local history (Gordon 1978) tion that the petroglyphs were discovered. this location is Ribstone Hill, a distinct feature overlooking Berry Creek. The Berry Creek Ribstone is complex, consisting of a face-like figure pecked into a large boulder at the head of PINE COULEE RIBSTONE AND THE RIBSTONE a sinuous ar-rangement of rocks, suggestive of a snake. Mac- COMPLEX Gregor (1959:8) indicates that this sinuous arrangement may be historic, added by the local cowboys. In June of 1912, the The focal feature of the other site at Pine Coulee is a zoo- pecked figure, described as a lizard's head (Figures 5 and 6), morphic figure fashioned on a erratic. It represents was to be a reclining bison with its head turned westward alongside its flank (Figure 3). Along the lower back and nose is a parallel shipped to Fort Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan where it was series of incisions or "ribs." These figures were called "rib- to form part of a cairn to the Cree Indians, to commem­ stones" or "stone gods" by the early settlers and ranchers (Mac- orate the Signing of Treaty No. 6 ...it was not used in Gregor 1959:7). The Pine Coulee Ribstone is located at the the cairn and eventually appeared in the National Muse­ edge of prairie level on Pine Coulee and overlooks a large bison um in Ottawa (Gordon 1978:527). kill across the valley. To date, this ribstone is the southernmost expression of the ribstone complex in Alberta. "The Lizard" may well represent an early manifestation of the ribstone complex. However, when considering the distribu­ Ribstones, according to Solomon Bluehorn, a Cree from tion of the ribstone complex (Figure 7) and the legend in which the Little Pine Reserve, Saskatchewan, are the dwelling places ribstones are descendants of a single stone, it is difficult not to of the guardian spirit of the buffalo (Wormington and Forbis postulate that the progenitor is the Ironstone. The Ironstone is 1965:170). According to legend, originally there was only one the largest known meteorite in Canada, weighing about 386 ribstone, made by the "Little People" who brought it to Rib­ pounds (175 kg) and composed of over 91% iron, nearly 9% stone Hill, near Sunnynook, south of Hanna, Alberta. Other nickel, and less than 0.5% cobalt (Coleman 1886:97; see also ribstones are said to have descended from this original stone. Ronaghan 1973) (Figure 8). Pi-wa-pisk-oo (Ironstone) fell in The original stone was identified as EbPa-1 (Wormington and the vicinity of Iron Creek, near Hardisty, Alberta.

12 For ages the tribes of Blackfeet and Crees have gathered ard is the face (a bison?) depicted on one end of the stone, while their clans to pay homage to this wonderful manitoo many people see the face of Manitou on the Ironstone. (McDougall 1888:141-142). Dempsey also sees a relationship between the Ironstone and Specific ribstones, i.e., those bearing small pecked circular ribstones. In his book on Big Bear, he comments, depressions, very strongly resemble the pocked appearance of the Ironstone, to the degree that Robert Kidd of the Provincial If it was the first kill of the season, a holy man would Museum of Alberta has suggested that there may be a connec­ take a choice morsel to a nearby hill to give thanks to Old tion between ribstones and the ironstone meteorite.2 The mul­ Man Buffalo, the spiritual protector who controlled the titude of these cupules, which is evident on the surface of herds. If the hunters happened to be near an ancient monu­ many of the ribstones, appear to have been randomly ground ment, a pilgrimage was made during prayers of supplica­ into the surface of the specimens while other stones appear to tion. These monuments, though many miles apart, were have been deliberately selected for their pocked appearance. on high hills, usually within sight of each other, so that a Cupules are clealy visible on the Scapa, Viking, Trochu, and man standing beside the Iron Stone near the ribstones, and the Lizard at Berry Creek (Figures 9 to could see the hill holding the Rib Stone far to the south­ 16). Of interest is the comparison that can be drawn between east. These monuments were like sentinels on the prairie, the Lizard and the Ironstone; the most notable feature of the Liz- each one a tribute to Old Man Buffalo, guardian of the herds (1984:37). One would assume that the progenitor would be the most powerful of all ribstones in its protection of the bison. Of all monuments dedicated to Old Man Buffalo, the Iron­ stone was the greatest and most venerated (Dempsey, ibid.). In this respect, it is important to note that when the Ironstone was removed, the Elders predicted that a number of tragedies, sickness, war, and a decrease of the buffalo would follow the sacrilege (McDougall 1888:42). Upon removal of the Ironstone, under the direction of Rev. McDougall, to the Pakan Mission near Smoky Lake, these dire prophecies came to pass. At the time that the Ironstone was removed in 1866, bison herds roamed the northern Plains in the millions, allowing McDougall (1888:142) to comment that Thanks to a kind Providence, these soothsayers have been confounded, for last summer thousands of wild cat­ tle grazed upon the sacred plain. By 1879, however, bison had become virtually extinct.

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C*** •4 - ** J FIGURE 5 The Lizard, on Pile of Stones (Ribstone) Hill, 9 June, 1912. "Both the Blackfoot and the Cree Indians claim the 'Lizard' to be theirs... the 'stone god'... The rocks that formed the body and tail of the 'Lizard' were scattered and it has been suggest­ ed, wound up as rip-rap on the Carolside Dam. The white FIGURE 6 man's arrogance has blotted out another trail in history" (Gor­ don 1978). Despite its name the head of "The Lizard" could Tom Two Horns with head of "Indian God" on railroad platform well be a representation of a bison. Photograph courtesy of (Hanna?), June 1912. Photograph courtesy of Glenbow Mu­ Glenbow Museum. seum (NA-3664-1).

2It should be noted that it was Robert Kidd who suggested similarities between The Ironstone and ribstones and provided the stimulus for further research con­ cerning the origin of ribstones.

13 LEGEND

RIBSTONE SITE PETROGLYPH SITE MULTIPLE SITES WITHIN 3A — FEOIRCHUK MCCUUCUGH S . LEGAL LOCATION FMA ASSOCIATES LTD. CONCENTRATION OF SITES - WRITING-ON-STONE PROVINCIAL SOURCE - I ! fOOOOOOSURVEYS AND MAPPING PARK BRANCH DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY. MINES AND RESOURCES pRA|R|E PROVINCES

FIGURE 7 Distribution of ribstone and petroglyph rock art localities in Alberta.

14 FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9 Pi-wa-pisk-oo, Ironstone, the largest known meteorite in Canada. Scapa Ribstone (ElPa-1). Photograph courtesy of Glenbow It was removed by Rev. McDougall from the Ironstone Creek Museum (Bl38.1). in 1866. Provincial Archives of Alberta, Acc74.431/4.

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15 They believe in the self existence of the Keeche Keeche Manito (The Great, Great Spirit)... He leaves the human race to their own conduct, but has placed all other living creatures under the care of Manitos (or inferior Angels) all of whom are responsible to Him; ...the Manitos, the guardians and guides of every genus of Birds and Beasts; each Manito has a separate command and care, as one has the Bison, another the Deer...

In this belief system, two manitous would not have been charged with the same responsibility, e.g., the bison; there­ fore, one may assume that the Ironstone and the ribstones are closely related. In further support of this relationship is the concentrated distribution of recorded ribstones in the area of Sullivan Lake in central Alberta, an area which also includes the location of the Ironstone.

Because of its very nature, the Ironstone is the most intrigu­ FIGURE 11 ing of the sacred rocks, particularly if the natives has witnessed it plunging to the earth. This spectacle in addition to the hard­ Viking Ribstone (FfOv-1). Photograph courtesy of Glenbow ness, weight, and composition (iron) of the rock itself, would have Museum (B82-1). suggested spiritual intervention. Given the nature and legends associated with the protector of the buffalo with respect to the Ironstone and ribstones and the concept of embodiment of spir­ Whether or not the Ironstone is related to the origin of the itual powers in inanimate objects, in this instance rocks which ribstone complex will perhaps never be conclusively proven. are very similar in appearance, one would be led to the conclu­ Nonetheless, additional evidence for a direct relationship sion that the distribution of ribstones is not purely coincidental. between the Ironstone and ribstones may be inferred from the Although ribstones have been reported from southwestern spiritual traditions of the Cree as documented by David Thomp­ Saskatchewan through (Wormington and Forbis 1965), son (Tyrrell 1916:83), in which individual manitou are associ­ the focus of the distribution remains in the Viking-Red Deer- ated with specific genera (bird or mammal): Finnegan-Hardisty region. Therefore, we would suggest that

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FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14 Trochu Ribstone (EkPg-1). Photograph courtesy of Glenbow Endiang Ribstone (FaPa-1). Photograph courtesy of Glenbow Museum (B25-2). Museum (B282-2). the origin and diffusion of the ribstone complex is closely tied sions of manitou, these sites were focal points for ceremonial to the Ironstone. offerings. The presence of trade beads at Endiang Ribstone indicates that along with the traditions of the Ironstone and As MacGregor (1959:8) has so astutely perceived, however, the ribstones, these sites were maintained into historic times. the physical locations of ribstones do not necessarily indicate Evidence from the Scapa Ribstone Site suggests that the rib­ association with any specific modern tribal distributions. Rather, stone complex may extend back over 8,000 years (Head veneration of these images may have been ethnically succes- 1991). The presence of a Besant projectile point on the sur­ sional, as the boundaries of different tribes shifted and changed face at the foot of the Pine Coulee Ribstone is suggestive of an through time. Clues to the temporal duration of veneration of offering and a date of A.D. 1 or 250 to 750. ribstones may be found in the associated artifacts. As expres­

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17 their God no less earnestly and perhaps no less success­ fully than we do. Although the origin and temporal duration of ribstones has been lost with the passage of years, they obviously held an important place in the spiritual lives of their patrons and in &.' JBr keeping with James MacGregor's (1959:7) recommendations, these sacred symbols, scattered far and wide on our prairies, should be preserved. Preservation is perhaps of imminent importance as the native movement toward revitalization of traditional practices acceler­ ates. Although many of the ribstones have been removed and now rest in museums and private collections, we strongly enour- age repatriation of these specimens, preferably with reinstate­ ment at their original locations. To facilitate the process of re­ patriation and reinstatement, it is imperative that the original cul­ tural landscapes are protected so that once again the "stone gods" may take their rightful place as spiritual sentinels on the

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• -' -'-' •

FIGURE 16 PINE COULEE PERSPECTIVE "The Lizard" (more likely a buffalo stone). Photograph courtesy of Glenbow Museum. The Pine Coulee/Willow Creek region contains an uncom­ mon number of ideological constructs. For example, both pet­ roglyphs and pictographs occur in Pine Coulee. Pictographs have been recorded at Mystic Cave and Zephyr Creek, west of It should be noted that the presence of a stone pipe at Pine Coulee. The Table Butte Split Rock Pictograph Site, also Endiang Ribstone suggests that offerings of tobacco may have west of Pine Coulee, contains glyphs painted on an erratic been an important part of the associated ceremonies. In this below which excavations unearthed shell, glass, and bone respect, it should be further noted that offerings of tobacco at beads, projectile points, and some human teeth suggesting that "grandfather stones" are still practised today (Fred Fidler, Frog perhaps this erratic was used for scaffold burials (Brink 1981). Lake Elder, 1991, personal communication) and Robert Stein- A turtle effigy has been recorded on Willow Creek to the south hauser (1990, personal communication) observed cigarettes of the confluence of Pine Coulee with Willow Creek and a med­ and tobacco in the cupules and incised rib depressions at the icine wheel has been reported on the south side of Willow Creek Cree Crossing Ribstone east of Malta, Montana. The offerings approximately two kilometres north of the turtle effigy. The of tobacco are significant in that tobacco and offerings of smoke spiritual connotations of these features and the spiritual signifi­ were sacred ceremonial aspects of numerous facets of every­ cance of this area are also reflected in a Stoney origin myth (High day life to many tribes in North America. River Pioneers' and Old Timers' Association I960): The ribstone complex is a unique and intriguing phenome­ There is a deep coulee ten miles west of Nanton (Wil­ non on the Northwestern Plains, one of the few tangible artifacts liams Coulee) where long, long ago, it is said, the Great relating to a bison cult, which has to date received relatively little Spirit put many squaws to live alone. To the south in research attention. The ribstone complex raises numerous re­ another ravine (Boneyard Coulee) He put many lodges of lated and interesting research questions, particularly the evolu­ men. One day a squaw wandered far from her camp and tion of the cupules vs. ribs and the relationship of specific glyphs met a man hunting along a ridge. They told each other of and zoomorphic figures often associated with these features. their lonely camps and later that night the men moved their One might speculate that an evolutionary sequence could be dis­ lodges over to the squaws' coulee. "That," states an old cerned in which the earliest "ribstones" were characterized by Stoney, "was the Beginning of Things." randomly placed cupules with later manifestations of this com­ plex seeing the addition of "rib" indentations and added glyphs, Given the concentrated distribution of these sites and the and the most recent or most greatly removed examples bearing nature of their content, it is evident that the Willow Creek/ only rib indentations and associated zoomorphic figures/char­ Pine Coulee locality held some special spiritual significance to acteristics. prehistoric native groups. Although sites sacred to the aboriginal population occur in a variety of locations, this locality appears There is no doubt as to the spiritual nature of this complex to contain a disproportionate number of sites to which spiritu­ as it relates to bison procurement and in this regard there is al significance can be attached. However, the meaning of the no doubt that future studies regarding the origin and diffusion specific sites and their distributuion is yet to be determined. of the complex will include the Ironstone, ...protector of the buffalo; ...guardian of all Indians in the regions (Dempsey 1984:37). REFERENCES CITED In the words of MacGregor (1959:11), Brink, J. 1981 Rock art sites in Alberta: retrospect and prospect. they were placed there by the reverend hands of a peo­ In: T.A. Moore (ed.) Alberta Archaeology: Pros­ ple who loved the rolling hills and vast distances of our pect and Retrospect-.69-83. Archaeological Soci­ magnificant prairies and who in their own way sought ety of Alberta. Lethbridge.

18 Coleman, A.P. Keyser, J.D. 1886 A meteorite from the northwest. Royal Society of 1978 The Zephyr Creek pictographs: Columbia Plateau Canada, Proceedings and Transactions for the rock art on the periphery of the Northwestern Plains. Year 1886, Sec. Ill, vol. IV. Dawson Brothers, Mon­ In: W.J. Byrne (compiler) Archaeology in Alberta, treal. 1977:97-104. Archaeological Survey of Alberta, Occasional Paper 5. Edmonton. Dempsey, H. 1984 Big Bear: The End of Freedom. Douglas & Mclntyre, King, D. Vancouver. 227 p. n.d. Petroglyphs at Writing-on-Stone. Unpublished manu­ script, on file, Glenbow Foundation, Calgary. Dewdney, S. 19641 Writings on Stone along the Milk River. The Beaver, Leechman, D., M. Hess, and R.L. Fowler Outfit 295:22-29. Winnipeg. 1955 Pictographs in southwestern Alberta. National Mu- seum of Canada Bulletin 136:36-53. Forbis, R.G. 1962 Archaeology Survey site form. On file, Archae­ McDougall, Rev. John ological Survey, Provincial Museum of Alberta, Ed­ 1888 George Millward McDougall: The Pioneer Patriot monton. and Missionary. Briggs, Toronto. 242 p. Gordon, A. (editor) MacGregor, J.G. 1978 Roads to Rose Lynn: A History of Rose Lynn, Holi­ 1959 Stone Gods of the prairies. Alberta Historical Re­ day, Sheerness, Stanmore, Scotfield, , and view, 7(4):7-ll. Berry Creek. Rose Lynn Book Club, Rose Lynn. Ronaghan, A. Habgood, T. 1973 The Iron Creek meteorite. Alberta Historical Re­ 1967 Petroglyphs and pictographs in Alberta. Archae­ view, 21(3): 10-12. Calgary. ological Society of Alberta Newsletter, 13 and 14: 1-40. Tyrrell, J.B. (ed.) 1916 David Thompson's Narrative of his Explorations Head, T. in Western America, 1784-1812. The Champlain 1990 Fieldwork news. Canadian Archaeological Associa­ Society, vol. XII. Toronto. tion Newsletter, 11(1). Wormington, H.M. and R.G. Forbis High River Pioneers' and Old Timers' Association 1965 An Introduction to the Archaeology of Alberta, 1960 Leaves from the Medicine Tree. Lethbridge Herald, Canada. Denver Museum of Natural History, Pro­ Lethbridge. ceedings, no. 11. Denver. 248 p.

19 ARTIFACT PHOTOGRAPHY: LESSONS FROM THE SOUTHERN ALBERTA PROGRAM

by Barry Wood1

INTRODUCTION it is always preferable to take both at the outset. Choosing the brand of film, including speed and quality, was difficult in the In the past few years the Strathcona Archaeological Society beginning. Despite disappointing early experiments, film type and the Archaeological Society of Alberta, with the encour­ was eventually agreed upon. Of course, the type of film cho­ agement and assistance of the Archaeological Survey of Alber­ sen depends upon the nature of the project and the degree of ta, have become involved in an ongoing program to produce a resolution (i.e., the graininess of the film), and not so much on photographic record of private artifact collections in the the quality of manufacture, given that the major brands are province. The first major project was initiated by the Strath­ made to much the same specifications. cona Archaeological Society as "Project PAST," which docu­ mented many collections in central Alberta. Succeeding this For color slides, Fujichrome 100 was chosen in the begin­ was a southern Alberta initiative, coordinated by the author, ning and continued to prove more than satisfactory for the called "Operation Artifact." This project was sponsored by the remainder of the project. This film is balanced for daylight, Lethbridge Centre of the Archaeological Society of Alberta and use under photoflood lamps necessitates the use of a and was funded by the Archaeological Society of Alberta and color-corrective filter over the lens. Use of color film with a the Unemployment Insurance Commission, Employment and light source other than the one for which it is designed will Immigration Canada, during 1990 and 1991. result in color changes that vary from film to film, totally unac­ ceptable in projects where color is an important attribute to be The author entered this project with limited photographic recorded — as in artifact photography. experience. Indoor photography of artifacts is a much differ­ ent process than outdoor photography of scenery, although Upon good advice we purchased ECT 3200 500-watt tung­ many of the same artistic, or design, principles are shared by sten lights and the 80A filter to adjust the color. Photo lamps both. It is likely that many of the people involved in subse­ are convenient to use for indoor close-up subjects because you quent artifact photography projects will be similarly inexperi­ can see the lighting and shadow effects clearly through the view- enced; therefore, this article is presented as an introduction. It finder (because of the greater brightness) before you release summarizes some of the problems faced by the "Operation the shutter, and you can readily use your exposure meter to Artifact" team, and the ways in which we overcame them. Of determine exposure. course, many other strategies and solutions can be chosen by other project workers, but some of the lessons that we learned Natural light or house light can be used, if necessary, but may help to streamline future program planning. usually involves multiple sources at angles that cannot be adjusted; moreover, the incandescent bulbs that are usually The many variables involved in the photographic documen­ used give off a yellowish light that will probably vary from tation of artifacts make this a complicated task. I can make no house to house, requiring different filters. excuses for early attempts having produced low-quality pho­ tographs. Circumstances initially dictated that I both do the A consideration at this point is exposure compensation that photography and manage the project. This, as it turned out, may be required with the use of corrective filters. Many cam­ was no small feat. My knowledge of photographic techniques eras with built-in exposure meters measure the light through the was limited and some of the advice I received was contradicto­ filter when one is used over the camera lens. With these cam­ ry. Initial problems were worked out and I have developed a eras, one simply sets the film speed dial for the speed of the strong liking for photography as a result of the experience. film without a filter. However, with some filters, this type of built- in exposure meter may necessitate experimentation in the selec­ tion of film-speed setting for the best exposure. It is always TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS prudent to check film speed by exposing a test roll before­ hand. Note also how old the film is: if it is not fresh, its actual The Archaeological Society of Alberta purchased the cam­ speed may be slower than indicated. It is important to check era equipment, which included two Pentax K-1000 cameras, a your camera manual for instructions on exposure with filters. 50 mm macro lens, a portable copy stand and photoflood light stands. To this I added lights, the accompanying color No such complicated procedures are necessary for the temperature-corrective filter (for use with color slides), and the black-and-white photography. The film selected for our pur­ appropriate cleaning fluids, lens tissues, etc. poses was Kodak's T-Max 100. It provides high contrast and is very fine-grained, maintaining image quality even with con­ Now the choice of film had to be made. Archaeological siderable enlargement. This film needs no filter for artifact research projects usually need both black-and-white prints and photography, and we had no problems of variable quality. Of color slides. The prints are useful for research reports and course, filters can be used with black-and-white film, for exam­ publications as well as archival records. Color slides can be ple, to increase contrast; if one does use a filter adjustments in used for talks within the Society or at conferences, as well as exposure settings may be necessary. for archival records. It is possible to make prints from slides, but this requires the making of an inter-negative and the result­ Both T-Max 100 and Fujichrome 100 are relatively slow ing prints are of lower quality because of the extra step. Thus films, as indicated by their numbers: 100 ISO (ASA). Because

General Delivery, Cardston, Alberta T0K 0K0.

20 the quality of the image goes down (graininess increases) as justed to change the angle of incident light; this in turn will the ISO number goes up, a good rule of thumb is to choose affect the length and intensity of shadows. It is important to the slowest film possible given the lighting conditions under use shadows to best effect in bringing out the subtle surface which you plan to shoot. details of artifacts. Another way to improve the control of shadows is to have the two flood lights set up opposite one With our equipment ready and film chosen we were ready another (to provide the basic light supply for photography) for artifact photography. Circumstances dictated a number of and to use a third flood light positioned "outboard" at a lower compromises. We had to set up our equipment in someone angle and stationed to the upper left of the field of view. This else's home — basically, to take over a corner of a room — "outboard" light will cast the soft shadows in the lower right of with minimal disruption. The average size of collections each artifact to give consistency in relief, and the other lights encountered was 300 to 400, with a range from 7 to 2300; will ensure that none of the shadows are so dark as to hide with the small collections it took longer to set up the equip­ important details. When only two lights are available, one can ment than to do the actual photography. In the case of large easily "mute" the right-hand light slightly by holding a card in collections, sometimes days were needed for photography. In front of a small part of its field, allowing the shadows from the medium to large collections, the sheer numbers nearly over­ left-hand light to dominate the image. Always be careful to whelmed us, and the time needed to photograph them prop­ measure the effect of this on the exposure reading! erly may have overwhelmed the collection owners. A simple check at this stage is to turn the lights on and set The setup procedures we developed are relatively simple. up a camera with no filter. Check to make certain that the Usually we set our copy stand on the corner of a kitchen table camera battery is working properly. Then place an 18% gray or the end of a coffee table, keeping in mind that we need card (a standard test card available from camera stores) on the about 1.25 metres on either side for our lights. Another con­ copy stand surface, adjust the shutter speed to 1/15th of a cern is for windows and the light they can throw upon the arti­ second, and adjust the aperture opening (f-stop) for optimum facts, producing unwanted (interfering) shadow patterns. An light meter reading. With these settings and the gray card, it attempt should be made to stay away from windows or at least should be possible for the light meter to read in the middle of to close blinds or curtains. In the case of Venetian blinds, it is its range. If the needle cannot be brought to the middle for vital not to allow light bars to fall on the subject, because the any f-stop, there is either too much or not enough light avail­ camera is a faithful recorder of such subtleties. The flood lights able (assuming that the battery in the camera is fresh). Try should be about 1.25 metres on either side of the copy stand, moving the lights either closer to the copy stand, or farther pointing down at approximately a 45° angle. Best results away from it. When making a reflected-light exposure meter were obtained by placing one light at about a 9 o'clock posi­ reading of a small subject, or of several small subjects (such as tion and the other at a 2 o'clock position, which allows for a group of artifacts), the meter reading will be influenced by a shadows to be slightly stronger in the lower right of an arti­ bright or dark background. If this is the only meter reading fact, bringing up the surface relief (Figure l).\i the lights were that you use, the result could be an underexposed or overex- positioned directly across from one another, they would cancel out each other's shadow effects, resulting in a "flat" photo­ graph in which flaking patterns could not be seen clearly, or in conflicting shadow patterns (Figure 2). The lights should both be about 1.25 to 1.50 metres above the level of the copy stand where the artifacts are positioned. Heights can be ad-

FIGURE 2 Large side-notched projectile points from the collection of Mr. J. Reti, Taber, Alberta. These were found in the Taber area, where Mr. Reti has been collecting for about 30 years. His FIGURE 1 brother, George Reti, was very active in the Archaeological Society and is now retired on the West Coast. This photo­ Fluted point midsection (Folsom-like) from Mr. E. Johnson's col­ graph shows how dramatic and effective a dark background lection, Lethbridge, Alberta. This artifact was found in 1973 in (black velvet) can be, but also shows the effects of opposing what is now the Red Rock Coulee Natural Area. This photo­ lights on shadow patterns. The left projectile point correctly graph shows the use of lighting from the upper left to produce has shadows in the lower right, but the middle point is lighted shadows in the lower right. If preferred, a reflector can be from both sides and the right one has shadows in the lower used (even a piece of reflective white paper held to the lower left. This can be confusing to the eye and can be overcome by right) to soften the shadows and improve contrast with the using an additional flood light or by muting the right-hand light background. (see text).

21 posed image of the artifacts themselves. For this reason, it is body may partially block out some of the light. If this is the preferable to preset the meter using reflected-light readings case, the meter will give different readings when you are close from the gray card. Another alternative is to use a separate and when you have backed away; since you will use the for­ incident-light exposure meter. With the camera set up in this mer to set the camera, it will be the wrong setting when you fashion, one can now take black-and-white photographs. actually take the photograph. The photographer should also wear comparatively dark nonreflective clothing in order to To expose color slide film we used the slightly slower shut­ avoid reflecting light onto the artifacts, disrupting the shadow ter speed of l/8th of a second, to compensate for the darken­ pattern. Later interpretation of a photograph will depend ing effect of the dark blue 80A filter. With this shutter speed strongly upon the shadows present, so this is an important one allows more light through the lens and can avoid having consideration — photographs have been rendered useless in to open the aperture too much. Opening the aperture reduces such a fashion. the depth of field, and in close-up photography the depth of field is already very shallow. One can manipulate depth of field You now have the meter reading in the middle and want to to good advantage, knowing this relationship: smaller lens begin taking photographs; remember to adjust the reading for openings (higher f-stop numbers) increase the depth of field. If the filter if that is necessary. When you want to make sure to an artifact has a strongly convex surface (Figure 3), it is possi­ get the proper exposure (which is much more difficult than it ble if the lens is too open to have part of it (e.g., the middle of sounds, especially if you are photographing a group of arti­ a projectile point) in focus but other areas (e.g., the edges) out facts of differing color and reflectivity), the answer is to bracket. of focus. It is also possible, however, to use this effect to good To bracket, use the indicated exposure (from the gray card advantage if one wishes to have the background (possibly a reading) to take the first photograph; then make additional textured surface) out of focus. If it is fine for the background to exposures both over and under the indicated reading, for be in focus, use the smallest lens opening that light conditions insurance. In the case of close-up artifact photography we will allow; if the background must be out of focus, use a com­ kept the shutter speed constant (1/15th second for black-and- promise setting that is more widely open but which does not white and l/8th second for color) and varied the aperture overshorten the depth of field. In any case, it is vital to keep opening (f-stop) by one-step increments. The procedure was the artifacts flat-on to the camera, because depth of field may to take one picture at the indicated setting, one at a smaller be restricted to a few millimetres. opening, and one at a larger opening. If you have any doubts (especially at first) and if it is a case of "now or never" (as ours When a scale is used (e.g., a ruler), make sure that it is at is), you may wish to shoot additional pictures at two stops the same height as the point of focus on the artifacts; other­ more and two stops less, for increased insurance. Most profes­ wise it may well be out of focus in the photograph. It is neces­ sionals make it a habit to bracket, especially when they cannot sary to include in the photography "toolkit" a few small items re-shoot; the extra expense in film is well worth it. If you are that can be used to raise up the scale to the right level. Any­ using the procedure of changing f-stops to bracket, remember thing from thick washers to small metal weights or wooden that this will change the depth of field. In situations where blocks can be used, but be sure that they cannot be seen through depth of field is a problem, it would be better to change the the viewfinder — they should be hidden below the scale. Watch the light meter in your camera as you back way or as you take your hands away from shading your view through the meter window. If the lights are too close and high up, your

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H * - t |9H FIGURE 4 Sandstone shaft abrader from the Gordon and Elsie Kitchener FIGURE 3 Collection, Lethbridge, Alberta. This specimen was found ero­ ding from the bank of the St. Mary River around 1964 by an Buffalo stone, or iinisskimm, an isolated surface find from south­ anonymous collector. Also found was a quantity of human bones ern Alberta (Milk River-Warner area) collected by Mr. Law­ and an enamelled tin cup. These were given to the Royal Can­ rence Halmrast, of Warner, Alberta. This specimen, a polished adian Mounted Police and medical authorities at Lethhbridge piece of an ammonite fossil (internal mold of a chamber) is Municipal Hospital. Gordon Kitchener was working at the hos­ natually shaped like an animal, such as a buffalo. For photogra­ pital and was asked if he wanted the abraders, given that the phy, it is a much deeper artifact, with a more convex surface, authorities had no use for them. The whereabouts of the bones than a projectile point; therefore, it requires a greater depth of and the cup are unknown. This is a good example of the use field and hence an adjustment of the f-stop setting. The mea­ of a black velvet background and relatively low-angle cross- suring scale should preferably not be placed flat against the lighting. Shadows in the grooves give them depth, and the low background but should be set on a small stand (hidden from angle of incident light also brings up details in the surface tex­ view) to hold it at about mid-level in the field of focus. ture of the sandstone itself.

22 speed setting up or down one position and leave the aperture ored materials such as obsidian or dark basalts and siltstones. setting unchanged. And always remember to return to your It is possible to set up a photograph to bring out the subtle dif­ original setting after bracketing, if you are in such a hurry that ferences between dark subject and dark background, but in you are not taking gray card readings for every artifact group order to do this one would have to overexpose lighter-colored (not a good idea anyway)! artifacts in the group, resulting in a photograph that is "burned out." A proper exposure for the light-colored artifacts would These are the technical considerations necessary in obtain­ leave the dark ones nearly invisible against the background. In ing good-quality prints and slides. There are other means of such cases, different backgrounds can be tried, or the artifacts obtaining good results, including the use of professional color can be grouped separately. Remember that a seemingly good slide films, such as Kodak Ektachrome 160, balanced to the dark-on-dark image can still be ruined when copied again for tungsten lights and thereby eliminating the need for corrective publication, or when a slide is projected by a machine with a filters. Because this film was less widely available, we did not relatively weak bulb. Dark backgrounds also show up dust and go that route. One must always remember that, despite the lint clearly, requiring them to be removed before a photograph best of plans, film can run out during a field visit, requiring is taken. Despite these drawbacks, dark backgrounds can pro­ more to be purchased locally. What is expected to be a brief duce highly dramatic effects if used properly, especially with stop to view one collection may turn out to include the neigh­ color slides. Colorful lithics seem to float in space when pho­ bor's collection as well, and most situations should be dealt tographed against black velvet. This effect can be enhanced with on the spot — not with promises of later returns. One greatly by using a short enough depth of field that the velvet can accommodate this by carrying a large inventory of film surface is out of focus when the artifacts are in focus. Special (which is, after all, a perishable item) or by using the most lint rollers are available from fabric shops to pick up the dust adaptable strategy, and our choice was for the latter. As a pos­ and lint that may accumulate on the velvet surface, but having itive spinoff from this, it should be noted that by buying mate­ the background out of focus also helps to minimize the visual rials locally one is helping to build rapport with a community "noise" of such particles as may remain. As with all of the — something well worth the slightly higher prices. strategies outlined here, personal preferences also play a role, and it is always a good idea to experiment as much as possi­ When purchasing film we usually bought in quantity (10 ble. We photographed artifact groupings against other colored rolls or more) in an attempt to economize, but given more backgrounds (for example, projectile points that the collectors time I would have bought bulk film (100 ft) and loaded it into had placed in framed groups) and in some cases these photo­ reusable canisters. The savings in purchase of a roll of bulk graphs were satisfactory. film would more or less pay for the required loaders, canisters, etc., the first time out. With the second purchase of a bulk roll, Composition is important in obtaining a visually pleasing the savings would rise considerably. This option was not given photograph. This is scientific research, but it must be present­ much consideration in our project because of time restrictions ed well to be effectively communicated. A close-up picture can and inexperience in such matters. It was felt that another vari­ focus one's attention on a subject and show details that other­ able would be added to the scenario, giving more room for wise may be overlooked. When looking through the viewfinder error in the limited time available — clearly not what we needed. one should move the camera toward the artifacts until every­ thing is eliminated that does not belong in, or add to, the pic­ ture. This is called "cropping" and even though one can crop BACKGROUNDS AND COMPOSITION the picture later (for example, when it is enlarged), it is better to crop carefully when taking the picture. Why make later Another side of artifact photography, a little less technical cropping necessary? Despite the foregoing, it is also important and more esthetic, involves the use of background material not to crowd the edges of the image too closely, because cam­ and the composition of the artifact arrangement for photogra­ era lenses usually have some degree of spherical aberration phy. One can be a technical wizard and still turn out photos and objects very close to the edge of the image may be slightly that are not pleasing to the eye. distorted in shape. Given that the photograph should always contain a scale (and for scientific work, this should always be a Because of the varied nature of the lithic materials pho­ metric scale), it would be possible for a viewer to misjudge the tographed (in terms of both color and surface texture), the size of something at the very edge of an image. Another rea­ color and texture of the background material are extremely son to leave a bit of space around the margins of the image is important. Something that works well in a color photograph that technicians printing the images will almost always crop a may not be as effective in black-and-white. For simplicity's bit, sometimes even losing important information; slides are sake and also for consistency, a black velvet background was also mounted in cardboard holders that are smaller than the full used most regularly in this project. When you want to show slide image. detail or emphasize the contours and shape of an artifact, it is best to photograph it against a relatively dark background with Careful composition is especially important with slides, some sort of sidelighting (Figure 4). As noted above, surface because later cropping is only possible on a print made from textures of artifacts can be dramatically emphasized through the slide — not on the slide itself. Also, because the frame size use of low-angle light, "skimming" the light across the surface of a 35 mm image is not large, one can obtain the highest poss­ (called "cross-lighting"). By using a uniform dark background ible quality (in terms of graininess) by utilizing as much of the one eliminates "noise" from the photograph as well as simpli­ frame as is practical. This goes for negatives as well: the larger fying the task of dealing with shadows that fall on the back­ the image size, the less it has to be enlarged at the time it is ground. Lighter-colored backgrounds can be filled with dis­ used, and the higher the image quality will be. Even though a tracting shadows from the artifacts; it is possible to soften small margin should be left, the overall rule of thumb to these shadows through use of extra lights or reflectors, but remember is to "fill the frame." that simply introduces yet another variable into the setup pro­ cedures. I plan to experiment with a neutral gray background in the future. A NOTE ABOUT PRINTING

Black velvet can be a problem, of course, with similarly col­ A recordation project should properly involve a comprehen-

23 sive report of findings, so it is important to give consideration ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS to the report when planning the project. It is expensive to make multiple copies of photographic prints to include with a re­ The author wishes to thank the many people who helped port, and in any case it would be best for the report to be all to make this project possible. In particular, Dr. B.O.K. Reeves, on the same weight paper without bulky inserts or photo­ president of the Archaeological Society of Alberta, and Robert graphs cemented to pages. Thus it will be necessary to make Shore, president of the Lethbridge Centre of the Archaeologi­ copies either from offset plates, which can be relatively expen­ cal Society, arranged partial funding and provided administra­ sive if only a few copies are to be made, or through a process tive guidance. Wes Johnston, of the Calgary Centre of the such as dry photocopying (xerography). A copy machine can Archaeological Society, purchased the camera equipment on produce surprisingly good results from appropriate originals, behalf of the Society and set down notes on photographic but is essentially a high-contrast device. Most copy machines techniques based on his own extensive experience. Dr. M.C. do not handle the subtle variations found in photographs. One Wilson, of the University of Lethbridge, played a key role in way to compensate for this is to have the photo lab make a the project's early implementation and arranged our access to screened copy through the diffusion transfer process. In such a the archaeological collection in the Department of Geography copy, the photograph has been broken up into separate dots, so that we could go through a trial photographic "shoot". looking like a finely stippled drawing. This type of copy, or Thanks are also due to Shane Gurney, of Employment and "PMT" to most photo labs, is not expensive and can be used Immigration Canada, who acted as project coordinator and as an original to place in the photocopy machine. The results will suppplied the main funding. To Rob Drew and his staff at High be much better than through direct use of the photograph in the Plains Image works, of Lethbridge, and to Phil Boras, photo­ machine, and will include a wider range of intermediate tones. grapher at the University of Lethbridge Printing Services, I send a special thank-you for advice and assistance. I also thank my research assistants, Alain Fournier, of Cowley; Laurie CONCLUDING REMARKS Huestis, of Fort Macleod; Darcy Boucher, of Lethbridge; Vince Ohama, of Scandia; and my very able assistant director, Lara The foregoing represents the lessons learned in "Operation Grinevitch, of Bur mis. I send thanks to Leanne Wehlage, sec­ Artifact" and I am certain that many improvements can be retary of the Department of Geography, U. of L., for her very made on our techniques. It is important to remember that the professional secretarial services and assistance in organizing photographs in these projects are being made under less than the preliminary draft and typing of the final project manu­ optimum conditions, and that in many cases some haste is script, and to the department for allowing her to serve in this necessary. While we found people to be very cooperative, one regard. Most importantly, I thank all those collectors in and must always strive to be as quick as possible in getting the job around southern Alberta who allowed us into their homes to done, because the process does disrupt a household while document their artifact collections. work is under way. I hope that the ideas presented above help to streamline the planning process for other projects, and look forward to hearing about even better ideas from other partici­ pants in the artifact recordation program.

The full 194-page report, entitled Operation Artifact: Artifact Recordation in Southern Alberta (1991) is available at a cost of photocopying and postage ($20.00) from the author.

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