Contributions in New World Archaeology 8: 45-104

MODELING ELEVEN MILLENNIA OF SEASONAL TRANSHUMANCE AND SUBSISTENCE ,1&2/25$'2¶635(+,6725,&52&.,(686$

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'HSDUWPHQWRI$QWKURSRORJ\8QLYHUVLW\RI1RUWKHUQ&RORUDGR*UHHOH\&RORUDGR86$ E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract 7KUHH GHFDGHV RI DUFKDHRORJLFDO ¿HOG VWXGLHV LQ &RORUDGR¶V 6RXWKHUQ 5RFN\ 0RXQWDLQV KDYH GRFXPHQWHG WKRXVDQGV RI SUHKLVWRULFVLWHVDQGVLWHFRPSRQHQWVRFFXSLHGIURPWKH/DWH3OHLVWRFHQHWR(DUO\+LVWRULFWLPHV&RPSDUDWLYHDUFKDHRORJLFDODQG *HRJUDSKLF,QIRUPDWLRQ6\VWHP *,6 PRGHOLQJVWXGLHVKDYHUHFRQVWUXFWHGORQJWHUPSUHKLVWRULFVXEVLVWHQFHDQGSDOHRFOLPDWH paleoecosystem change in North Central Colorado’s mountains resulting in a thirteen millennia model of cultural landscape history. That model proposes establishment, within a millennium and a half of arrival of the region’s earliest Clovis hunter-gatherers, of V\VWHPDWLFRIWHQORJLVWLFDOO\RUJDQL]HGVHDVRQDOWUDQVKXPDQFHVWUDWHJLHVEHWZHHQPRXQWDLQLQWHULRUEDVLQYDOOH\V)URQW5DQJH IRRWKLOOVDQGKLJKDOWLWXGHPRXQWDLQIRUHVWVDQGDOSLQHWXQGUDE\LQGLJHQRXVQDWLYHSRSXODWLRQVVWUDWHJLHVRQO\RFFDVLRQDOO\PRGL¿HG by periodic introduction of new technologies and cycles of climatic change. The model also incorporates historic environmental data which document past paleoclimate and paleoecological changes that affected regional mountain environments, tempered migratory game species behaviors, and adaptive strategies of four hundred generations of Native American hunter-gatherers.

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Resumen (QHOFXUVRGHWUHVGpFDGDVGHLQYHVWLJDFLyQDUTXHROyJLFDGHFDPSRGHVDUUROODGDHQODV0RQWDxDV5RFRVDV0HULGLRQDOHVGH &RORUDGRVHKDQGRFXPHQWDGRPLOHVGH\DFLPLHQWRVSUHKLVWyULFRV\FRPSRQHQWHVGH\DFLPLHQWRVKDELWDGRVGHVGHHO3OHLVWRFHQR 6XSHULRUKDVWDORV7LHPSRV+LVWyULFRV7HPSUDQRV0HGLDQWHORVHVWXGLRVGHPRGHODGREDVDGRVHQODDUTXHRORJtDFRPSDUDGD\HO VLVWHPDGHLQIRUPDFLyQJHRJUi¿FD *,6 VHKDOOHJDGRDUHFRQVWUXLUODVXEVLVWHQFLDSUHKLVWyULFDGHODUJDGXUDFLyQ\HOFDPELRGHO SDOHRFOLPDSDOHRHFRVLVWHPDHQODPRQWDxDGHOQRUWHGHODSDUWHFHQWUDOGH&RORUDGRHODERUiQGRVHFRPRUHVXOWDGRXQPRGHORGH WUHFHPLODxRVGHKLVWRULDGHOSDLVDMHFXOWXUDO'LFKRPRGHORSHUPLWHGLVWLQJXLUHQXQKRUL]RQWHGHPLOTXLQLHQWRVDxRVGHVGHOD llegada a esa zona de los primeros cazadores-recolectores de la cultura clovis, estrategias sistemáticas y a menudo logísticamente RUJDQL]DGDVGHODWUDVKXPDQFLDHVWDFLRQDOHQWUHORVYDOOHVGHFXHQFDGHOLQWHULRUGHODPRQWDxDHOSLHGHPRQWHGHOD&RUGLOOHUD)URQW \ORVERVTXHVGHPRQWDxD\ODWXQGUDDOSLQDGHDOWDVDOWLWXGHVGHVDUUROODGDVSRUODVSREODFLRQHVLQGtJHQDVHVWUDWHJLDVTXHVRORGH YH]HQFXDQGRIXHURQPRGL¿FDGDVSRUODLQWURGXFFLyQGHQXHYDVWHFQRORJtDV\ORVFLFORVGHOFDPELRFOLPiWLFR(OPRGHORLQFOX\H WDPELpQORVGDWRVPHGLRDPELHQWDOHVKLVWyULFRVTXHGRFXPHQWDQORVFDPELRVSDOHRFOLPiWLFRV\SDOHRHFROyJLFRVTXHHQHOSDVDGR DIHFWDURQHOPHGLRQDWXUDOGHPRQWDxDGHHVWDUHJLyQ\PLWLJDURQORVFRPSRUWDPLHQWRVGHODVHVSHFLHVPLJUDWRULDVGHDQLPDOHVGH FD]D\SRURWURODGRODVHVWUDWHJLDVGHDGDSWDFLyQGHFXDWURFLHQWDVJHQHUDFLRQHVGHFD]DGRUHVUHFROHFWRUHVQDWLYRVDPHULFDQRV

Palabras clave: 0RQWDxDV5RFRVDV0HULGLRQDOHV3DUTXHQDFLRQDOGHODV0RQWDxDV5RFRVDVSDOHRFOLPDWUDVKXPDQFLDHVWDFLRQDO H[FXUVLRQHVGHFD]DFDPSRVEDVH6LVWHPDGHLQIRUPDFLyQJHRJUi¿FD *,6 DEDVWHFLPLHQWROtWLFRFD]DGRUHVUHFROHFWRUHVWHRUtD GHODE~VTXHGDGHDOLPHQWR 46 Robert H. Brunswig

INTRODUCTION

5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUN 5013 LQ&RORUDGR¶V6RXWKHUQ5RFN\0RXQWDLQVZDVFUHDWHG LQ  DQG WRGD\ LV RQH RI WKH PRVW RIWHQ YLVLWHG QDWLRQDO SDUNV LQ WKH ZHVWHUQ 8QLWHG 6WDWHV $UFKHRORJLFDOHYLGHQFHIURPKXQGUHGVRISUHKLVWRULFVLWHVLQWKH3DUNDQGLWVDGMDFHQWUHJLRQDWWHVWVWR PLOOHQQLDRIZHOORUJDQL]HGH[SORLWDWLRQRILWVYDULHGODQGVFDSHVDQGWKHLUHFRQRPLFUHVRXUFHV )LJ  ,QDYHU\UHDOVHQVHWKH3DUNFRQVWLWXWHVDFRPSOH[SDOLPSVHVWRURYHUOD\HUHGDFFXPXODWLRQVRI ancient through modern natural and cultural landscapes. It is now apparent those landscapes evolved and changed through more than eleven millennia of adaptive Native American subsistence and socio- cultural strategies designed to accommodate dozens of natural cycles of climatic-environmental FKDQJHIURP/DWH,FH$JHWRHDUO\KLVWRULFWLPHV,WLVWKHSXUSRVHRIWKHIROORZLQJDUWLFOHWRGHVFULEH and present evidence for a model of early prehistoric through historic era seasonal transhumance that, subject to broad periods of climatic and ecological change, was established and persisted with modest FXOWXUDODOWHUDWLRQVVLQFHWKHHQGRIWKH3OHLVWRFHQH

Figure 1. *HRJUDSKLF,QIRUPDWLRQ6\VWHP *,6 ORFDWLRQPDSRI5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUNDQGLWVDGMDFHQW LQWHULRUSDUNODQGYDOOH\V1RUWK3DUNDQG0LGGOH3DUN Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 47

EVOLUTIONARY PATTERNS OF CULTURAL AND NATURAL LANDSCAPES: HUNTER-GATHERER ECONOMIC AND COGNITIVE SYSTEMS THROUGH THE MILLENNIA

3DUN HQYLURQPHQWDO ]RQHV ULVH IURP ORZHVW HOHYDWLRQ a   P  PRQWDQH IRUHVWV dominated by ponderosa pine ( 3LQXVSRQGHURVD ) which, as elevations increase, transition to Douglas )LU 3VHXGRWVXJDPHQ]LHVLL ) and interspersed stands of aspen ( 3RSXOXVWUHPXORLGHV ) and lodgepole pine ( 3LQXVFRQWRUWD 7KHQH[WDQGKLJKHVWVXEDOSLQHIRUHVW]RQH aP LVGRPLQDWHGE\ Englemann spruce ( 3LFHDHQJHOPDQQL ,QWHUVSHUVHGWKURXJKRXWWKHSDUN¶VIRUHVW]RQHVDUHRSHQJUDVV and forb meadows, frequently located within or near stream and rivers corridors and run-off drainages. 6XEDOSLQHIRUHVWLVVXFFHHGHGLQPRVWDUHDVE\DWUDQVLWLRQDO HFRWRQH ]RQHRINUXPPKRO] VFDWWHUHG LVODQGVRIVWXQWHGGZDUIVSUXFHDQG¿UEXVKHVDQGWUHHV LQWHUVSHUVHGZLWKRSHQVSDFHVRIDOSLQH JUDVVHVDQGIRUEV)LQDOO\WKHSDUN¶VKLJKHVWHQYLURQPHQWDO]RQH aP LVDOSLQHWXQGUD consisting of exposed tree-less alpine grass and sedge meadows with occasional low shrubs (e.g., willow- 6DOL[ DUFWLFD  LQ ZLQGVKHOWHUHG DUHDV$OSLQH WXQGUD LV WKH PRVW VLJQL¿FDQW HQYLURQPHQWDO zone for past Native American hunter-gatherers since it has almost continuously provided rich summer forage for migratory game animals for millennia. 5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUN¶V1DWLYH$PHULFDQFXOWXUDOODQGVFDSHRQFHHVWDEOLVKHGLQWKH/DWH 3OHLVWRFHQHDFFXPXODWHGDQGHYROYHGDVLWVFOLPDWHVDQGHFRV\VWHPVF\FOHGWKURXJKVXEWOHDQGDWWLPHV VXEVWDQWLDOHQYLURQPHQWDOFKDQJHVDVUHJLRQDOKXPDQSRSXODWLRQVDGDSWHGLQYHQWHGPRGL¿HGDQG adopted new internally developed and externally introduced technologies and subsistence strategies. 2QFHLQSODFHWKRVHVWUDWHJLHVZHUHPDLQWDLQHGIRUPLOOHQQLDZLWKHYROYLQJFXOWXUDODGDSWDWLRQVDQG occasional infusions of new technologies and in-migration of native groups from outside the region. Almost without exception, Native American adaptive strategies involved variations of annual spring WKURXJKIDOOPLJUDWLRQVRIKXQWHUJDWKHUHUEDQGVLQWRWKH3DUNIURPDGMDFHQWZLQWHULQJWHUULWRULHVRI ERUGHULQJHDVWHUQIRRWKLOOVDQGZHVWHUQPRXQWDLQYDOOH\SDUNODQGVWRH[SORLWLWVULFKZDUPVHDVRQ UHVRXUFHVRIJDPHDQGHGLEOHSODQWVDQGODWHVXPPHUHDUO\IDOORXWPLJUDWLRQIURPWKH3DUNZLWKRQVHW RIZLQWHU2YHUZLQWHULQJLQWKHFXUUHQW3DUN¶VRZQYDOOH\VSDUWLFXODUO\WKHPLOGHU(VWHV3DUNYDOOH\RQ its eastern border, undoubtedly occurred at times, particularly in milder and warmer periods such as the broadly warmer-than-present climatic episode often termed the Altithermal or Hypsithermal in North $PHULFD FD&FDO\UES  FI%HQHGLFWDQG2OVRQ%UXQVZLJE'RHUQHU 0HOW]HU EXWLWVVXPPHULQKDELWDQWVEDVHGRQSUHVHQWDUFKHRORJLFDOUHFRUGDQG historic ethnographic evidence, more frequently wintered in lower elevation, more sheltered mountain EDVLQVDJHEUXVKSDUNVWHSSHODQGYDOOH\VRUOHVVFRPPRQO\LQHDVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVRXWVLGH LWVPRGHUQERXQGDULHV7KHVHVDPHLQWHULRUPRXQWDLQYDOOH\VDQGHDVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVLQ historic times are documented as containing resident bison herds and pronghorn antelope populations DVZHOODVKDYLQJVHUYHGDVZLQWHUUDQJHVIRURWKHUPDMRUJDPHVSHFLHV HONGHHUDQGUDUHO\ELVRQ  ZKLFKPLJUDWHGWRWKH3DUN¶VKLJKWXQGUDSDVWXUHODQGVLQVXPPHUDQGHDUO\IDOO

ARCHAEOLOGICAL, HISTORIC AND PALEOCLIMATE/ 3$/(2(&2/2*,&$/5(&25'62)52&.<02817$,11$7,21$/ 3$5.$1',765(*,21

6\VWHPZLGH$UFKDHRORJLFDO,QYHQWRU\3URJUDP 6$,3 VXUYH\VDQGWHVWH[FDYDWLRQVLQ5RFN\ Mountain National conducted by the University of Northern Colorado (1998 to 2002) were one of the PRVWH[WHQVLYHUHVHDUFKSURJUDPVHYHUGRQHLQWKH6RXWKHUQ5RFN\0RXQWDLQV FI%UXQVZLJD E 7KHXQLYHUVLW\¶VSDUNUHVHDUFKSURJUDPZKLFKHPSOR\HG&RORUDGRXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVDQG 48 Robert H. Brunswig was highly interdisciplinary in nature, involved several years of large-scale archaeological surface surveys, test excavations, and extensive paleoclimate and paleoecology research. Despite intensive survey of 12,140 hectares (30,000 acres), one of the project’s central research questions, whether HYLGHQFH RI H[WHQGHG ZLQWHU HQFDPSPHQWV H[LVWHG ZLWKLQ 3DUN ERXQGDULHV UHPDLQHG XQDQVZHUHG +RZHYHUSURMHFWUHVHDUFKHUVGLGGRFXPHQWVLJQL¿FDQWHYLGHQFHLQWKHIRUPRIWKRXVDQGVRISURMHFWLOH points, stone tools, pottery, and site radiocarbon dates, a thirteen thousand year presence of Native $PHULFDQ KXQWHUJDWKHUHUV LQ WKH 3DUN GDWLQJ IURP &RORUDGR¶V HDUOLHVW NQRZQ LQKDELWDQWV &ORYLV culture) to the late 19th century when regional historic tribes were restricted to reservations far outside PRGHUQ3DUNERXQGDULHV7DEOHVXPPDUL]HVWKHVHTXHQFHRI3DUNFXOWXUDORFFXSDWLRQVIURPWKH/DWH 3OHLVWRFHQHWRWKHKLVWRULFHUDZLWKLQWKHIUDPHZRUNRIFXUUHQWO\UHFRJQL]HGDUFKDHRORJLFDOWUDGLWLRQV whose chronology is well-established by radiocarbon-dating throughout the western U.S. Summary GHWDLOV RI WKDW IUDPHZRUN DQG LWV DEVROXWH FKURQRORJ\ DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ 7DEOH  LWV UDGLRFDUERQ chronology shown as both conventional date and calendar-age (calibrated) date ranges. The calendar- age date ranges, which account for past variations in earth’s atomospheric radiocarbon reservoir (cf., %URQN5DPVH\HWDO5HLPHUHWDO ZHUHFRUUHFWHGXVLQJ2[FDOFRUUHFWLRQVRIWZDUH DYDLODEOHDWWKH2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\5DGLRFDUERQ/DERUDWRU\ZHEVLWHKWWSVFDUFKR[DFXN 

0RGHOLQJ&XOWXUDO(FRORJLFDO$GDSWDWLRQVRI3DVW1DWLYH$PHULFDQV Archeological and environmental-ecological evidence indicate that, by the start of the Early +RORFHQH FD  & FDO \U ES FDOHQGDUDJH UDGLRFDUERQ FKURQRORJ\  %UXQVZLJ E Brunswig, Doerner and Diggs 2014a, 2014b: 62-66, 2015b), alpine hunting systems employing VRSKLVWLFDWHGSURFXUHPHQWVWUDWHJLHVZHUHHYROYLQJWRKDUYHVWVHDVRQDOO\PLJUDWLQJHON%LJKRUQ VKHHSDQGZDQGHULQJLQGLYLGXDOVRUVPDOOJURXSVRIPRXQWDLQELVRQZKRJUD]HGWKH3DUN¶VULFKVKRUW VHDVRQWXQGUDJUDVVHVVKUXEVDQGKHUEDFHRXVYHJHWDWLRQ2QFHHVWDEOLVKHGWKRVHKXQWLQJV\VWHPV appear to have been consistently in operation until late historic (Euro-American) times (cf., Brunswig F%UXQVZLJ'RHUQHUDQG'LJJVDEE  &XUUHQWHYLGHQFHVXJJHVWVQRVLJQL¿FDQWJDSVLQKLJKPRXQWDLQHQYLURQPHQWDO]RQHRFFXSDWLRQV VLQFH WKH )ROVRP FXOWXUDO SHULRG DQG LWV DFFRPSDQ\LQJ LQWHQVLYHO\  FROG

Table 1. 6RXWKHUQ5RFN\0RXQWDLQFXOWXUDOSHULRGVUHSUHVHQWHGE\GLDJQRVWLFSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVDQGUDGLRFDUERQ GDWHGFDPSRFFXSDWLRQVZLWKLQ5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUNERXQGDULHV&DSLWDOOHWWHUFRGHVIRUHDFKSHULRG DQGDVVRFLDWHGDUFKDHRORJLFDOFXOWXUHVWHFKQRORJLFDOFRPSOH[HVDQGFXOWXUDOSHULRGQDPHVXVHGLQIROORZLQJWH[W PDS¿JXUHVDUHVKRZQLQWKHWDEOH¶VOHIWFROXPQ

KXQWLQJ WUDFNLQJDPEXVK VWUDWHJLHVIRU&ORYLVEDQGVEXW&ORYLVSURMHFWLOHSRLQWPDWHULDOVFRPHIURP ERWK ORFDO PDLQO\ IURP DGMDFHQW 0LGGOH 3DUN DQG 1RUWK 3DUN YDOOH\V WR WKH ZHVW DQG QRUWKZHVW  and non-local (exotic non-mountain) sources, suggesting good local terrain and resource awareness DQGLQFLSLHQWGHYHORSPHQWRIZKDWODWHUEHFDPHDQLQGLJHQRXV³PRXQWDLQEDVHG´DGDSWLYHWUDGLWLRQ VRPHWLPHVWHUPHGWKH0RXQWDLQRU0RXQWDLQ)RRWKLOOV7UDGLWLRQ FI%ODFN%UXQVZLJ )ULVRQ3LWEODGR  50 Robert H. Brunswig

,Q ZDQLQJ /DWH 3OHLVWRFHQH FHQWXULHV FD  & FDO \U ES KXPDQ YLVLWDWLRQ WR DQGH[SORLWDWLRQRI3DUNODQGVFDSHVZHUHUHVWULFWHGE\UHQHZHGFRROLQJDQGPRGHVWUHJODFLDWLRQRI KLJKDOWLWXGHSDVVHVFLUTXHVDQGFROYDOOH\VGXULQJDSHULRGRIZRUOGZLGHFOLPDWLFFKDQJHNQRZQ DVWKHhuman occupation during WKH1HR*ODFLDO@$GYDQFH  FROG DIWHU FD  &FDO\UESSDOHRHQYLURQPHQWDOVWXGLHV FI%UXQVZLJE%UXQVZLJ'RHUQHU DQG'LJJVDE'RHUQHU GRFXPHQWRQVHWRISURQRXQFHG(DUO\+RORFHQHZDUPZHW climate associated with longer alpine summer growing seasons and greater accessibility of high altitude summer range to migratory game herds. Climate change research by the author and his colleagues recently utilized radiocarbon-dated subalpine forest tree remains in an alpine pond and a long- SUHVHUYHGLFHSDWFKLQ3DUNDOSLQHWXQGUDWRPRGHOSUHKLVWRULFWUHHOLQHV DQGZDUPHUWKDQSUHVHQW GD\ DWaPDERYHPRGHUQGD\ERXQGDULHVDWFD&FDO\UES (DUO\+RORFHQH DQGa PDERYHPRGHUQGD\WUHHOLQHDWFD&FDO\UES 0LG+RORFHQH  %UXQVZLJE Brunswig, Doerner, and Diggs 2014a, 2014b: 30-33, 39-41). The latter tree-line reconstruction at +70 m represents a period of actively descending tree-lines and regional cooling from earlier higher Mid- Holocene levels when tree-lines were even higher in the preceding two to three millennia. 2XU DQG RWKHUV¶  FOLPDWH UHVHDUFK VHH DERYH FLWDWLRQV  VXJJHVWV WKDW EHWZHHQ FD  DQG &FDO\U3DUNWUHHOLQHVEHJDQWRGHVFHQGLQUHVSRQVHWRFRROHUVXPPHUWHPSHUDWXUHVGXHWRD minor regional re-glaciation event (associated with a yet unnamed neo-glaciation advance). That still SRRUO\GH¿QHGQHRJODFLDOHYHQWVLJQDOHGWKHHQGRIWKH(DUO\+RORFHQHFOLPDWLFVXEHSRFKDQGVWDUWRI the Mid-Holocene, the latter characterized by an extended period of alternating warmer-than-present- day and slightly cooler-than-modern-day climate cycles referred to as the Altithermal Episode, dating between 7,500 and 4,500 14C cal yr b.p. After ca. 4,500 14C cal yr b.p. and beginning of the current /DWH+RORFHQHVXEHSRFKUHQHZHGQHRJODFLDWLRQ WKH7ULSOH/DNHV$GYDQFH DQGLWVFRROHUFOLPDWH lowered tree-lines to modern or slightly below-modern levels. At that time, alpine summer growing seasons were shortened and access to tundra pasturelands was periodically restricted to game and KXPDQSRSXODWLRQVE\PRUHSHUVLVWHQWVXPPHUVQRZ¿HOGFRYHUDQGOHVVDEXQGDQWWXQGUDIRUDJHJUDVV DQGIRUEJURZWK FI%HQHGLFW%UXQVZLJE%UXQVZLJ'RHUQHUDQG'LJJVE 59). Neo-glaciation waned after ca. 2,700 14C cal yr b.p. with brief interruptions and relatively low impact cooling by short neo-glacial cycles at 1,850-900 14C cal yr b.p. (Audubon Advance) and 300- DW&FDO\UES $UDSDKR3HDN$GYDQFH 'XULQJWKHSDVWWKUHHPLOOHQQLDPRGHUQHUDFOLPDWH DQGWUHHOLQHFRQGLWLRQVZHUHZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGZLWKSHULRGLFF\FOHVRIXSZDUGGRZQZDUGWUHHOLQH shifts of only a few meters, e.g., +5 to -10 m. Archeological evidence suggests that, between ca. 10,600-7,800 14C cal yr b.p. and possibly HDUOLHU LQGLJHQRXV PRXQWDLQDGDSWHG /DWH 3DOHRLQGLDQ SRSXODWLRQV HPHUJHG DQG GHYHORSHG WKH region’s earliest sustained, seasonally transhumant, high altitude hunting systems. Tool material VRXUFH DQDO\VHV RI 3DUN OLWKLF DVVHPEODJHV %UXQVZLJ D :XQGHUOLFK DQG %UXQVZLJ 2004) indicate those transhumance patterns, as discussed below, were strongly biased toward late fall- HDUO\VSULQJUHVLGHQFHLQLQWHULRUPRXQWDLQSDUNODQGYDOOH\V PDLQO\0LGGOH3DUNDQG1RUWK3DUNWR WKHZHVWDQGQRUWKZHVW DQGSRVVLEO\OHVVIUHTXHQWO\ZLQWHUEDVHGLQWKHHDVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOV Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 51

DQGDGMDFHQWSODLQSLHGPRQWZLWKKXQWLQJJDWKHULQJEDQGVVHDVRQDOO\PLJUDWLQJLQWR5RFN\0RXQWDLQ 1DWLRQDO3DUNLQPLGODWHVSULQJWKURXJKHDUO\VXPPHUPRYLQJWRKLJKVXEDOSLQHIRUHVWDQGWXQGUD IURPPLGVXPPHUWKURXJKHDUO\IDOODQGH[LWLQJWKH3DUNIRUZLQWHUWHUULWRULHVE\ODWHIDOOHDUO\ZLQWHU 5HFHQW  81&VXUYH\VDQGH[FDYDWLRQVLQWKHDGMDFHQWLQWHULRUEDVLQ1RUWK3DUNYDOOH\ VXSSRUWDSDWWHUQRIPDLQO\  LQWHULRUPRQWDQHXWLOL]DWLRQRIORFDO ZLWKLQNP OLWKLFWRROV PDWHULDOV SULPDULO\ FKHUW TXDUW]LWH UK\ROLWH DQG SHWUL¿HG ZRRG  FORVHO\ PDWFKLQJ OLWKLF VRXUFH SDWWHUQVIRU5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUNGHVFULEHGLQGHWDLOEHORZ FI%UXQVZLJED Brunswig and Diggs 2014:77-80). At times, as an alternative to cold season residence in large interior PRQWDQHSDUNODQGYDOOH\VZHVWDQGQRUWKZHVWRIWKH3DUNLWLVSRVVLEOHVRPHJURXSVFKRVHWRZLQWHU ZLWKLQ FXUUHQW 3DUN ERXQGDULHV SDUWLFXODUO\ GXULQJ SHULRGLF ZDUPLQJ FOLPDWLF F\FOHV ZKLOH RWKHU JURXSVVHDVRQDOO\PLJUDWHGLQWRWKH3DUNIURPHDVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVDQGSODLQVDOWKRXJKOLWKLF sourcing evidence indicates this latter pattern may not have been particularly common through time (cf., Brunswig 2005a: 186 and discussion below).

6HDVRQDOO\6FKHGXOHG6XEVLVWHQFH3DWWHUQVRI3DVW50131DWLYH3HRSOHV(ODERUDWLRQ RIWKH50130RGHODQG(YLGHQFHIRULWV3UHVHQFH As described in earlier publications (e.g., Brunswig 1999, 2000a, 2001a, 2002b, 2004a, 2004b, GEF E\HDUO\/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ &FDO\UES WKURXJK(DUO\ Archaic times (ca. 8,287-6,000 14C cal yr b.p.), a well-developed seasonally transhumant, lower- higher elevation hunter-gatherer subsistence pattern emerged and persisted with technological changes (and improvements) associated with evolving socio-cultural adaptations and responses to natural climate-ecosystem cycles down to Early +LVWRULFWLPHV$UFKHRORJLFDOUHVHDUFKLQWKH3DUN and its surrounding mountain region indicates persistent seasonally scheduled subsistence activities of Native American groups. Seasonal subsistence systems are believed to have involved annual transhumance rounds ZLWKLQ WKUHH VHDVRQDOO\GH¿QHG VWDJHV   /DWH 6SULQJ0LG 6XPPHU   0LG6XPPHU WR /DWH 6XPPHU 0LG)DOODQG /DWH)DOO(DUO\6SULQJ )LJVKRZVDJUDSKLFUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHPRVW OLNHO\PRXQWDLQVXEVLVWHQFHPRGHO,WVKRXOGEH emphasized that earlier archeologists, particularly -DPHV %HQHGLFW    &DVVHOOV 1997: 200-202), have proposed broadly similar PRGHOV2QHRIKLVPRGHOVKLV8S'RZQPRGHO  SUHFRQ¿JXUHVDQGFORVHO\SDUDOOHOV WKH PRGHO IRU 5RFN\ 0RXQWDLQ 1DWLRQDO 3DUN described in this article. (YLGHQFH VXSSRUWLQJ WKH 5013 VXEVLVWHQ ce model is provided in subsequent sub-sections which describe primary elements of annual Figure 2. Transhumance migration model for prehis- seasonal lowland-highland subsistence rounds WRULF VXEVLVWHQFH VWUDWHJLHV LQ 5RFN\ 0RXQWDLQ and presents archeological evidence documenting 1DWLRQDO3DUNDQGLWVVXUURXQGLQJUHJLRQ 52 Robert H. Brunswig

WKDWPRGHO¶V³IRVVLOL]HG´LPSULQWRQWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\3DUNODQGVFDSH,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRQRWHWKDW evidence presented here represents only a selective VDPSOLQJRIGDWDDVVHPEOHGE\6$,3DQGHDUOLHU DQG VXEVHTXHQW 3DUN LQYHVWLJDWLRQV ,Q IDFW WKH IXOO ERG\ RI HYLGHQFH VXSSRUWLQJ WKH PRGHO LV extremely extensive and any full treatment would have unduly expanded this article’s length, an XQQHFHVVDU\WDVNVLQFHRWKHUOLQHVRIHYLGHQFHDQGGHWDLOHGDQDO\VHVKDYHEHHQDQGZLOOFRQWLQXHWR EHSUHVHQWHGWKURXJK3DUNDQGRWKHU81&PRXQWDLQUHVHDUFKSURMHFWUHSRUWVDQGIRUPDOSXEOLFDWLRQV (cf., Brunswig 2001a, 2001b, 2001c, 2003a, 2003b, 2004a, 2004b, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c, 2007, 2012, E%UXQVZLJHWDO%UXQVZLJDQG/X['RHUQHUDQG%UXQVZLJ'RHUQHU  5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUN¶VSUHKLVWRULFVXEVLVWHQFHSDWWHUQLQJLQLWVEURDGHVWVHQVHLV viewed by this author to have included three annual phases of migration, residence, and subsistence DFWLYLWLHV VHH)LJ 7KHVHDUH

Phase 1-Late Spring-Mid Summer Transhumance Pattern )URPODWHVSULQJWRPLGVXPPHU GHSHQGLQJRQWKHGHJUHHRIZDUPHURUFROGHUFOLPDWLFSDWWHUQV WKURXJKWLPH EDQGVIURPDUHDVRXWVLGHWKHFXUUHQWSDUNERXQGDULHVZRXOGKDYHHVWDEOLVKHGRUUH occupied previously utilized lower elevation mountain base camps while high altitude tundra grazing territories were still under snow cover and subject to persistent high elevation cold and wind chill FRQGLWLRQV ,W LV DOVR FRQVLGHUHG OLNHO\ VRPH 3DUN DUHDV SDUWLFXODUO\ ORZHU HOHYDWLRQ YDOOH\V HDVW RI WKH &RQWLQHQWDO 'LYLGH VXFK DV (VWHV 3DUN ZRXOG KDYH SURYLGHG VKHOWHUHG ORFDOLWLHV IRU ZLQWHU camps during milder climatic periods. In some locations where high altitude tundra was accessible in relatively short travel times (a few hours at most), low elevation camps may have been re-occupied periodically during the summer after short forays to high altitude (tundra-subalpine forest) hunting DUHDV,QWKHODWWHUFDVHVRPHEDQGPHPEHUVWRR\RXQJRULQ¿UP IURPDJHRULOOQHVV PD\KDYHEHHQ left behind in low elevation base camps while more physically capable men and women would have PDGHVKRUWWHUPYLVLWVWRKLJKDOWLWXGHKXQWLQJFDPSVDQGNLOODUHDV,WLVSRVVLEOHVRPHPHPEHUVRI larger hunter-gatherer bands, particularly more elderly and younger members, could have remained LQFRROVHDVRQFDPSORFDOHVGXULQJWKHVXPPHULQDGMDFHQWLQWHUPRXQWDLQHJ1RUWK3DUN0LGGOH 3DUN« DUHDVZKLOHPRUHSK\VLFDOO\FDSDEOHPHPEHUVSXUVXHGVHDVRQDOVXPPHUSURFXUHPHQWURXQGV in adjacent, more physically challenging high montane terrains.

Phase 2-Mid Summer-Early Fall Transhumance )URPPLGVXPPHUWRODWHVXPPHUVRPHRUDOOPHPEHUVRIKXQWHUJDWKHUHUEDQGVSHULRGLFDOO\ YLVLWHGRUUHORFDWHGWRORQJHUWHUPEDVHFDPSVLQWKH3DUNIRUVHYHUDOZHHNVFDPSVZLWKHDV\DFFHVV to high altitude hunting territories, moving up well-established trail systems following seasonal game PLJUDWLRQVRISULPDULO\HON Cervus Canadensis, also referred to as Cervus elephaus ) and bighorn sheep ( Ovis Canadensis ), but also smaller numbers of bison ( Bison bison ) and mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ), to upper subalpine, alpine-subalpine ecotone and tundra areas. There is no evidence that bison or deer prehistorically regularly ventured beyond subalpine forest into alpine-subalpine ecotone RUWXQGUDZKLFKZHUHQRUPDOVXPPHUUDQJHJUD]LQJWHUULWRULHVRIHONDQG%LJKRUQVKHHS,QWKHSUHVHQW GD\HONEHJLQPLJUDWLRQVIURPZLQWHUUDQJHVLQORZHUHOHYDWLRQLQWHULRUPRXQWDLQYDOOH\VWRVXPPHU ranges in upper subalpine forest to alpine tundra zones from mid-May through June (Green and Bear =HLJHQIXVV (VWDEOLVKPHQWRIUHJXODUGDLO\XVHRIWXQGUDJUDVVODQGVXPPHUUDQJHV E\HONDQG%LJKRUQVKHHSZRXOGKDYHRFFXUUHGLQWKHSDVWZKHQZLQWHUWXQGUDVQRZ¿HOGVODUJHO\ melted away and opened grasslands started new growth with the short summer growing season EHWZHHQHDUO\DQGPLG-XO\(DFK\HDUKXQWLQJEDQGVZRXOGKDYHUHWXUQHGWRSUHYLRXVO\NQRZQ DQGXWLOL]HGNLOOORFDOLWLHVDUHDVWRSRJUDSKLFDOO\VXLWHGIRUKXQWLQJJDPHDQLPDOVDQGRIWHQHQKDQFHG Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 53

E\WKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIDPEXVK³EOLQGV´URFNZDOOOLQHG³GULYH´FRUULGRUVDQGPRGL¿FDWLRQVQDWXUDO FRYHUDQGWUDSIHDWXUHVHJERXOGHUVULGJHVFDUSVDQGFRQ¿QLQJWHUUDLQVXFKDVQDUURZHURVLRQGUDZV RQVWHHSPRXQWDLQVORSHV,WLVOLNHO\PDMRUKXQWLQJORFDWLRQV HJJDPHGULYHV ZHUHQRWXVHGLQ VXFFHVVLYH\HDUVEXWWKHLUXVHZDVDOWHUQDWHGRYHUWLPHDOORZLQJJDPHKHUG³PHPRULHV´RISDVWKXQWV to fade from the collective herd and individual herd members which survived and escaped from past KXQWV FI%HQKDLHPHWDO)HVWD%LDQFKHW.LH  Archeological research has shown, based on the presence of chronologically diagnostic projectile SRLQWW\SHVDQGRFFDVLRQDOUDGLRFDUERQGDWHVWKDWPDQ\NLOOVLWHVUHPDLQHGLQSHULRGLFXVHIRUVHYHUDO PLOOHQQLDDQGVLWHVZHUHIHUWRDV³JDPHGULYHV´UHSUHVHQWFRPSOH[SDOLPSVHVWV RYHUOD\VRIPXOWLSOH occupations on individual sites) of construction and re-modeling by many, in some cases more than WKUHHKXQGUHG1DWLYH$PHULFDQJHQHUDWLRQV0RVWJDPHGULYHV\VWHPVLQWKH3DUNDQGLWVUHJLRQ part of more complex hunting systems often involving numerous staging and processing (butchering) camps, exhibit extremely long histories of adaptive technological change and development (cf., %HQHGLFW%UXQVZLJE'RHUQHUDQG%UXQVZLJ/D%HOOH /D%HOOHDQG3HOWRQ  *HRJUDSKLFDOO\DJJUHJDWHGZDUPVHDVRQNLOOORFDOLWLHV JDPHGULYHVRUQDWXUDODPEXVKORFDOLWLHV  ZKLFKPDNHXSWKH3DUN¶VKXQWLQJWHUULWRULHVZHUHRIWHQORJLVWLFDOO\VXSSRUWHGE\ YHU\VKRUWWHUP JDPHSURFHVVLQJFDPSVXVXDOO\VLWXDWHGLQFORVHSUR[LPLW\WRWKHLQGLYLGXDONLOOVLWHVRIWHQRQWXQGUD RU DOSLQHVXEDOSLQH HFRWRQH EHQFKHV DQG NQROOV DQG   PRUH VXEVWDQWLDO ORQJHUWHUP VHFRQGDU\ staging, i.e., base, camps, the latter frequently situated in more protected alpine-subalpine ecotone or XSSHUVXEDOSLQHNQROOVDQGEHQFKHVJHQHUDOO\ZLWKLQHDV\WUDYHOGLVWDQFHRINLOODUHDV FI%HQHGLFW 1992: 4-9).

Phase 3-Late Fall-Early Spring Transhumance Pattern By late fall-early winter, cold weather and snow would have driven both humans and animals from WKHKLJKWXQGUDLQWRORZHUPRXQWDLQYDOOH\VHLWKHUZLWKLQFXUUHQW3DUNERXQGDULHVRUPRUHOLNHO\ LQWRWZRODUJHSDUNODQGYDOOH\V0LGGOH3DUNDQG1RUWK3DUNLPPHGLDWHO\WRWKHZHVWDQGQRUWKZHVW Alternatively, some hunter-gatherer bands would have descended the eastern side of the Continental 'LYLGHDQGZLQWHUHGLQPRXQWDLQYDOOH\V VXFKDVDURXQG(VWHV3DUN RUPRYHGGRZQVWUHDPFRUULGRUV WRWKHHDVWDQGVRXWKHDVWLQWRWKH)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVRUPRUHVKHOWHUHGULYHUÀRRGSODLQVDQGKLOOV RIWKH&RORUDGR3LHGPRQW([FHSWLQSHULRGVRIXQXVXDOPLOGQHVV ZDUPHUFOLPDWHLQWHUYDOV KLVWRULF HWKQRJUDSKLFDFFRXQWVVXJJHVWOLPLWHGDSSHDOIRUZLQWHURFFXSDWLRQVLQWKH3DUN¶VORZHUPRQWDQH YDOOH\VDOWKRXJKWRGD\¶V(VWHV3DUNDUHDKDVUHODWLYHO\PLOGZLQWHUVFRPSDUHGWRRWKHU3DUNDUHDV particularly the wetter, snowier Kawuneeche Valley west of the Continental Divide (Brunswig and /X[7ROO 7KHODUJHLQWHUPRQWDQHYDOOH\VWRWKHZHVWVSHFL¿FDOO\0LGGOH3DUNDQG 1RUWK3DUNZRXOGKDYHSURYLGHGDEXQGDQWVKHOWHUZDWHUIXHODQGRYHUZLQWHULQJJDPHKHUGVRI ELVRQHONGHHUDQGSURQJKRUQWRVXSSRUWVPDOOSRSXODWLRQVRIKXQWHUJDWKHUHUVZKRKXQWHGWKH3DUN from spring through fall. An emerging body of evidence from archeological surveys and excavations by the University RI1RUWKHUQ&RORUDGRLQWKHDGMDFHQW1RUWK3DUNYDOOH\VKRZVWKDWQXPHURXVKLJKULGJHOLQHVDGGOHV DQGDGMDFHQWORZHUGUDLQDJHVZDOHVZHUHHPSOR\HGWRPDQHXYHUJDPHDQLPDOVVXFKDVHON Cervus Canadensis ), pronghorn antelope ( Antilocapra Americana ), and occasionally, bison ( Bison bison ) into NLOO]RQHVXWLOL]LQJFRPSOH[V\VWHPVRIURFNZDOOVDQGJDPHEOLQGVLQJDPHGULYHV\VWHPVFORVHO\ UHVHPEOLQJWKRVHVXEMHFWWRWHUUDLQGLIIHUHQFHVGRFXPHQWHGLQ5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUN¶VDOSLQH DUHDV FI%UXQVZLJFFFDFDE%UXQVZLJDQG'LJJV Brunswig, Doerner, and Diggs 2015a). Early and later cool season (winter-spring and fall-winter) use RI1RUWK3DUNYDOOH\ULGJHOLQHJDPHGULYHVLVVXJJHVWHGE\WKHIDFWWKDWRQHRIWKHWZRSUREDEOHGULYH 54 Robert H. Brunswig

VSHFLHVHONZRXOGKDYHODUJHO\PLJUDWHGIURPWKHYDOOH\LQWRXSSHUHOHYDWLRQHQYLURQPHQWDO]RQHVE\ HDUO\WRPLGVXPPHU,WLVFRQVLGHUHGOLNHO\WKDWH[FHSWGXULQJWKHPRVWH[WUHPHZLQWHUFRQGLWLRQV (and perhaps even then), ridge-line drives could have operated during late fall, winter, and early spring PRQWKVDVORQJDVJDPHKHUGVRIELVRQSURQJKRUQDQWHORSHDQGHONKDGQRWUHWUHDWHGWRSURWHFWHG areas around the valley margins (cf., Brunswig 2003b, 2013, 2014a).

$UFKHRORJLFDO(YLGHQFHIRUWKH50136XEVLVWHQFH0RGHO 6XSSRUWLQJ HYLGHQFH IRU WKH 5013 VXEVLVWHQFH PRGHO LV DVVHPEOHG IURP VHYHUDO GHFDGHV RI DUFKHRORJLFDO LQYHVWLJDWLRQV LQ WKH 3DUN DQG LWV VXUURXQGLQJ UHJLRQ ,W LV VXEVWDQWLDOO\ VXSSRUWHG E\6$,3VXUYH\DQGWHVWLQJSURMHFWUHVXOWVDQGVXEVHTXHQWVPDOOHU¿HOGSURMHFWUHVXOWV LQ ERWK WKH 3DUN DQG DGMDFHQW SDUNODQG YDOOH\V RI 1RUWK 3DUN DQG 0LGGOH 3DUN WR WKH ZHVW DQG QRUWKZHVW'DWDIURPPRUHWKDQIRXUKXQGUHGSUHKLVWRULFVLWHVWKURXJKRXWWKH3DUNHQFRPSDVVLQJ multiple environmental zones from montane forest to alpine tundra, provide substantive evidence of development, time depth, and nature of the model’s broad validity. That evidence is highlighted below in the detailed descriptions of individual sites and site clusters which document archeological HYLGHQFHIRUÀH[LEOHDQGRIWHQZHOOSODQQHGDQG logistically organized subsistence systems designed to systematically extract seasonally available natural (animal and plant) resources for generations of hunter-gatherers. )LJ EHORZ VKRZVDORFDWLRQPDSVKRZLQJVHOHFWHGLQGLYLGXDOVLWHVDQGVLWHFOXVWHUVEHOLHYHG to represent contributing components of hunting territories once existing as part of prehistoric through HDUO\KLVWRULFVXEVLVWHQFHV\VWHPVSUHVHQWLQWKH3DUNVLQFHWKH/DWH3OHLVWRFHQH7KUHHPDSORFDWLRQV 1-3, designate individual foraging and seasonal transit sites in low elevation montane zones with archeological assemblages consistent with early and late season (early-mid spring to late fall-early winter) occupations designed to exploit available plant and animal resources during those seasons and serve as staging camps for relocation to higher altitude environmental zones when winter snow cover melted from the tundra, signaling the start of the summer pastureland grazing season. /RZHUHOHYDWLRQPRQWDQHWKURXJKVXEDOSLQHIRUHVW]RQHVWDJLQJFDPSVZLWKLQUHDVRQDEOHWUDYHO WLPHRIKLJKODQGWXQGUDJUDVVODQGVZHUHOLNHO\XVHGGXULQJKLJKVXPPHUPRQWKVDVORQJHUWHUPEDVHV for residence by infant, toddler, and more elderly (physically less capable) band members and places of residence for more physically capable (young and mature adult) band members periodically returning IURPKLJKDOWLWXGHKXQWLQJWHUULWRULHVZLWKKLGHVGULHGRUVPRNHGPHDWDQGIRRGDQGPHGLFLQDOSODQWV JDWKHUHGLQWKRVHDUHDV1XPEHUVLQWKH¿JXUHUHSUHVHQWVLWHFOXVWHUVEHOLHYHGWRUHSUHVHQWDUWLIDFW and feature palimpsests of overlaid hunting systems from different cultural periods designed to integrate GLIIHUHQWVLWHW\SHVHJKXQWLQJEDVHFDPSVNLOOORFDOLWLHVDQGVHFRQGDU\DQLPDODQGSODQWSURFHVVLQJ stations, for logistically organized game and food plant procurement in the highly productive summer JDPHSDVWXUHVDWDQGDERYHWKH3DUN¶VWUHHOLQH7ZRRIWKLVDUWLFOH¶VWKUHHDUFKDHRORJLFDOUHFRQVWUXFWHG KXQWLQJWHUULWRULHV)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQDQG0RXQW,GD5LGJHKDYHNLOODQGSULPDU\SURFHVVLQJVLWHVWKH IRUPHUNQRZQDVJDPHGULYHVZLWKFRQVWUXFWHGURFNZDOOVEOLQGVDQGURFNFDLUQOLQHVGHVLJQHGWR FKDQQHOJDPHLQWRNLOO]RQHVHDFKWDLORUHGWRWDNHDGYDQWDJHRIORFDOWHUUDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVVXFKDV VWHHSVORSHVFOLIIVERXOGHU¿HOGVHWF$WKLUGWHUULWRU\%LJKRUQ)ODWVLVWKHVLQJOHODUJHVWH[SDQVHRI WXQGUDLQWKH3DUNZKLFKZKLOHKDYLQJQRLGHQWL¿HGFRQVWUXFWHGKXQWLQJIHDWXUHV HJVLWHVZLWKJDPH drive components) does contain an abundance of natural trap and ambush localities, including areas of ODUJHERXOGHUVDQGPRXQWDLQVORSHVZLWKFRQFHDOLQJNQROOVDQGHURVLRQVZDOHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDOSLQH and alpine-subalpine margin (ecotone) hunting camps. All three hunting territories have secondary JDPHDQGSODQWIRRGSURFHVVLQJVLWHVVLWXDWHGRQRUQHDUNLOODUHDVDQGKXQWVWDJLQJFDPSVLQWXQGUD subalpine ecotone and upper margins of subalpine forest. Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 55

Figure 3. /RFDWLRQRIORZHUHOHYDWLRQEDVHFDPSV3RQWLDF3LWVLWH&DFKHOD3RXGUH&KDSLQ&UHHN&RQÀXHQFH &DPS%HDYHU0HDGRZVLWHV)RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVVVLWHV/DNH+HOHQH7UDLOVLWHVDQGKLJKDOWLWXGHWXQGUD KXQWLQJWHUULWRULHV0RXQW,GD5LGJH%LJKRUQ)ODWVDQG)ODWWRS*DPH'ULYH UHSUHVHQWLQJFRPSRQHQWVRI 5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUN¶VSUHKLVWRULFVXEVLVWHQFHV\VWHPV 56 Robert H. Brunswig

Early and Late Season “Base” and Trail Transit Camps in Lower Elevation Montane Valleys Two multi-component prehistoric sites and a small cluster of sites along an eastern branch of the DQFLHQW8WH7UDLODOOORFDWHGLQORZHUHOHYDWLRQPRQWDQH3DUNYDOOH\VRQHLQWKHZHVWHUQ.DZXQHHFKH )LJ1R DVHFRQGLQWKHQRUWKZHVWWKHXSSHUKHDGZDWHUVYDOOH\RIWKH&DFKHOD3RXGUH5LYHU )LJQR DQGPXOWLSOHVLWHVLQWKHHDVWFHQWUDODUHDRIWKH3DUN %HDYHU0HDGRZV  )LJQR  illustrate what are interpreted as spring and fall base camps, largely occupied by migratory hunter- JDWKHUHUEDQGVEHOLHYHGWRKDYHHQWHUHGDQGOHIWWKH3DUNGXULQJWKRVHVHDVRQV

Pontiac Pit (5GA218) 7KH3RQWLDF3LWVLWH *$ LVORFDWHGLPPHGLDWHO\RQWKHHDVWVLGHRI7UDLO5LGJH5RDG 86 +LJKZD\    NP QRUWK RI *UDQG /DNH RQ D JHQWO\ VORSLQJ JODFLDO NDPH WHUUDFH VHH )LJ  QRDERYH 7KH1RUWK)RUNRIWKH&RORUDGR5LYHULVVLWXDWHGPWRWKHZHVWRQO\PIURP WKHVLWH¶VHGJH$VPDOOVWUHDPRQLWVQRUWKVLGHGUDLQVLQWRWKH&RORUDGRÀRRGSODLQIURPXSVORSH ORZHUPRXQWDQHIRUHVWSURYLGLQJDSHUPDQHQWDQGFORVHVRXUFHRIZDWHU3RQWLDF3LWLVHPEHGGHG LQD3LQHGDOH$JH /DWH3OHLVWRFHQH &RORUDGR5LYHUWHUUDFHFRQVLVWLQJRIJODFLRÀXYLDOGULIWZLWKD WKLQ FP PDQWOHRIHROLDQVLOWDQG¿QHVDQG 0DGROH )LJXUHVKRZVDPDSSLQJJUDGH VXEPHWHU *OREDO3RVLWLRQLQJ6\VWHP *36 JHQHUDWHGZLUHIUDPHPDSRIWKHVLWHDQGLWVLPPHGLDWH environs, illustrating its topographically sheltered location within contemporary lower montane forest margins. 3RQWLDF3LWZDVGLVFRYHUHGGXULQJD1DWLRQDO3DUN6HUYLFHURDGFRUULGRUVXUYH\ /LQFROQ  DQGH[WHQVLYHH[FDYDWLRQV P ZHUHFRQGXFWHGLQDQG /LHVWPDQ0DGROH  7KRVH H[FDYDWLRQV UHPDLQ WKH PRVW FRPSOHWH \HW XQGHUWDNHQ LQ WKH 3DUN DQG XQFRYHUHG D EXULHG PXOWLFRPSRQHQWVHULHVRIVKDOORZFDPSRFFXSDWLRQVEHJLQQLQJQRODWHUWKDQWKH(DUO\$UFKDLF3HULRG (7,300-5,200 14C cal yr b.p.) and continuing through subsequent Middle Archaic (5,200-3,125 14C FDO\UES /DWH$UFKDLF &FDO\UES (DUO\&HUDPLF &FDO\UES  DQG0LGGOH/DWH&HUDPLFWRHDUO\+LVWRULF &FDO\UES FXOWXUDOSHULRGV$SRVVLEOH/DWH 3DOHRLQGLDQFRPSRQHQWLVLQGLFDWHGE\DELIDFHWRROIUDJPHQWZLWKSDUDOOHOREOLTXHÀDNLQJSDWWHUQV /LHVWPDQ)LJXUHD  81&UHVXUYH\HG3RQWLDF3LWVLWHLQGLVFRYHULQJDVHFRQGFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIOLWKLFÀDNHVP south of the earlier recorded site area. That concentration consisted of more than a dozen Windy Ridge 'DNRWDRUWKRTXDUW]LWHDQG.UHPPOLQJFKHUWÀDNHVRULJLQDWLQJIURPDGMDFHQWZHVWHUQ0LGGOH3DUNDQG 1RUWK3DUNYDOOH\VDORQJZLWKDFKHUWSUHIRUPDQGELIDFHWRRO 'XULQJH[FDYDWLRQV3RQWLDF3LWFXOWXUDOPDWHULDOVDQGIHDWXUHVZHUHIRXQGFRQ¿QHGWR two upper stratigraphic units (1 and 2). Cultural material was recovered no deeper than 20 cm below WKHPRGHUQVXUIDFHDOWKRXJKVRPHSLWIHDWXUHVKDGEHHQGXJLQWRORZHUFXOWXUDOO\VWHULOHJODFLDONDPH GHSRVLWVWRDGHSWKRIFP7ZHQW\VHYHQIHDWXUHVFODVVL¿HGLQWRWKUHHFODVVHVKHDUWKVURDVWLQJ SLWVDQGGLVFUHWHDVKDQGFKDUFRDOOHQVHVZHUHLGHQWL¿HG)LIWHHQZHUHUDGLRFDUERQGDWHGSURYLGLQJ DEVROXWH GDWHV IRU WKH IHDWXUHV DQG WKHLU DVVRFLDWHG DUWLIDFWV7KH ROGHVW IHDWXUH   ZDV GDWHG at 5,282+120 14C cal yr b.p.), and appeared associated with a late Early Archaic (Mount Albion &RPSOH[ SURMHFWLOHSRLQW2WKHUODWH(DUO\$UFKDLFRUPRUHOLNHO\0LGGOH$UFKDLFUDGLRFDUERQ dated features were 19 (4,564+170 14C cal yr b.p.) and 24 (4,726+120 14C cal yr b.p.). An inferred roasting pit (17) produced a 4,399+160 14C cal yr b.p. date, consistent with the age of two associated Middle Archaic (Duncan and Mallory types) points. The 4,39914C cal yr b.p. date, if part of a Middle Archaic camp component, would be one of that cultural complex’s earliest Colorado dates. Two other features: 9 (3,070+50 14C cal yr b.p.) and 13 (3,468+5014C cal yr b.p.) were also within the Middle Archaic time span. Another roasting pit feature (12) was dated at 823+50 14C cal yr b.p. and Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 57

Figure 4. 6XUYH\JUDGH !P *36ORJJHGZLUHIUDPHFRQWRXUPDSRIWKH3RQWLDF3LWVLWHVKRZLQJLWVSURWHFWLYH ORFDWLRQRQDQLQVHWWHUUDFHEHQFKDWWKHHDVWHUQPDUJLQVRIWKH&RORUDGR5LYHUÀRRGSODLQ7KHZHVWHUQERXQGDU\ RIPRQWDQHIRUHVWIROORZVWKHGDVKHGOLQHODEHOHG86+LJKZD\LQWKH¿JXUH

SK\VLFDOO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKDQ(DUO\&HUDPLF3HULRGFRUQHUQRWFKHGSURMHFWLOHSRLQW$QRWKHUURDVWLQJ pit feature (1) produced a date of 724+&FDO\UESFRQVLVWHQWZLWKD/DWH3UHKLVWRULF0LGGOH &HUDPLF3HULRGGDWHZKLOHD¿QDOURDVWLQJSLW IHDWXUH ZDVGDWHGWR +180 14C cal yr b.p., DVVRFLDWHGZLWKDQXQQRWFKHGSURMHFWLOHSRLQWW\SHFRPPRQWR&RORUDGR/DWH3UHKLVWRULF0LGGOHRU /DWH&HUDPLFFRPSRQHQWV,QVRPHFDVHVSURMHFWLOHSRLQWW\SHVUHFRYHUHGIURPODWHUUDGLRFDUERQ dated site components were found in association with earlier dated features, showing evidence of stratigraphic mixing in some site areas. $ORQJZLWKSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVWKHVLWH¶VOLWKLFDVVHPEODJHLQFOXGHGIRUPDODQGLQIRUPDOÀDNHGWRROV VXFKDVVLGHDQGHQGVFUDSHUVELIDFHNQLYHVDERQHZRUNLQJJUDYHUDQHGJHUHWRXFKHGEODGHNQLIH DQGRQHKXQGUHGVL[W\XWLOL]HGÀDNHV LQIRUPDOWRROV DQGQHDUO\VL[WKRXVDQGZDVWHÀDNHVWKHODWWHU DOPRVWH[FOXVLYHO\VHFRQGDU\DQGWHUWLDU\VWDJHPDQXIDFWXULQJÀDNHV$OWKRXJKOLWKLFVRXUFHDQDO\VLV RIÀDNHGWRROVDQGGHELWDJHZDVQRWGRQHE\WKHRULJLQDOH[FDYDWRUVWKH\GLGQRWHWKDWRI3RQWLDF 3LW¶VSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVDQGIRUPDOWRROVZHUHPDGHRIDUHGEURZQMDVSHU  DQGDJUD\ZKLWHFKHUW  GHVFULSWLRQVZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGWR7DEOH0RXQWDLQMDVSHUDQG.UHPPOLQJFKHUWIRXQGZLWKLQ NPRIWKHVLWHDW0LGGOH3DUNTXDUULHVWRWKHZHVW FI.RUQIHOGHWDO0HWFDOIHWDO :KLWH:XQGHUOLFKDQG%UXQVZLJ 7KHWKLUGPRVWFRPPRQPDWHULDOW\SH  PDNLQJ 58 Robert H. Brunswig

XSPRVWUHPDLQLQJSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVDQGWRROVZDVDJUD\WRZKLWHRUWKRTXDUW]LWHNQRZQUHJLRQDOO\ DV:LQG\5LGJH 'DNRWD RUWKRTXDUW]LWHDQGRFFXUULQJLQWKHDGMDFHQW0LGGOH3DUNYDOOH\ %DPIRUWK 1994, 2006). Both the original site report’s lithic source material assessment and the author’s analysis of 3RQWLDF3LWDUWLIDFWVFXUDWHGLQWKH50130XVHXPFRQ¿UPHGLWVMDVSHUDUWLIDFWVZHUHPDGHRI7DEOH 0RXQWDLQ RU*URXVH0RXQWDLQ MDVSHUIURP0LGGOH3DUNLWVFKHUWDUWLIDFWVPDGHRIORFDO.UHPPOLQJ 7URXEOHVRPH)RUPDWLRQ FKHUWDQGLWVTXDUW]LWHDUWLIDFWVPDQXIDFWXUHGIURP:LQG\5LGJH'DNRWD RUWKRTXDUW]LWH DOO IURP ORFDO JHRORJLF VRXUFHV ZLWKLQ  NP RI 3DUN ERXQGDULHV WR WKH ZHVW DQG QRUWKZHVW0RVWWKHUHPDLQLQJ  ÀDNHGWRROVZHUHPDGHRITXDUW]DQGUK\ROLWHDQGHVLWHIURP WKH3DUNLWVHOI2QHQRQORFDOWRROPDWHULDODUWLIDFWWKHHDUOLHUQRWHGELIDFHZLWK/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQDJH SDUDOOHOREOLTXHÀDNLQJSDWWHUQVZDVPDGHRI+DUWYLOOHTXDUW]LWHIURPVRXWKFHQWUDO:\RPLQJ NPWRWKHQRUWK1ROLWKLFWRROPDWHULDOVIURPVRXUFHVHDVWRIWKH5RFNLHVLQ&RORUDGR¶V)URQW5DQJH IRRWKLOOVRUSODLQVZHUHLGHQWL¿HG 7KHRULJLQDO3RQWLDF3LWUHSRUWQRWHGD³FRQVSLFXRXVDEVHQFHRIJURXQGVWRQH´DWWKHVLWH /LHVWPDQ  7KLVDXWKRU¶VH[DPLQDWLRQRILWVDUWLIDFWDVVHPEODJHLQWKH3DUNPXVHXPKRZHYHUSURGXFHG WKUHHJULQGLQJVWRQHIUDJPHQWVDOOPDGHRIOLJKWUHG/\RQVVDQGVWRQHRULJLQDWLQJIURPWKHHDVWHUQ)URQW Range foothills. The presence of basal grinding slabs (referred to as metates or netherstones) suggests plant or dried meat processing occurred during one or more occupation periods. If plant foods, such as dried berries, seeds, or roots, were being processed, then late summer-early fall residence when such plant products were available was a probable season of occupation when grinding stones were in use. 'XH WR 3RQWLDF 3LW¶V VKDOORZ GHSRVLWV LWV DFLGLF VRLO DQG ORFDOO\ VHYHUH ZLQWHU IUHH]HWKDZ conditions which limit bone preservation, very little faunal material (eleven fragmented bones) ZDVUHFRYHUHG5HFRYHUHGIDXQDOERQHZDVFODVVL¿HGDVUHSUHVHQWLQJVPDOOWRODUJHPDPPDOVZLWK RQO\ D VLQJOH ERQH KDYLQJ VXI¿FLHQW GLDJQRVWLF WUDLWV IRU SURYLVLRQDO LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ DV HON Cervus canadensis ). An unusual discovery was recovery of six burnt clay fragments, two pieces which had ³LPSUHVVLRQVRIYHJHWDOPDWWHU´ /LHVWPDQ/LWDRU 0LQHUDORJLFDODQDO\VLVRIWKH clay indicated it had been transported from the nearby Colorado River. The presence and nature of the clay, particularly fragments with plant impressions, suggests existence of a formal but simple shelter, SUREDEO\PDGHRIORFDOWUHHWUXQNVLQWHUZRYHQZLWKEUDQFKHVDQGVHDOHGDJDLQVWWKHHOHPHQWVZLWK ZHWFOD\DWHFKQLTXHNQRZQDV³ZDWWOHDQGGDXE´7KHODFNRIVRLOGHSWKDQGSRVWKROHVLQGLFDWHVWKH structure (or structures), if it existed, was ephemeral and rested on the then-occupied terrace surface. &RQVWUXFWLRQRID³ZHDWKHUUHVLVWDQW´VKHOWHUPD\UHSUHVHQWDQRFFXSDWLRQSKDVHDWWKHVLWHZKHQVRPH FRROVHDVRQUHVLGHQFHLQWKH3DUNRFFXUUHGDOWKRXJKLWPD\DOVRUHSUHVHQWHDUO\VSULQJLQPLJUDWLRQRU late fall out-migration rounds rather than winter residence. $UFKHRORJLFDOHYLGHQFHVKRZV3RQWLDF3LWZDVDIDYRUHGFDPSORFDWLRQRYHUVHYHUDOWKRXVDQG years. It was located in a sheltered spot with water, game and plant resources associated with the local rich Colorado River riparian environment. The site is also situated near a historically and archaeologically documented Native American travel corridor, the Ute Trail, and near one of the access trails of the ancient Big Trail which crosses the Continental Divide to the east (see Brunswig DQG/X[/X[ %LJ7UDLOSURYLGHVDGLUHFWURXWHWRWKHQHDUE\%LJKRUQ)ODWVKXQWLQJ V\VWHP GHVFULEHGEHORZ ,WVFORVHQHVVWRNQRZQKLJKHOHYDWLRQDOSLQHKXQWLQJWHUULWRULHVRQO\NP (1.4 miles) to the east, supports its use as a possible montane zone base camp for hunting parties who ascended and descended the mountain-side to adjacent hunting territories times during the summer and HDUO\IDOO7KHVLWHDOVROLNHO\VHUYHGDWWLPHVDVDWHPSRUDU\VWRSRYHUIRUKXQWLQJEDQGVHQWHULQJWKH .DZXQHHFKHYDOOH\IURPZLQWHUFDPSVLQ0LGGOH3DUN WKHRYHUZKHOPLQJVRXUFHRILWVOLWKLFPDWHULDOV  ZKLFKWUDYHOHGQRUWKDORQJWKH8WH7UDLOWR0LOQHUDQG)RUHVW&DQ\RQSDVVHVRUWXUQHDVWDQGDVFHQGHG WKHPRGHUQGD\*UHHQ0RXQWDLQDQG7RQDKXWXWUDLOVWR%LJKRUQ)ODWVRUWUDYHOHGIXUWKHUHDVWZDUG DORQJWKH%LJ7UDLOWRWKH)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQ*DPH'ULYH GHVFULEHGEHORZ :KHQQRWRFFXSLHGLQWKH Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 59

VXPPHUDVDPRQWDQH]RQHEDVHFDPS3RQWLDF3LWZRXOGKDYHVHUYHGDVDYDOOH\VSULQJHDUO\VXPPHU entry and late summer-fall exit camp for brief stop-overs during seasonal in-and-out migrations to DQGIURPWKH3DUNIURP0LGGOH3DUN RU1RUWK3DUNDOWKRXJKLWLVIDLUO\IDUVRXWKIRU1RUWK3DUNIDOO ZLQWHUHDUO\VSULQJUHVLGHQWV WRSURYLGHDFFHVVWRRYHUZLQWHULQJFDPSVRXWVLGHWKH3DUN

7KH&DFKH/D3RXGUH&RQÀXHQFH6LWH 7KH&DFKH/D3RXGUH&RQÀXHQFHVLWH/5LVORFDWHGLQWKHXSSHUPRQWDQHHQYLURQPHQWDO ]RQHMXVWDERYH QRUWK RIDWULEXWDU\FUHHNFRQÀXHQFHZLWKWKHXSSHU&DFKHOD3RXGUH5LYHULQWKH QRUWKZHVWHUQFRUQHURIWKH3DUN )LJQR ,WLVDODUJH P VLWHZLWKVL[GLVWLQFWOLWKLF ground stone, and ceramic concentrations, representing seasonal camps over several thousand years LQYROYLQJFXOWXUDOJURXSVIURPODWH3DOHRLQGLDQWRHDUO\KLVWRULFWLPHV %UXQVZLJF  )LJVKRZVDPDSRIWKHVLWH¶VDUWLIDFWFRQFHQWUDWLRQVDQGORFDWLRQVRIVHOHFWHGSURMHFWLOHSRLQW pottery, metate (grinding stone) fragments, and features (hearths). &XOWXUDOO\ GLDJQRVWLF DUWLIDFWV UHFRYHUHG IURP /5 LQFOXGHG ERWK SURMHFWLOH SRLQWV DQG SRWWHU\3URMHFWLOHSRLQWW\SHVDQGDVVRFLDWHGFXOWXUDOSHULRGVLQFOXGHGD/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ)UHGHULFN /XVN$QJRVWXUD SRLQW  & FDO \U ES  WZR (DUO\ &HUDPLF FRUQHUQRWFKHG  &FDO\UES SRLQWVDQGD0LGGOH/DWH&HUDPLFVLGHQRWFKHG FD&FDO\UES  SURMHFWLOHSRLQW/5SURGXFHGWKH3DUN¶VRQO\GRFXPHQWHGH[DPSOHRI0LGGOH&HUDPLF 8SSHU Republican) pottery (900-650 14C cal yr b.p.). An early historic Ute occupation is documented by Uncompahgre Brownware pottery sherd organic residue which was radiocarbon-dated to 391+50 14C FDO\UESFD$' )RUPDOÀDNHGWRROVDVLGHIURPWKHIRXUSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVLQFOXGHGWZRELIDFHNQLIHIUDJPHQWV DQGDÀDNHFRUHFKRSSHUVFUDSHU7KHVLWH¶VRQO\LQIRUPDOWRROVZHUHWKUHHXWLOL]HGÀDNHVZLWKOLPLWHG edge wear (edge polish). The majority of formal and informal tools were made of local (within a  NP UDGLXV  PRXQWDLQVRXUFHG PDWHULDOV SULPDULO\ .UHPPOLQJ FKHUW DQG :LQG\ 5LGJH 'DNRWD RUWKRTXDUW]LWH2QHH[DPSOHHDFKZDVIRXQGRI+DUWYLOOHFKHUW IURPVRXWKFHQWUDO:\RPLQJWRWKH QRUWK DQGD\HOORZEDQGHGSHWUL¿HGZRRGIURPWKHSODLQVHDVWRIWKH)URQW5DQJHPRXQWDLQVDQGD WRROPDGHRIDZKLWHFKHUWEHOLHYHGWRKDYHRULJLQDWHGLQWKHHDVWHUQSODLQV2QHKXQGUHGQLQHWHHQ ZDVWHÀDNHV GHELWDJH ZHUHFROOHFWHGQHDUO\DOOIURPPLGOLWKLFUHGXFWLRQVWDJHV DQG /DWHVW VWDJH  UHWRXFKÀDNHVZHUHUDUHEXWGXHWRWKHLUOLJKWQHVVDQGVPDOOVL]HPD\KDYHHURGHGDZD\ DQGDUHOHVVIUHTXHQWO\UHSUHVHQWHGWKDQODUJHUÀDNHV FI$QGUHIVN\%UXQVZLJDQG'LJJV &RWWHUHODQG.DPPLQJD6KRWW 0DWHULDOVRXUFHDQDO\VLVRIWKHZDVWHÀDNH GHELWDJH VXEDVVHPEODJHVKRZHGRYHUZKHOPLQJVRXUFHSURYHQDQFHIURP0LGGOH3DUNDQG1RUWK 3DUNZHVWRIWKH&RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGH/RFDOLQWHULRUPRXQWDLQVRXUFHGPDWHULDOVPDGHXSRI DOOGHELWDJH1RQORFDORUH[RWLF DWDPLQLPXPUDGLXVGLVWDQFHRINP ÀDNHGHEULVFDPHIURP HDVWHUQSODLQVVRXUFHGSHWUL¿HGZRRG  DQGDQXQNQRZQVRXUFHFKHUW  ZKLFK may have GHULYHGIURPHDVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVRUSODLQV+RZHYHUDFDYHDWRQWKHHDVWHUQ QRQPRXQWDLQ  VRXUFHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQVLVEDVHGRQWKHIDFWWKDWLQLWLDOWRROVRXUFHPDWHULDOLGHQWL¿FDWLRQE\WKHDXWKRU for the site occurred prior to 2002. Subsequent lithic source studies in the mountain region, particularly LQWKHFXUUHQW1RUWK3DUNUHVHDUFKSURJUDPVXJJHVWWKDWPDQ\WRROPDWHULDOVLGHQWL¿HGEHIRUH DVQRQORFDO HJ&RORUDGR)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVDQGSODLQVRUEH\RQG DUHQRZFRQVLGHUHGOLNHO\ WRKDYHFRPHIURPQRZEHWWHUNQRZQ1RUWK3DUNDQG0LGGOH3DUNYDOOH\VRXUFHVWRWKHZHVW FI Brunswig, Doerner, and Diggs 2015a). 7KH&DFKH/D3RXGUH&RQÀXHQFHVLWHLVDORZPRQWDQHIRUHVWFDPSRFFXSLHGUHSHDWHGO\RYHU VHYHUDOWKRXVDQG\HDUV,WVDGMDFHQWXSSHU&DFKH/D3RXGUHULYHUDQGDVPDOOWULEXWDU\RIWKHULYHU DUHSUHKLVWRULF1DWLYH$PHULFDQWUDLOURXWHFRUULGRUVLQWRDQGIURPWKH3DUNERWKDVFHQGLQJWRPDMRU passes with access to hunting territories and camps on high mountain slopes and high tundra grasslands 60 Robert H. Brunswig on the Continental Divide. It represents both a short-term hunting camp for the local river valley and DWUDYHODFFHVVVWRSRYHUSRLQWIRUKXQWHUJDWKHUHUEDQGVHQWHULQJWKH3DUNIURPWKH1RUWK3DUNYDOOH\ WRWKHZHVWDQGDVFHQWZLWKLQWKH3RXGUH5LYHUYDOOH\ZKLFKFRQQHFWVWRQRUWKHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOV in the east.

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Beaver Meadows Lower Montane Camps 6$,3VXUYH\VLQDQGGRFXPHQWHGVHYHUDOSUHKLVWRULFVLWHVDORQJDQHDVWHUQH[WHQVLRQRI WKH8WH7UDLOLQ%HDYHU0HDGRZVDVPDOOZHWPHDGRZYDOOH\LQHDVWFHQWUDO5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO 3DUN %UXQVZLJD%UXQVZLJDQG/X[/X[VHH)LJQRDERYH %HDYHU0HDGRZ campsites are concentrated along the lower northern slope of a local landscape feature, the North /DWHUDO JODFLDO 0RUDLQHZKLFKIRUPVDULGJHOLQHGLYLGHEHWZHHQ%HDYHU0HDGRZVDQGWKHDGMRLQLQJ YDOOH\WRWKHVRXWK0RUDLQH3DUN )LJ $OOVLWHVZHUHVLWXDWHGRQJUDVV\PHDGRZRUOLJKWO\IRUHVWHG EHQFKHVRYHUORRNLQJWKHPHDGRZDQGWKHPRUDLQH¶VORZHUSRQGHURVDSLQHIRUHVWVORSHV:KLOHVRPH VLWHVODFNHGGLDJQRVWLFDUWLIDFWVWKH\SURYLGHGULFKHYLGHQFHRIVKRUWWHUPKXQWLQJFDPSVFRQWDLQLQJ lithic tools associated with game processing, plant or dried meat grinding (grinding stones, metates) DQGWRROUHIXUELVKPHQW2WKHUVLWHVZKRVHORFDWLRQVDUHDOVRVKRZQLQ)LJFRQWDLQHGGLDJQRVWLF artifacts as well as evidence of a range of short-term camp activities consistent with hunting, gathering, and plant and game animal processing. 7ZRPRUHDUFKHRORJLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW%HDYHU0HDGRZVVLWHVDUH/5DQG/5%ULHI descriptions of both are presented in order to provide the reader a sense of their role and cultural DI¿OLDWLRQDVORZHUHOHYDWLRQPRQWDQHFDPSVXVHGE\VHDVRQDOO\PLJUDWLQJKXQWHUJDWKHUHUV /5LVDQH[WHQVLYHSUHKLVWRULFPXOWLFRPSRQHQWFDPSDQGKLVWRULFDUWLIDFWVFDWWHU )LJ  VLWXDWHGLQDVPDOOSURWHFWHGDOOXYLDOIDQDORQJDQDUURZVZDOHGUDLQLQJWKH1RUWK/DWHUDO0RUDLQH

Figure 6. $UHDPDSVKRZLQJORFDWLRQVRI1RUWK/DWHUDO0RUDLQHVLWHVDORQJWKHPRGHUQWUDLO DQGEUDQFKRIWKH ancient Ute Trail) in Beaver Meadows. 62 Robert H. Brunswig

LQWR%HDYHU0HDGRZV,WVPDLQDUHDLVLPPHGLDWHO\VRXWKRIDPRGHUQGD\ULGLQJDQGKLNLQJWUDLO on the southern margins of Upper Beaver Meadows. The modern trail was also an important branch RIWKHSUHKLVWRULFDQGHDUO\KLVWRULFHUD8WH7UDLO %UXQVZLJDQG/X[/X[ 6LWH GLPHQVLRQVDUH[PHWHUV aP ,WVSUHKLVWRULFFRPSRQHQWVFRQWDLQQXPHURXVOLWKLFÀDNHV VWRQHWRROVDQGSURMHFWLOHSRLQWV KDIWHGELIDFHV ,GHQWL¿HGSURMHFWLOHSRLQWW\SHVIURPVXUIDFH¿QGV and one recovered from a test excavation unit suggest at least two cultural period occupations: the 0LGGOH$UFKDLF 0F.HDQ &RPSOH[ 'XQFDQ SURMHFWLOH SRLQW@FD  & FDO \U ES  DQG (DUO\&HUDPLFSHULRGV 3ODLQV:RRGODQGFXOWXUH>YDULRXVFRUQHUQRWFKHGSURMHFWLOHSRLQWV@FD 856 b14C cal yr b.p.). Charcoal from one test unit produced a mid-late Early Ceramic cultural period radiocarbon date of 1,175+40 14C cal yr b.p. 7KH SUHVHQFH RI QXPHURXV SUHKLVWRULF ÀDNHV SRLQWV DQG WRROV UHÀHFW OLWKLF WRRO PDQXIDFWXUH UHIXUELVKPHQWDQGDQLPDOSURGXFWSURFHVVLQJDFWLYLWLHV3ODQWSURFHVVLQJLVHYLGHQWLQWKHSUHVHQFH of metate fragments. Two seasons of test excavation recovered numerous lithic materials, mainly VHFRQGDU\DQGWHUWLDU\PDQXIDFWXULQJDQGHGJHUHWRXFK VKDUSHQLQJ ÀDNHVIURPIRXUVWUDWL¿HGFXOWXUDO levels which extended to a depth of 40 cm before a boulder-dense glacial till layer was encountered. An XQGDWHGURFNOLQHGKHDUWKZDVGLVFRYHUHGLQRQHWHVWXQLWIURPWKHVLWH¶VORZHVWVWUDWLJUDSKLFXQLW   The site’s artifact assemblage represents a full range of game and plant processing tools, LQFOXGLQJ IRUPDO ÀDNHG WRROV VXFK DV SURMHFWLOH SRLQWV VFUDSHUV DQG ELIDFH NQLYHV DQG LQIRUPDO

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ÀDNHDQGFRUHNQLYHVDQGVFUDSHUV7KHUDWLRRIIRUPDOWRLQIRUPDOWRROVZDVKLJKHUIRULQIRUPDO WRROV LQIRUPDO IRUPDO  /LWKLF GHELWDJH ZDV KHDYLO\ LQFOLQHG WRZDUG ODWH VWDJH tool PDQXIDFWXULQJUHWRXFK ÀDNHV 0DWHULDO VRXUFH GDWD VXUSULVLQJO\ JLYHQ WKH VLWH¶V HDVW RI WKH Continental Divide location, showed strong preference toward interior mountain, western slope SDUNODQGYDOOH\VRXUFHVIRUIRUPDOWRROV  DQGOLWKLFGHELWDJH  ,QIRUPDOWRROVZHUH OHVVZHOOUHSUHVHQWHGE\ORFDO LQWHULRUPRQWDQH VRXUFHVDW $OOSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVZHUHPDGHRIWKUHHW\SHVRI0LGGOH3DUNRU1RUWK3DUNVRXUFHGPDWHULDO 7URXEOHVRPH )RUPDWLRQ .UHPPOLQJ  FKHUW 7DEOH 0RXQWDLQ MDVSHU RU :LQG\ 5LGJH 'DNRWD  RUWKRTXDUW]LWH$VLPLODUWUHQGLVUHÀHFWHGLQWKHVLWH¶VOLWKLFGHELWDJHVXEDVVHPEODJHZKHUH.UHPPOLQJ FKHUWPDGHXSPRUHWKDQKDOI  LWVWRWDOLQYHQWRU\IROORZHGE\7DEOH0RXQWDLQMDVSHU   DQG:LQG\5LGJH'DNRWDRUWKRTXDUW]LWH  $JDLQ(DVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVDQGSODLQV materials were virtually absent. However, one caveat concerning the source of Kremmling chert, recently discovered by the author and noted earlier is new information from analysis of Kremmling FKHUWGHELWDJHLQ(DUO\&HUDPLF3HULRGZLQWHUFDPSGHSRVLWVDWWKH9DOOH\9LHZVLWH /5 LQWKH HDVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOV %UXQVZLJD in press ). That analysis concluded that Kremmling chert, previously attributed only to interior montane valley sources, also occurred in eastern plains SDOHRYDOOH\JUDYHOVDVQRGXOHVRI.UHPPOLQJ 7URXEOHVRPH)RUPDWLRQ FKHUWWUDQVSRUWHGWRWKHSODLQV as stream outwash from uplifted interior mountain deposits during the Miocene Era. This suggests that QRWDOOLQIHUUHGHYLGHQFHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKSUHVHQFHRIWKDWFKHUWW\SHSDUWLFXODUO\LQHDVWHUQ3DUNVLWHV are necessarily GHULYHGIURPZHVWRIWKH&RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGH*URXQGVWRQH/5ZDVUHODWLYHO\ DEXQGDQWSURYLGLQJHYLGHQFHRISODQWDQGGULHGPHDWSURFHVVLQJ$OWKRXJK/\RQVVDQGVWRQHPHWDWH IUDJPHQWVIURPWKHHDVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVZHUHUHFRYHUHGWKHSUHVHQFHRIORFDO3DUNVRXUFHG biotite schist metate fragments showed extensive use of that less desirable but locally obtained material IRUSURFHVVLQJRISODQWVDQGGULHGPHDW FI%HQHGLFWIRUWKHXVHRIORFDO3DUNELRWLWHVFKLVWIRU local grinding stone material). $ VHFRQG %HDYHU 0HDGRZV VLWH /5 LV ORFDWHG RQ D ORZ OLJKWO\ ZRRGHG NQROO DW WKH ORZHUPRUDLQHHGJHRYHUORRNLQJ%HDYHU%URRNDQGLWVPHDGRZ )LJ 7HVWH[FDYDWLRQVDWWKHVLWH XQFRYHUHGVKDOORZFXOWXUDOGHSRVLWV FP DORQJZLWKDPRGHUDWHO\OLJKWVXUIDFHVFDWWHURIÀDNHVDQG tools, the latter including six complete or partial projectile points and eight metate fragments. Several FXOWXUDOVXUIDFHIHDWXUHVZHUHLGHQWL¿HGLQFOXGLQJWKUHHURFNOLQHGKHDUWKVWZRVWRQHKDELWDWLRQ WLSL  IRXQGDWLRQULQJVDQGDSRVVLEOHURFNFDLUQ&XOWXUDOO\DQGFKURQRORJLFDOO\GLDJQRVWLFSURMHFWLOHSRLQWV GRFXPHQWHG(DUO\$UFKDLF &FDO\UES /DWH$UFKDLF &FDO\UES  and Early Ceramic period (1,735-856 14C cal yr b.p.) occupations. It is believed the site represents a short to medium term camp where tool manufacture, tool UHIXUELVKPHQWDQGHFRQRPLFSURFHVVLQJWRRNSODFHRYHUVHYHUDOPLOOHQQLDRIVHDVRQDOYLVLWV,WLVD ODUJHVLWH P  )LJ DQGLWVDUWLIDFWLQYHQWRU\FORVHO\UHVHPEOHVWKDWRI/5)RUPDO and informal tools were roughly equal in number, represented by a preponderance of western, interior SDUNODQG YDOOH\ OLWKLF VRXUFH PDWHULDOV DV ZDV WKH OLWKLF GHELWDJH ZDVWHÀDNH  VXEDVVHPEODJH 3URMHFWLOH SRLQW PDWHULDO VRXUFHV ZHUH HYHQO\ GLYLGHG ZLWK WZR HDFK IURP PRXQWDLQ LQWHULRU DQG HDVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVSODLQVVRXUFHV Although the above sites are good examples of short-term summer hunting camps in Braver Meadow’s lower montane environmental zone, they represent only two of four recorded prehistoric VLWHVGLVWULEXWHGDORQJWKHPRUDLQH¶VORZHUVORSH )LJ $OODUHLQWHUSUHWHGDVUHSUHVHQWLQJVKRUW term early-late warm season (late spring-summer-early fall) camps occupied prior to, during, or after seasonal migrations to higher elevation hunting territories along an eastern branch of the Native $PHULFDQ8WH7UDLO FI%UXQVZLJDQG/X[/X[  64 Robert H. Brunswig

Figure 8. 6LWHPDSRI/5

+LJK$OWLWXGH%DVH&DPSVDQG+XQWLQJ7HUULWRULHVD6DPSOLQJRI3DUN6LWHV %\PLGWRODWHVXPPHUKXQWLQJEDQGVPLJUDWLQJLQWRWKH3DUNDVFHQGHGWRKLJKHUHOHYDWLRQV IROORZLQJPLJUDWLQJJDPHKHUGVRIHON Cervus canadensis ) and Bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis ) to XSSHUVXEDOSLQHDQGDOSLQHWXQGUDJUD]LQJUDQJHV:KLOHPRUHWKDQGR]HQVXFKUDQJHVZHUHLGHQWL¿HG GXULQJ81&3DUNVXUYH\VWKLVVXEVHFWLRQGHVFULEHVRQO\IRXURIWKHPRUHSURPLQHQWJUD]LQJUDQJHV ZKLFKVHUYHGDVSULPHKXQWLQJWHUULWRULHVIRU1DWLYH$PHULFDQKXQWHUJDWKHUHUEDQGV)RUHVW&DQ\RQ 3DVV0W,GD5LGJH%LJKRUQ)ODWVDQG)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQ

Forest Canyon Pass )RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVVFRQWDLQVRQHRIWKHGHQVHVWFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRISUHKLVWRULFDUFKHRORJLFDOVLWHV LQ5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUNaVLWHVSHUVTXDUHNLORPHWHU %UXQVZLJHWDO)LJ QRDERYHDQG)LJ ,WVODUJHVWVLWHWKH)RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVVVLWH /5 LVDVHULHVRIFORVHO\ VSDFHGFDPSDQGVSHFLDOXVHDFWLYLW\DUHDVUHSUHVHQWLQJDOONQRZQUHJLRQDOFXOWXUDOWUDGLWLRQVIURP /DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ FD&FDO\UES WKURXJKHDUO\KLVWRULF FD&FDO\UES WLPHV FI %UXQVZLJDE%UXQVZLJHWDO0D\HU $UFKDHRORJLFDODQGKLVWRULFHYLGHQFH Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 65 show the area has been a crossroads for migrating Native Americans throughout that time. Historic documentation, supplemented by 75 years of archaeological research, provides evidence that the Deer 7UDLO EUDQFK RI WKH 3DUN¶V ZHOONQRZQ 1DWLYH$PHULFDQ 8WH7UDLO SDVVHG GLUHFWO\ WKURXJK WKH WRS RI)RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVV %UXQVZLJDQG/X[/X[7ROO 7KH3DVVLV strategically located adjacent (north and west) to several major game drives along Mount Ida Ridge and Trail Ridge (see below) and its archaeological evidence shows it almost certainly served as a base camp locality, particularly for the nearby Mount Ida Ridge game drives (see below), for summer and fall hunting parties who ascended to those drives throughout prehistoric and early historic times. 6HYHUDODUFKDHRORJLFDOVXUYH\VZHUHFRQGXFWHGLQWKH3DVVRYHUWKHSDVWKDOIFHQWXU\0RVWZHUH limited within 30 meters on either side of the ancient Ute Trail which crosses the pass from northeast WRVRXWKZHVW %UXQVZLJ+XVWHG0D\HU

Figure 9. 0DS RYHUYLHZ RI )RUHVW &DQ\RQ 3DVV VLWHV /RFDWLRQV RI WZR VLWHV GHVFULEHG LQ WKH WH[W /5 and 5JA12138, are highlighted inside dashed lines. 66 Robert H. Brunswig

3DVVVLWH DQGUHFRUGLQJQHZVLWHVLQSUHYLRXVO\XQH[SORUHGDUHDVWRLWVHDVWDQGVRXWK %UXQVZLJHWDO )LJ 3ODQWVXUYH\VRIWKH3DVV¶%LJ7KRPSVRQ5LYHUKHDGZDWHUVGRFXPHQWHGULFKERWDQLFDO GLYHUVLW\DQGKLJKSRWHQWLDOIRUSURGXFWLYHDUFKDHRORJLFDODQGSDOHRHQYLURQPHQWDO¿HOGVWXGLHV,Q SDUWLFXODULWVVKHOWHULQJDOSLQHVXEDOSLQHHFRWRQHNUXPPKRO] WUHHLVODQG VWDQGVDQGRSHQWHUUDFH EHQFKHVFORVHO\UHÀHFWHGHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQWH[WVNQRZQHOVHZKHUHLQWKH3DUNZKHUHSUHKLVWRULFKLJK DOWLWXGHVHDVRQDOKXQWLQJEDVHFDPSVKDYHEHHQLGHQWL¿HG FI%UXQVZLJDED  7KHVXUYH\VLGHQWL¿HGWZHQW\VHYHQSODQWVSHFLHVZLWKIRRGRUPHGLFLQDOXVHVLQFOXGLQJ such edible or medicinally-valuable products as berries, plant roots, leaves, and nuts (Brunswig et al. 2009: 11-13, Tables 1 and 2, Appendix D). This diversity of edible and otherwise economically DQGPHGLFLQDOO\XVHIXOSODQWVRFFXUULQJRQJUDVVPHDGRZVLQVKHOWHUHGZHWODQGDQGNUXPPKRO] WUHHLVODQG VWDQGV UHÀHFWV DQ XQXVXDOO\ ULFK FRQFHQWUDWLRQ RI SODQW UHVRXUFHV IRU VXSSRUWLQJ SDVW Native American populations who traveled through the pass or established base camps for local WXQGUDKXQWLQJH[SHGLWLRQV$UHVXUYH\RIWKH)RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVVVLWH /5 SURYLGHGGHWDLOHG PDSSLQJGDWDDQGLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIQHZGLDJQRVWLFSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVVWRQHWRROVDQGZDVWHÀDNH VFDWWHUVFRQ¿UPLQJWKDWWKHVLWHZDVDGHQVHSDOLPSVHVWRIPXOWLSOHWUDLOVLGHFDPSVZLWKURFNOLQHG hearth features and discrete concentrations (camp areas) of lithic tools, debitage, and, occasionally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a plant-processing activity area (with a large biotite-schist grinding stone metate), two small hunting FDPSVRQHZLWKD/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ&RG\&RPSOH[SURMHFWLOHSRLQWIUDJPHQW FD& FDO\UESFI.RUQIHOG)ULVRQDQG/DUVRQ3LWEODGR7DEOH DQRWKHU ZLWKD/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ$QJRVWXUDSURMHFWLOHSRLQW FDFD&FDO\UES DQGDVWRUDJH ³FDFKH´RI7URXEOHVRPHRU.UHPPOLQJFKHUWFRUHVDQGÀDNHVWKHODWWHUIURPVRXUFHVLQWKHQHDUE\ 0LGGOH3DUNDQG1RUWK3DUNYDOOH\V 6RXWKHDVWRI/5RQHFDPSVLWHZKLFKSURGXFHGD/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQSURMHFWLOHSRLQW/5 provided an excellent example of a travel corridor (trail) and hypothesized game drive base camp, possibly used to support hunting on adjacent tundra areas on Trail Ridge to the northeast and the Mount Ida Ridge hunting territory to the south (Brunswig et al. 2009: 30-35). Archaeologically, the site produced two prehistoric lithic concentrations (camp or activity areas) at southern and central DUHDV RI ³¿QJHU´ ULGJH EHQFK RI D VRXWKIDFLQJ PRXQWDLQ VORSH RYHUORRNLQJ XSSHU )RUHVW &DQ\RQ 3DVV )LJ ,W LV VLWXDWHGLQ DOSLQHVXEDOSLQH HFRWRQH DQG LWV UHVLGHQW EHQFK KDV D WKLQ FRYHU RI GZDUIVSUXFH¿UNUXPPKRO]ZLWKLQWHUYHQLQJRSHQDUHDV,WVVRXWKHUQVHFWLRQKDVDPRGHUDWHO\KHDY\ FRQFHQWUDWLRQRIVWRQHWRROPDQXIDFWXULQJUHWRROLQJÀDNHV VHFRQGDU\DQGWHUWLDU\VWDJH DQGVHYHQWHHQ OLWKLFWRROVLQFOXGLQJDSURMHFWLOHSRLQWDQGEXWFKHULQJKLGHSURFHVVLQJDQGERQHZRRGZRUNLQJWRROV 7KHSURMHFWLOHSRLQWZDVFODVVL¿HGDVD/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ$QJRVWXUDEDVH,WKDGEHHQPDQXIDFWXUHGRI \HOORZEURZQWRUHGTXDUW]LWHPDWHULDORULJLQDWLQJIURPLQWHULRUPRQWDQHYDOOH\V HJ1RUWK3DUN  LPPHGLDWHO\WRWKHZHVWDQGQRUWKZHVWRIWKH3DUN,WH[KLELWHGLPSDFWIUDFWXUHVFDUVRQERWKEODGHIDFHV resulting from impact with a solid object, either a game animal or the ground surface. The point has DOHQWLFXODUFURVVVHFWLRQDQGHYLGHQFHRISDUDOOHOREOLTXHÀDNHWKLQQLQJDFRPPRQ/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ WUDLW%RWKFKDUDFWHULVWLFVFRPELQHGZLWKLWVWDSHULQJORZHUSDUWDQGÀDWWRFRQYH[EDVHOHGWRLWV FODVVL¿FDWLRQDVD/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ3HULRG$QJRVWXUDW\SH FI%UXQVZLJD 7DEOH3LWEODGR7DEOH GDWHGFD&FDO\UES Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 67

Figure 10. )RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVVVLWH/5PDSVKRZLQJDUWLIDFWFOXVWHUVDQGORFDWLRQRIWKH/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ projectile point base.

6HYHUDORIWKHVLWH¶VOLWKLFWRROVLQFOXGLQJVFUDSHUVDQGNQLYHVZHUHZHOOPDGHDQGRQHDQRYDWH IXOO\ZRUNHG DUWLIDFW LV LQWHUSUHWHG DV D PXOWLSXUSRVH WRRO VFUDSHU NQLIH DQG VSRNHVKDYH  7KH QRUWKHUQOLWKLFFRQFHQWUDWLRQKDGDOLJKWHUDUWLIDFWVFDWWHUZKLFKSURGXFHGPRUHWKDQDGR]HQÀDNHV DQGDQLQIRUPDOEODGHNQLIH%RWKFRQFHQWUDWLRQVFRQWDLQHG¿UHFUDFNHGURFNIURPGLVSHUVHGVXUIDFH 68 Robert H. Brunswig

KHDUWKVEXWFRQFHQWUDWLRQDOVRKDGWKUHHGLVFUHWH¿UHFUDFNHGURFNFOXVWHUV JUDQLWHDQGTXDUW] ZLWK ODUJHUSHULPHWHUURFNVGH¿QLQJDVVWLOOUHODWLYHO\LQWDFWVXUIDFHKHDUWKV5DZPDWHULDOVRXUFHVRIVLWH OLWKLFWRROVZHUHSULPDULO\aIURPORFDOSDUNDQGORFDOUHJLRQDO 1RUWK3DUNDQG0LGGOH3DUN  sources, although two tools were made of stone from more distant non-local sources in South Central Wyoming (Hartville chert) or the Northeastern Colorado plains. $KLJKUDWLRRIIRUPDOWRLQIRUPDOWRROVSDUWLFXODUO\LQ/5¶VVRXWKHUQOLWKLFFRQFHQWUDWLRQ  ZDVLQWHUSUHWHGDVLQGLFDWLQJWKHVLWHVHUYHGDVDPHGLXPVWD\FDPS,WVORFDWLRQRYHUORRNLQJ )RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVVPDGHLWDQLGHDOSODFHWRREVHUYHJDPHPRYHPHQWVLQWKH3DVVDQGDFURVVWKHSDVV to a north-facing mountain slope which forms the northern termination of Mount Ida Ridge, home WRVHYHUDOODUJHPXOWLFRPSRQHQWJDPHGULYHV VHHEHORZ 3UHVHQFHRID/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQSURMHFWLOH point base (Angostura type) provided evidence of at least one occupation phase dating as early as &FDO\UESZKLOHLWVWRROW\SHV PDLQO\VFUDSHUVDQGNQLYHV DUHWKRVHFRPPRQO\RFFXUULQJ in camps used for local hunting or secondary staging and processing activities associated with nearby high altitude alpine hunting areas, e.g., game butchering and meat-processing, hide preparation, and ERQHZRRGZRUNLQJ2QHPXOWLSXUSRVHIRUPDOWRROZLWKLQIHUUHGNQLIHVFUDSHUDQGVSRNHVKDYH (bone and wood-shaping) functions suggest it was used not only for meat and hide processing, but in SUHSDUDWLRQRIVSHDUVKDIWVXVLQJLWVVSRNHVKDYH VKDIWFXWWLQJVPRRWKLQJ QRWFK )RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVVUHSUHVHQWVDQXQXVXDOO\ULFKFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIHFRQRPLFSODQWIRRGV¿UHZRRG and shelter (Krummholz tree stands and bordering subalpine forest), trail access, game animal for localized hunting, and easy access as a base camp for hunting large herbivore game on Mount Ida 5LGJH¶VWXQGUDWRWKHVRXWK VHHEHORZ $VGLVFXVVHGLQDODWHUVHFWLRQWKHSDVVOLNHO\UHSUHVHQWV DUHVRXUFHULFKORFDWLRQNQRZQDVDSDWFKLVODQGHPEHGGHGZLWKLQDODUJHUODQGVFDSHRIOHVVGHQVH natural resources. 5HFHQWPRGHOLQJRIFOLPDWHFKDQJHDQGWUHHOLQHERXQGDU\FKDQJHVLQWKH)RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVVDUHD and along the tundra and alpine-subalpine ecotone zones of Mount Ida Ridge to the south (described EHORZ DQGEULHÀ\VXPPDUL]HGDERYHKDVVKRZQDVLJQL¿FDQWULVHRIVXEDOSLQHWUHHOLQHLQWKHSDVV during the Early Holocene (+130 m) and Mid-Holocene (assuming a minimum tree-line rise of +70 P  %UXQVZLJE%UXQVZLJ'RHUQHUDQG'LJJVDEE %RWKVLWHVGHVFULEHGKHUH /5DQG/5 QRZVLWXDWHGZLWKLQWKHDOSLQHVXEDOSLQHHFRWRQHHQYLURQPHQWDO]RQHZHUH based on recent paleoclimate studies (see above), located inside subalpine forest tree-line from early /DWH3DOHRLQGLDQWKURXJK(DUO\$UFKDLFWLPHV &FDO\UESa&FDO\UES 

The Mount Ida Ridge Hunting Territory While earlier described lower elevation camps were designed to access tundra hunting areas and support warm-season hunting expeditions, most Native American hunter-gatherers focused on high altitude (tundra) game foraging pastures. This article describes three such hunting territories beginning ZLWKWKH0RXQW,GD5LGJHZKLFKVHYHUDONLORPHWHUVGLUHFWO\DORQJWKH3DUN¶V&RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGH )LJ QR)LJ  0RXQW,GD5LGJHH[WHQGVVRXWKHDVWZDUGDORQJWKHGLYLGHIURP0LOQHU3DVV HOHYDWLRQP  IRUNPWR0RXQW,GDLQZHVWHUQFHQWUDO5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUN )LJ ,WVQRUWKZHVWHUQ segment descends to the east and west from the Continental Divide onto moderately steep (5-30º) alpine slopes while its southeastern section has moderately steep alpine slopes (10-30º) west of the divide but drops precipitously into steep talus slope at its eastern edge. The ridge’s topography consists RI YDULHG HOHYDWLRQV DQG GLUHFWLRQDO DVSHFWV FRQVLVWLQJ RI RSHQ ÀDW WR EDUUHOYDXOWHG FRQWLQXRXV ULGJHOLQHULGJHVORSHEHQFKHVNQROOVERXOGHU¿HOGVDQGDVFHQGLQJPRXQWDLQVORSHVWKDWSURYLGHG numerous topographically-enhanced micro-terrains for prehistoric hunters to maneuver game animals, SULPDULO\HONDQGELJKRUQVKHHSLQWRNLOO]RQHVRUZDLWLQDPEXVKDORQJJDPHIRUDJLQJWUDLOV,QPDQ\ Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 69

Figure 11. 0DSRIWKH0RXQW,GD5LGJHKXQWLQJWHUULWRU\ZLWKLWVDVVRFLDWHGSUHKLVWRULFVLWHV/RFDWLRQVRIWKH territory’s two game drives (5GA1095 and 5GA2002) and game processing camp (5GA7108) are outlined with dashed lines. 70 Robert H. Brunswig

Figure 12. GoogleEarth™ Satellite Image of Mount Ida Ridge facing west-northwest. The continental divide follows the ridge-line from north-northeast to south-southwest.

FDVHVDPEXVKORFDOLWLHVSURYLGHGKXQWHUVZLWKQDWXUDOO\FRQFHDOLQJIHDWXUHVERXOGHUVURFNRXWFURSV or terrain rises, while in other instances, hunters architecturally enhanced natural features for better concealment by piling small boulders, excavating shallow pits, or building more substantial boulder walls and excavating pit blinds with low concealing walls. In the latter case, some high altitude hunting systems, including at least four sites along Mount Ida Ridge (5GA1095, 5GA2713, 5GA2002, /5 ZHUHIRUPDOO\³FRQVWUXFWHG´ZLWKDUWL¿FLDOJDPHPDQHXYHULQJ GULYH IHDWXUHVVXFKDV URFNFDLUQOLQHVURFNZDOOHGREVHUYDWLRQSLWVURFNZDOODOLJQPHQWVDQGURFNZDOOHGKXQWLQJEOLQGV 2QHRIWKHPRVWSURPLQHQW0RXQW,GD5LGJHVLWHVLV*$DPXOWLFRPSRQHQWJDPHGULYH ¿UVWUHFRUGHGE\-DPHV%HQHGLFW  %HQHGLFWGHVFULEHGWKHVLWHDVVLWXDWHG³LQDVDGGOHRQWKH &RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGHDQGRQWKHVORSHOHDGLQJVRXWKZDUGWRZDUG0RXQW,GD´+HGHVLJQDWHGWKHVLWH WKH0RXQW,GD*DPH'ULYHDQGGHVFULEHGLWDVFRQVLVWLQJRIWZRJURXSVRI³VWUXFWXUHV´ZLWK³7KH QRUWKHUQJURXS« EOLQGV ´>RFFXUULQJ@³LQDQDUHDRIVDFNXQJIHDWXUHV WHQVLRQFUDFNIDXOWV DQG VFDUSVWDNLQJDGYDQWDJHRIWKHQDWXUDOFRQFHDOPHQWWKDWWKH\SURYLGH7KHVRXWKHUQJURXSRIVWUXFWXUHV (2 blinds, 1 wall) complete the local hunting system represented by 5GA2002. The wall parallels the FLUTXHKHDGZDOOPIURPLWVHGJH,WLVDVXEWOHV\VWHPLQSODFHVXQFRQYLQFLQJ´ %HQHGLFW  University of Northern Colorado surveys of the site and its surrounding area produced substantial QXPEHUVRIDUWLIDFWVDQGDGHWDLOHGPDSRI%HQHGLFW¶VRULJLQDOVHYHQEOLQGDQGZDOOIHDWXUHV )LJ  $FFRUGLQJWR%HQHGLFWWKHVLWH¶VQRUWKHUQIHDWXUHJURXSFRQVLVWHGRIDFLUFXODUURFNZDOOEOLQG IHDWXUH 1-1.8 to 1.4 m diameter), a west facing semi-circular blind (feature 2-maximum length of 2 m), a short P URFN³ZDOO´OLQH IHDWXUH DQGDQRWKHUDOVRVKRUW P URFN³ZDOO´OLQH IHDWXUH 7KH latter features, 3 and 4, were situated at the southeast end of a linear northwest to southeast oriented depression. A major artifact scatter (concentration 1), located a few meters northwest west of those IHDWXUHV\LHOGHGWZRGR]HQVHFRQGDU\DQGWHUWLDU\OLWKLFMDVSHUDQGFKHUWÀDNHV¿YHVDQGVWRQHPHWDWH IUDJPHQWVDGR]HQLQIRUPDOÀDNHWRROV VFUDSHUVNQLYHV« DVLQJOHUK\ROLWH ORFDOYROFDQLFPDWHULDO  tool core, and most importantly, two Early Archaic Mount Albion Complex corner- notched projectile points (ca. 7,416-5,738 14C cal yr b.p.). A third complete Mount Albion projectile point was recovered by UNC archaeologists during a site re-visit in 2005. 3ODQWRULQDGGLWLRQGULHGPHDWJULQGLQJLVVKRZQE\WKHSUHVHQFHRIVDQGVWRQHPHWDWHIUDJPHQWV ORFDWHGLQVLGHDVPDOOOLWKLFÀDNHFRQFHQWUDWLRQQRUWKQRUWKZHVWRIWKHVLWH¶VODUJHVWDUWLIDFWDQGIHDWXUH FRQFHQWUDWLRQ   )LJ 7KUHHRWKHUVDQGVWRQHPHWDWHIUDJPHQWVDORQJZLWKVHYHUDOVHFRQGDU\DQG WHUWLDU\ÀDNHVLQIRUPDOÀDNHWRROVDQGWKUHHSURMHFWLOHSRLQWIUDJPHQWVZHUHIRXQGVFDWWHUHGGRZQ VORSHZHVWRIFRQFHQWUDWLRQ%URNHQSURMHFWLOHSRLQWIUDJPHQWVIURP/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ -DPHV$OOHQ )UHGHULFN  &FDO\UES DQG/DWH$UFKDLF &FDO\UES SHULRGVZHUH also recovered in the northern feature group in association with game blind pits and walls. Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 71

Figure 13. Site map of 5GA2002 showing features, artifact concentrations, and illustrating its hypothesized “du- DOJDPH HONDQG%LJKRUQVKHHS KXQWLQJV\VWHP´

7KHVLWH¶VVRXWKHUQIHDWXUHJURXSFRQVLVWHGRIDPORQJURFN³ZDOO´ IHDWXUH SDUDOOHOLQJ the ridgeline crest and 3-5 m west of a steep northeast facing scarp that drops off down a talus slope cliff into the adjacent glacial cirque valley, a semi-circular, 2.7 m long, northwest facing wall or blind (feature 6) in line and at the southeastern end of feature 5, and a nearly complete, 1.7 by 2.1 m, oval URFNZDOOEOLQG IHDWXUH ORFDWHGFDPVRXWKHDVWRIIHDWXUHMXVWRYHUWKHFUHVWRIWKHFOLIIHGJH /DUJHERXOGHUVDWWKHVRXWKHDVWFRUQHURIWKHVRXWKHUQIHDWXUHJURXSIRUPVDSURWHFWHGVKHOWHUDUHD with concealment from game crossing the saddle crest from the southwest (from upslope) and up the steep talus slope from the northeast. Southern group features were arranged to ambush game animals DUULYLQJ GULYHQ IURPWZRGLUHFWLRQVXSWKHORQJPRXQWDLQVORSHVDGGOHRQWKHVRXWKZHVWDQGXS WKHVWHHSFOLIIWDOXVVORSHIURPWKHQRUWKHDVW VHH)LJ 1RDUWLIDFWVZHUHIRXQGDWWKHVRXWKHUQ feature group. The archaeological inventory represented by 5GA2002 features, artifact distributions, and artifact classes suggests it served as a frequently utilized game procurement locality where two distinct 72 Robert H. Brunswig hunting strategies were employed over the past ten thousand years. Its northern feature group, located QHDUWKHPDLQSURFHVVLQJDQGWRROUHIXUELVKPHQWDUHDLQFOXGHVURFNZDOODQGVKDOORZSLWJDPHEOLQGV largely oriented toward ambushing game being maneuvered up (north to northeast) a relatively gentle west-southwest facing mountain-slope swale ascending from the subalpine tree line below. It is hypothesized that the primary hunted game species on that site area and along the saddle crest was HON Cervus Canadensis ), given that specie’s habit of grazing up gentle to moderately sloping tundra slopes in pre-dawn and early morning periods after leaving night-time bedding areas in nearby lower HOHYDWLRQVXEDOSLQHHFRWRQHNUXPPKRO]WUHHLVODQGVRUXSSHUVXEDOSLQHVSUXFH¿UIRUHVW %UXQVZLJ HWDO*UHHQDQG%HDU  Artifacts recovered from the site’s northern part, including several fragmented diagnostic projectile SRLQWVEURNHQGXULQJDPEXVKHVVXJJHVWLWVNLOODUHDZDVLQXVHGXULQJWKH/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQSHULRG WKH VXEVHTXHQW (DUO\$UFKDLF 3HULRG  & FDO \U ES  DQG GXULQJ WKH /DWH$UFKDLF and Early Ceramic periods 3,165-856 14C cal yr b.p.). It is also possible the drive was used in other cultural periods, but diagnostic artifacts from those periods remain undetected or have been collected E\YLVLWRUVDQGQRWUHSRUWHGWR3DUNVWDII 7KHVRXWKHUQIHDWXUHJURXSDW*$LVOHVVHDV\WRLQWHUSUHWVLQFHLWODFNHGDUWLIDFWVDQGJLYHQ WKHIDFWWKDWRQHRILWVIHDWXUHVWKHORQJ³ZDOO´ IHDWXUH LVGLI¿FXOWWRLGHQWLI\DQGLQGLVWLQFWZLWKLQ its boulder-littered landscape. However, given overall orientation and placement of features in the up- KLOOVRXWKHUQVLWHVHFWLRQLWLVSRVVLEOHWKRVHIHDWXUHVGRDVUHPDUNHGE\%HQHGLFWUHSUHVHQWKXQWHU FRQFHDOPHQW³EOLQGV´DQG³YLVXDOSDXVH´OLQHVRQWKHULGJHOLQHKRUL]RQIRUJDPHVXFKDV%LJKRUQ VKHHSEHLQJGULYHQXSWKHHDVWHUQVFDUS¶VORZHUWDOXVVORSHIURPEHORZWRHPHUJHDWDULGJHOLQHNLOO ORFDOLW\ FI)LJDERYHDQG)LJEHORZ  The position of a game blind pit immediately west (inside) of the cliff edge and 20 m northwest of the boulder concentration is hypothesized to have been integral for use of a long net to snare sheep ÀHHLQJXSWKHFOLIIWDOXVVORSHIURPKXQWHUVLQWKHYDOOH\EHORZ FI)ULVRQ)ULVRQ 5HKHU DQG:DONHU )LJ E 7KH XVH RI QHWV WR WUDS DQLPDOV VXFK DV %LJKRUQ VKHHS Ovis Canadensis ZKRVHQDWXUDOLQVWLQFWLVWRÀHHXSVWHHSWDOXVVORSHVVXFKDVRFFXUVDW*$LV VXSSRUWHGE\GLVFRYHU\RID/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQSHULRG &FDO\UES IXOO\LQWDFWQHWPHDVXULQJ PLQOHQJWKLQ:\RPLQJ¶V$EVDURND0RXQWDLQV )ULVRQ)ULVRQHWDO.RUQIHOG )ULVRQDQG/DUVRQ  At this point, comment should be made on the frequent presence of ground stone tools found at both WKLVVLWHDQGRWKHUVUHFRUGHGRQWKH3DUN¶VDOSLQHWXQGUD*URXQGVWRQHVDUHFRPSRVLWHWRROVFRQVLVWLQJ of a base slab, referred to as a metate and a mano which are used to reduce seeds, dried roots, or dried PHDWWRDÀRXURUDFRDUVHWR¿QHSRZGHUIRUVWRUDJHDQGODWHUXVHIRUVWHZVRUPDNLQJSHPPLFDQ D PL[HGDQLPDOIDWJURXQGGULHGPHDWDQGJURXQGSODQWIRRGSURGXFW  FI(ZHUV/LERLURQ DQG6W&\U0RUULVHWDO 0HDWIURPWXQGUDKXQWLQJFRXOGKDYHEHHQTXLFNO\GULHG E\EHLQJFXWLQWRWKLQVWULSVDQGODLGRXWRQURFNVLQWKHGU\WKLQDOSLQHDLU%\ODWHUVXPPHUDQGHDUO\ IDOOZKHQWKHKXQWVWRRNSODFHDQXPEHURIHGLEOHWXQGUDDQGVXEDOSLQHDOSLQHHFRWRQHSODQWVSHFLHV would have been available for harvesting and processing. Most were root bulbs that would have been dried, ground, and transported to lower elevation base camps for mixing with stone-boiled (or pottery vessel heated after arrival of ceramics around ca. 1,600 b.p.) reduced meat fats and bone and marrow JUHDVHWRPDNHOLJKWDQGSURWHLQFRQFHQWUDWHGSHPPLFDQ%HQHGLFW  LGHQWL¿HGDWOHDVW seven alpine and alpine-subalpine ecotone plant species with edible bulb roots suitable for drying, grinding, and mixing with meat and grease for pemmican. They include wild onion ( Allium geyeri ), two varieties of Bistort ( Bistorta bistortoides and Viviporous bistorta ), Indian potato ( Claytonia lanceolata ), Alpine Spring Beauty ( Claytonia megrhiza ), Cottongrass ( Eriophorum angusti folrum ), Avalanche lilies ( Erythronium gradiforium ) and Alp lily ( Lloydia serotine ). An ethnobotanical survey RIDOSLQHSODQWVDWDQDQRWKHU3DUNJDPHGULYH7UDLO5LGJH*DPH'ULYH /5 GRFXPHQWHGVHYHUDO Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 73

Figure 14. a : GoogleEarth™ satellite image of the 5GA2002 ridge-top saddle and bDURFNZDOOHGJDPHEOLQG (feature 1) immediately west of the ridge crest believed to have been used in Bighorn sheep net trapping and ZHDSRQDPEXVKIRUJDPHÀHHLQJXSWKHVWHHSWDOXVVORSHIURPWKHFLUTXHYDOOH\EHORZ

RQVLWHHGLEOHSODQWVZLWKVWURQJUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RILGHQWL¿HGSODQWV RIWKHWZR%LVWRUWVSHFLHV (Werner 1999: 2-3, Table 1). Along with edible root plant bulbs, tundra hunting territory areas would have provided small shrub berries in the form of Soapberry ( Shepherdia Canadensis ) and edible seeds 74 Robert H. Brunswig

IURPDOSLQHVXQÀRZHUV Helianthella quinquenervis 2WKHUEHUU\DQGVHHGVSHFLHVZRXOGKDYHEHHQ DYDLODEOHLQORZHUHOHYDWLRQEDVHFDPSDUHDVVXFKDVWKDWRIWKHHDUOLHUGHVFULEHG)RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVV 5GA2002 is the most organizationally complex multi-component game drive with associated early-stage game processing activity areas on Mount Ida Ridge. However, other secondary processing camps were recorded along the site’s lower western slope and on a ridge-spur east of the Continental 'LYLGHDVKRUWGLVWDQFHWRWKHQRUWK VHH)LJIRUORFDWLRQV 2QHULGJHVSXUVLWH /5 SURGXFHG /DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ 3U\RU6WHP&FDO\UES DQG(DUO\$UFKDLF 0RXQW$OELRQ&RPSOH[ 7,416-5,738 14C cal yr b.p.) projectile points along with butchering and hide-processing tools. )LQDOO\DVPDOO³FRQVWUXFWHG´JDPHGULYH *$ ZLWKFDLUQVDQGQDWXUDODQGKXPDQEXLOW ambush blinds is located near the north-central end of the Mount Ida ridgeline. 5GA1095 is associated with artifact concentrations related to early stage game processing areas with diagnostic projectile SRLQW W\SHV VSDQQLQJ DW OHDVW QLQH WKRXVDQG \HDUV /DWH 3DOHRLQGLDQ WR (DUO\ &HUDPLF SHULRG FD 10,088-91014C cal yr b.p.). 5GA1095 (the Mount Ida Ridge Game Drive) was also recorded by James Benedict (1987: 1-27, $SSHQGLFHV$%DQG& 2I¿FLDOO\WKHVLWHKDVWZR&RORUDGR6WDWHVLWHLGHQWL¿HUQXPEHUV*$ DQG/5EHFDXVHWKH&RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGHZKLFKWUDQVHFWVWKURXJKWKHVLWHLVDOVRWKHERXQGDU\ EHWZHHQWZR&RORUDGRFRXQWLHV*UDQG *$ DQG/DULPHU /5 ZKLFKPDNHXSSDUWRIWKH&RORUDGR VLWHQDPLQJV\VWHP,WLVORFDWHGLQDOSLQHWXQGUDDNLORPHWHUQRUWKZHVWRI-$,WLQFOXGHVD number of prehistoric cairns, a U-shaped stone walled fasting, or vision quest, bed, and hundreds of OLWKLFDUWLIDFWVDQGWRROUHGXFWLRQÀDNHV )LJ  Benedict suggested several cairns and alignments found near a Native American fasting bed YLVLRQTXHVW IHDWXUHWKDWGLUHFWO\RYHUORRNV0LOQHU3DVVDQGWKHQRUWKHDVWKHDGZDWHUVEUDQFKRIWKH Colorado River were components of an earlier (pre-vision quest) game drive system. In fact, the vision TXHVWIHDWXUHDSSHDUVWRKDYHEHHQFRQVWUXFWHGRYHUDQHDUOLHUURFNZDOOHGJDPHEOLQG$QDOLJQPHQW RIJDPHGLYHUVLRQURFNFDLUQVGHVLJQHGWRFKDQQHOJDPHDQLPDOV PDLQO\HON WRZDUGDULGJHWRS NLOOVDGGOHFRQVLVWVRIVL[WHHQLUUHJXODUO\VSDFHGFDLUQVRULHQWHGLQDQHDVWZHVWGLUHFWLRQDQGVWDUWV GRZQVORSH DQG ZHVW RI WKH GULYH NLOO DUHD DQG ULVHV XS WKH PRXQWDLQVORSH FURVVLQJ D ULGJH OLQH NQROOLQWRDQDPEXVKVDGGOH VHH)LJ 7KHFDLUQGLYHUVLRQZDOOLVPORQJDQGLQWHUSUHWHGE\ Benedict (1987: 5) as having served as a drift fence, designed to direct game animals from open alpine JUD]LQJDUHDVQRUWKZHVWRIWKHVLWHNQROOWRZDUGKXQWHUVVWDWLRQHGRQWKHNQROO¶VVRXWKVLGHQH[WWRD ORZVDGGOHEHWZHHQLWDQGDQRWKHUNQROOWRWKHHDVW ,W VKRXOG EH QRWHG WKDW QR VXEVWDQWLDO KXQWLQJDPEXVK EOLQGV RU RWKHU FRQVWUXFWHG IRUPV RI FRQFHDOPHQWZHUHLGHQWL¿HGE\%HQHGLFWRUDODWHU8QLYHUVLW\RI1RUWKHUQ&RORUDGRVLWHVXUYH\ H[FHSWSRVVLEO\WKHEOLQG³RYHUFRQVWUXFWHG´E\WKHYLVLRQTXHVW7KHJHQHUDODEVHQFHRIIRUPDOO\ constructed blinds suggests game animals were ambushed by hunters concealed mainly behind QDWXUDOFRQFHDOPHQWIHDWXUHVLQFOXGLQJDODUJHERXOGHURQWKHNQROODWWKHZHVWVLGHRIWKHVDGGOH NLOODUHD FIDOVR%HQHGLFW +RZHYHUDZHOOFRQVWUXFWHGVWRQHZDOOHGSLWLVVLWXDWHGRQ WKHFRQWLQHQWDOGLYLGHULGJHOLQHPQRUWKQRUWKZHVWRIWKHVLWH¶VNLOODUHDDQGPD\KDYHEHHQD ORRNRXWEOLQGIURPZKLFKKXQWVZHUHFRRUGLQDWHG81&VLWHVXUYH\DOVRLGHQWL¿HGDEDUHO\YLVLEOH and probable EOLQGSLWRQWKHNQROOFUHVWHQFORVHGZLWKVPDOOERXOGHUVWKDWPD\KDYHIRUPHGDORZ FRQFHDOLQJZDOO&RQ¿JXUDWLRQRIWKHVLWH¶VFDLUQVDUWLIDFWFRQFHQWUDWLRQVDQGORFDOWRSRJUDSK\DUH consistent with the hypothesis that game animals were maneuvered toward and through the ridge-top VDGGOHLPPHGLDWHO\HDVWRIWKHPDLQNQROODQGDPEXVKHGIURPDODUJHURFNRXWFURSDWLWVVRXWKZHVW FRUQHU VHH)LJ  $UWLIDFWV UHFRYHUHG IURP *$/5 ZHUH FOXVWHUHG LQ WKUHH PDLQ  FRQFHQWUDWLRQV GHVLJQDWHG$%DQG& FI)LJDERYH DQGLQFOXGHGSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVDQGSRLQWIUDJPHQWV VHYHUDOÀDNHGWRROVDTXDUW]LWHFRUHPRUHWKDQUHGXFWLRQDQGUHWRXFKÀDNHVDQGWHQVDQGVWRQH metate fragments, the latter from at least two individual grinding stones. Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 75

Figure 15. 0DSRIWKH*$/5JDPHGULYHVLWH

'LDJQRVWLFSURMHFWLOHSRLQWW\SHVIURPWKH0RXQW,GD5LGJHJDPHGULYHDUHIURPWKHUHJLRQ¶V/DWH 3DOHRLQGLDQ(DUO\$UFKDLF0LGGOH$UFKDLF WZR0DOORU\EDVHV /DWH$UFKDLF(DUO\&HUDPLFDQG 0LGGOH/DWH&HUDPLFFXOWXUDOSHULRGVUDQJLQJIURPFDWR&FDO\UES,WVOLWKLFDQG JURXQGVWRQHWRROVOLNHWKRVHRIWKH0RXQW,GD*DPH'ULYH *$ UHSUHVHQWEXWFKHULQJPHDW 76 Robert H. Brunswig

SURFHVVLQJDQGSHUKDSVSODQWIRRGSURFHVVLQJDFWLYLWLHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKJDPHDQLPDONLOOVDQGORFDO WXQGUDSODQWIRRGFROOHFWLRQ7KHPDMRULW\RILWVOLWKLFWRROPDWHULDOV  GHULYHIURPORFDOVRXUFHV ZLWKLQNPRIWKHVLWHZLWK7URXEOHVRPH0RXQWDLQ .UHPPOLQJ FKHUWDQG:LQG\5LGJH'DNRWD orthoquartzite being most common. 'XHWRORFDWLRQVZHOOZLWKLQWKHPRGHUQDOSLQHWXQGUDHQYLURQPHQWDO]RQHDQGVLJQL¿FDQWO\DERYH today’s subalpine forest tree-line, all the Mount Ida sites described here are believed to have remained DERYHVXEDOSLQHIRUHVWWUHHOLQHWKURXJKRXWWKH+RORFHQH %UXQVZLJF%UXQVZLJ'RHUQHUDQG Diggs 2014a, 2014b, 2015b).

The Bighorn Flats Hunting Territory 7KH%LJKRUQ)ODWVKXQWLQJWHUULWRU\LVVLWXDWHGLQDODUJH aKHFWDUHVNP RIZHVWWR VRXWKZHVW VORSLQJ WXQGUD DOSLQHVXEDOSLQH HFRWRQH NUXPPKRO]GZDUI VSUXFH DQG ¿U WUHHLVODQGV  DQGXSSHUVXEDOSLQHIRUHVW,WVZHVWHUQPDUJLQVDUHKHDGZDWHUVIRU7RQDKXWX3WDUPLJDQDQG+DOOHWW FUHHNVWULEXWDULHVRIWKH&RORUDGR5LYHUWRWKHZHVW%LJKRUQ)ODWVLVWKHODUJHVWFRQWLQXRXVH[SDQVH RIDOSLQHWXQGUDDQGDOSLQHVXEDOSLQHHFRWRQHLQWKH3DUNDQGKDVRQHRILWVKLJKHVWSUHKLVWRULFVLWH concentrations. It is one of the region’s richest and most extensive alpine grassland areas, summer UDQJH IRU HON Cervus Canadensis ) and Bighorn sheep ( Ovis Canadensis ) whose presence drew JHQHUDWLRQVRIKXPDQKXQWHUVWRWKHÀDWVDQGDGMRLQLQJ)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQ VHHEHORZ )LJLVD FRPSRVLWHVDWHOOLWHLPDJHVKRZLQJWKHH[WHQWRIWKH%LJKRUQ)ODWVVXEDOSLQHDOSLQHKXQWLQJV\VWHP territory determined by archeological survey. )LJLVDPDSRI%LJKRUQ)ODWVVKRZLQJLWVPDMRUWRSRJUDSKLFDOIHDWXUHVDQGSUHKLVWRULFVLWH locations. %LJKRUQ)ODWVLVWUDYHUVHGE\DFURVV&RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGH1DWLYH$PHULFDQWUDLONQRZQDVWKH%LJ 7UDLO FI%UXQVZLJDQG/X[/X[ 7KH%LJ7UDLODVZHOODVVHYHUDORWKHUWUDLOV GRFXPHQWHGLQWKH3DUNVHUYHGDVDPDMRUPLJUDWRU\URXWHIRUSDVW1DWLYH$PHULFDQSRSXODWLRQVVLQFH WKHHQGRIWKH3OHLVWRFHQH7XQGUDSHQHSODLQDQGPRXQWDLQVORSHVRI%LJKRUQ)ODWVZHUHVXUYH\HGE\ UNC archeology teams in 2000 and 2001. Those surveys documented low site densities where the %LJ7UDLO DQGLWVPRGHUQYHUVLRQWKH)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQ%LJKRUQ)ODWVWUDLO FURVVHGWKH)ODWVRYHUWKH &RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGHIURPWKHZHVWHQGRI)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQWRWKH7RQDKXWX&UHHNKHDGZDWHUVDUHD )LJ +RZHYHUEHORZZHVWHUQPDUJLQVRIWKH%LJKRUQ)ODWV³ULP´ZKHUHWKH%LJ7UDLOGHVFHQGV LQWR7RQDKXWX&UHHNKHDGZDWHUVDOSLQHVXEDOSLQHHFRWRQHDUFKDHRORJLFDOVXUYH\VIRXQGVLWHQXPEHUV LQFUHDVHGGUDPDWLFDOO\ %UXQVZLJ)LJ 

Figure 16. *RRJOH(DUWKΠVDWHOOLWH LPDJH RI %LJKRUQ )ODWV DQG LWV LQFOXVLYH &RQWLQHQWDO 'LYLGH ULGJHOLQH 7KHDUHDHQFORVHGE\WKH%LJKRUQ)ODWVKXQWLQJWHUULWRU\LVVKRZQZLWKLQWKHGDVKHGZKLWHOLQH Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 77

Figure 17. 0DSRIWRSRJUDSKLFIHDWXUHVDQGSUHKLVWRULFVLWHORFDWLRQVRI%LJKRUQ)ODWV¶QRUWKHUQDQGFHQWUDODUHDV Sites discussed in the text are shown inside dashed lines. 78 Robert H. Brunswig

%LJKRUQ )ODWV¶ DOSLQH WXQGUD FRQWDLQV VHYHUDO OLWKLFJURXQG VWRQH VFDWWHU VLWHV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK SULPDU\JDPHNLOOVDQGHDUO\VWDJHJDPHSURFHVVLQJ81&VXUYH\VIRXQGWKRVHVLWHVFRQFHQWUDWHG LQ WKH QRUWKHUQ VHFWRU RI %LJKRUQ )ODWV RQ WKH VRXWKIDFLQJ VORSH RI 6SUDJXH 0RXQWDLQ DQG LQ LWV VRXWKZHVWVHFWRUZLWKLQDQGDERYHWKH3WDUPLJDQ&UHHNKHDGZDWHUV Sprague Mountain is part of a high narrow Continental Divide ridge-line that steeply descends LQWR%LJKRUQ)ODW¶VQRUWKHDVWHUQFRUQHU )LJ $SDVVDWWKHPRXQWDLQ¶VWRS6SUDJXH3DVVSURYLGHV access east of the Continental Divide by a steep trail that descends into a glacial cirque valley from ZKHUHKHDGZDWHUVRI6SUXFH&UHHNÀRZHDVWZDUGWKURXJK6SUXFH&DQ\RQ$ODUJHPXOWLFRPSRQHQW prehistoric game processing camp (5GA2262) is situated on an alpine tundra mountain slope bench EHORZ VRXWKZHVW WKHSDVV )LJVDQG  $UFKHRORJLFDOVXUYH\VDW*$GRFXPHQWHGNLOODQGSURFHVVLQJWRROVLQWKUHHFRQFHQWUDWLRQV scattered over a 25,200 m2 area. The heaviest concentration (1) is in its northern area while lighter FRQFHQWUDWLRQV DQG RFFXULQLWVVRXWKHDVWTXDGUDQW )LJ )RUPDODQGLQIRUPDOOLWKLFWRROV IURPFRQFHQWUDWLRQLQFOXGHGDSHWUL¿HGZRRGJUDYHU XVHGLQERQHSURFHVVLQJ FKHUWMDVSHUDQG VLOLFL¿HGZRRGVFUDSHUNQLYHVDMDVSHUQRWFKHGVSRNHVKDYH ZRRGDQGERQHZRUNLQJ DMDVSHU(DUO\ $UFKDLF 0RXQW$OELRQ&FDO\UES SURMHFWLOHSRLQWEDVHDQGDFKHUW/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ SURMHFWLOHSRLQWPLGVHFWLRQ FD&FDO\UES )RUPDODQGLQIRUPDOWRROVIURPWKHRWKHU FRQFHQWUDWLRQVZHUHVFUDSHUVXQLIDFLDODQGELIDFLDONQLYHVDELIDFHNQLIHIUDJPHQWDQGWZRRWKHU Early Archaic corner-notched projectile points. Refurbishment of butchering and hide processing tools DWDOOWKUHHOLWKLFFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLVVKRZQE\WKHSUHVHQFHRIVHFRQGDU\DQGWHUWLDU\ÀDNHV0RUHWKDQ RIÀDNHGWRROVUHFRYHUHGIURPWKHVLWHZHUHIRUPDO IXOO\VKDSHGE\ÀDNLQJ WRROVZKLOHIHZHU WKDQZHUHXQUHWRXFKHGRUPLQLPDOO\ZRUNHGLQIRUPDODQGOLWKLFFRUHWRROV7KHPDMRULW\RIVLWH DUWLIDFWVPRUHWKDQZHUHPDGHRIORFDOO\DYDLODEOHPDWHULDOVIURP0LGGOH3DUNDQG1RUWK3DUN FI%UXQVZLJD$SSHQGL[%  A second, more extensive, processing camp, 5GA2721, is situated in an alpine tundra boulder ¿HOGLQVRXWKHDVWHUQ%LJKRUQ)ODWVLQXSSHU3WDUPLJDQ&UHHNZDWHUVKHG,WLVDSDOLPSVHVWRIOLWKLFDQG ground stone scatters with diagnostic artifacts representing occupations of different cultural periods over a large 50,000 m2 area. At the site’s northern end, a very large granite boulder forms a small SURWHFWLYHVRXWKIDFLQJVKHOWHU )LJ  7KH ERXOGHU VKHOWHU KDV D ¿YHPHWHU RSHQLQJ DQ HQWUDQFH KHLJKW RI  PHWHUV DQG DQ RYHUKDQJWREDFNZDOOGHSWKRIPHWHUV$QRSHQDUHDRXWVLGHLWVVRXWKIDFLQJHQWUDQFHSURGXFHG D /\RQV VDQGVWRQH JULQGLQJ VWRQH PHWDWH  IUDJPHQW DORQJ ZLWK VHYHUDO OLWKLF WRRO PDQXIDFWXULQJ DQGUHIXUELVKPHQWÀDNHV0RVWRIWKHVLWH¶VDUWLIDFWVZHUHZLGHO\VFDWWHUHGDOWKRXJK¿YHUHODWLYHO\ GLVFUHWHDUWLIDFWFRQFHQWUDWLRQVZHUHLGHQWL¿HG6LJQL¿FDQWDUWLIDFWVLQFOXGHGWKHORZHUVHFWLRQRID /DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ -DPHV$OOHQ)UHGHULFNW\SH FRQFDYHEDVHSURMHFWLOHSRLQW &FDO\U b.p), a corner-notched, Early Archaic Mount Albion (7,416-5,738 14C cal yr b.p) projectile point, and YDULRXVVFUDSHUVNQLYHVDVHUUDWHGÀDNHNQLIHDFRUHJUDYHUFRUHFKRSSHUVDSHWUL¿HGZRRGELIDFH WRROIUDJPHQWXWLOL]HGÀDNHWRROVVHYHUDOVDQGVWRQHPHWDWHIUDJPHQWV DOORI)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOV /\RQVVDQGVWRQH DQGQHDUO\WZRKXQGUHGFKHUWMDVSHUTXDUW]LWHDQGVLOLFL¿HGZRRGVHFRQGDU\DQG WHUWLDU\ÀDNHV$OWRJHWKHU*$¶VOLWKLFWRRODVVHPEODJHXQOLNHWKHDERYHGHVFULEHG*$ VLWH ZDV GRPLQDWHG E\ LQIRUPDO UDWKHU WKDQ IRUPDO WRROV a  SRVVLEO\ UHÀHFWLQJ LWV VKHOWHUHG nature and longer-term use as an overnight hunting camp rather than a day-time activity locality used for brief early stage processing of locally acquired game as often common for other tundra-situated VLWHV,WVOLWKLFWRROPDWHULDOVOLNHPRVWRWKHU3DUNSUHKLVWRULFVLWHVZHUHPDLQO\ORFDO ZLWKLQNP  LQRULJLQFRQVLVWLQJPDLQO\  RI7URXEOHVRPH)RUPDWLRQ .UHPPOLQJ FKHUW7DEOH0RXQWDLQ MDVSHU DQG 'DNRWD RUWKRTXDUW]LWH 2QH QRWDEOH H[RWLF PDWHULDO DUWLIDFW ZDV D SDUWLDO YHU\ VPDOO VWHPPHG/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ&RG\&RPSOH[ &FDO\UES SURMHFWLOHSRLQWIUDJPHQW PDGHRI6RXWKZHVW:\RPLQJRVWUDFRGFRTXLQDIURPNPQRUWKZHVWRIWKH3DUN Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 79

Figure 18. Site map of 5GA2262: a tundra game processing site. 80 Robert H. Brunswig

Figure 19. 6LWHSODQRI*$VRXWKZHVWHUQ%LJKRUQ)ODWV

/RJLVWLFDOVXSSRUWIRU%LJKRUQ)ODWVWXQGUDEDVHGNLOODUHDVDQGHDUO\VWDJHJDPHDQGSODQW processing camps was provided by a dense concentration of eighteen hunt staging (or base) camps DQGDVVRUWHGLVRODWHGWRRO¿QGVUHFRUGHGZLWKLQDKHFWDUHDUHDRIORZULGJHVDQGEHQFKHVLQWKH XSSHU7RQDKXWX&UHHNKHDGZDWHUVLPPHGLDWHO\EHORZWKH)ODWV¶FRQWHPSRUDU\QRUWKZHVWHUQWXQGUD PDUJLQV6LWHGHQVLW\LQWKHFDPSFRQFHQWUDWLRQDUHDLVVLWHVSHUNPWZHOYHWLPHVWKHDYHUDJH RIVLWHVSHUNPFDOFXODWHGIRUDOO3DUNVXUYH\DUHDVGRFXPHQWHGLQWKH81&6$,3 project. 'XH WR WKH ODUJH QXPEHU RI 7RQDKXWX &UHHN KHDGZDWHU VLWHV RQO\ WZR DUH GHVFULEHG KHUH DV representative examples. All the Tonahutu sites contained diagnostic artifacts and nearly all were multi- component, representing millennia of accumulated short-term summer occupations. Environmental and archeological evidence suggest the camps served two main functions: 1) providing short- to PHGLXPWHUPEDVHFDPSVZLWKLPPHGLDWHDFFHVVWRWXQGUDJDPHKXQWLQJUDQJHVRQ%LJKRUQ)ODWV and the adjacent Sprague Mountain ridge-line and as 2) rest or overnight camps along the Continental 'LYLGHFURVVLQJ%LJ7UDLOWKHODWWHUIXQFWLRQEHLQJGHVLUDEOHVLQFHWKHDVFHQWGHVFHQWWRWKHORZHU elevation montane forest areas west of the divide is steep and arduous. 2QHVLWH*$KDVWZRPDLQDUWLIDFWFRQFHQWUDWLRQVDQGDURFNIHDWXUHFOXVWHUORFDWHGRQ DORZPRXQWDLQVORSHEHQFKZLWKLQDGZDUIVSUXFH¿UNUXPPKRO]WUHHVWDQGRYHUORRNLQJD7RQDKXWX &UHHNWULEXWDU\VZDOH )LJ 7ZRRWKHUFDPSVDUHORFDWHGQHDUE\XSVORSH *$ DQGGRZQ VORSHDFURVVWKHVZDOHRQDQRWKHUEHQFKNQROO *$  Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 81

Figure 20. Site plan for 5GA2705. Note the scatter of sixteen Uncompahgre Brownware potsherds (CE) in artifact concentration 1.

*$DORQJZLWKÀDNHGVWRQHWRROVVHFRQGDU\DQGWHUWLDU\ZDVWHÀDNHVDQGPHWDWHIUDJPHQWV produced evidence of multiple period occupations in the form of a Middle Archaic (McKean Complex, & FDO \U ES  SURMHFWLOH SRLQW D /DWH 3UHKLVWRULF 0LG/DWH &HUDPLF  VLGHQRWFKHG projectile point (856-350 14C cal yr b.p.) and sixteen Ute (Uncompahgre Brownware) potsherds. 2UJDQLFUHVLGXHIURPWKHSRWWHU\ZDVUDGLRFDUERQGDWHGDW&FDO\UES$'6LWH IHDWXUHVLQFOXGHGWZRURFNULQJVXUIDFHKHDUWKVDQGDSDUWLDOO\LQWDFWPGLDPHWHUURFNVHPLFLUFOHWKH latter possibly representing foundation stones which once anchored a conical hide-covered tent (tipi). 2QHRIWKHPRVWLPSUHVVLYH7RQDKXWX+HDGZDWHUVVLWHV*$LVDQH[WHQVLYH P VHULHV RI¿YHOLWKLFWRRODQGJURXQGVWRQHFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQWHUVSHUVHGLQVHYHUDOGZDUIVSUXFH¿UNUXPPKRO] VWDQGVRQDQRUWKZHVWVRXWKHDVWWUHQGLQJULGJHEHWZHHQWZR7RQDKXWX&UHHNKHDGZDWHUWULEXWDULHV )LJ  VKRZV GLVWULEXWLRQ PDSV RI WKH FRQFHQWUDWLRQV ZKLFK LQGLYLGXDOO\ PD\ UHSUHVHQW GLIIHUHQW cultural period camp occupations or spatially dispersed camp activity areas of past occupations. )LYHGLIIHUHQWFXOWXUDOSHULRGRFFXSDWLRQVDUHUHSUHVHQWHGE\IRXUWHHQGLDJQRVWLFSURMHFWLOHSRLQWV RUSRLQWIUDJPHQWV/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ &FDO\UES (DUO\$UFKDLF & FDO\UES 0LGGOH$UFKDLF &FDO\UES /DWH$UFKDLF FDO\UES DQG (DUO\&HUDPLF &FDO\UES +XQGUHGVRIÀDNHGVWRQHWRROVÀDNHVDQGJULQGLQJVWRQH IUDJPHQWVWKHODWWHUPDGHRQO\IURPHDVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOV/\RQVVDQGVWRQHZHUHUHFRYHUHG 82 Robert H. Brunswig

Figure 21. Site plan of 5GA2712. a: detail map of artifact concentrations 1, 2, 3 and 4. b: detail map of concen- WUDWLRQ1RWHSRVLWLRQLQJRIWKHVLWHRQDOLQHDUEHQFKNQROOEHWZHHQWZR7RQDKXWX&UHHNWULEXWDU\GUDLQDJHV

/LWKLFWRRODQGZDVWHÀDNHFRQFHQWUDWLRQV K\SRWKHWLFDOO\IURPGLIIHULQJRFFXSDWLRQV KDGGLIIHULQJ ratios of formal versus informal tools, ranging from a preponderance of formal tools in concentrations   DQG  ZKLOHPRUHLQIRUPDOWRROVZHUHIRXQGLQFRQFHQWUDWLRQV    DQG   %UXQVZLJD  Assigning behavioral or economic strategy interpretations to different formal-informal tool ratios at the site (see the hunter-gatherer subsistence system section below) is problematic since most concentrations had diagnostic artifacts of different types and associated cultural periods showing existence of chronologically-culturally mixed (palimpsest) lithic assemblages. All artifact concentrations (Brunswig 2005a: 175-179) had high representation of secondary manufacturing stage ÀDNHVUHSUHVHQWLQJERWKWRROPDQXIDFWXULQJ IURPSUHSDUHGFRUHVRUXVHGWRROV DQGWRROUHMXYHQDWLRQ DFWLYLWLHV7HUWLDU\ÀDNHVFRPPRQO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKWRROUHWRXFK VKDUSHQLQJRUUHVKDSLQJ ZHUH UDUHDOWKRXJKLWLVOLNHO\WKH\DUHSRRUO\UHSUHVHQWHGGXHWRWKHLUVPDOOVL]HDQGJUHDWHUFKDQFHRI HURVLRQDO WUDQVSRUW DQG EXULDO LQ VXEDOSLQH DQG DOSLQH VRLOV SURQH WR IUHH]HWKDZ FUDFNLQJ 6RXUFH PDWHULDODQDO\VLVVKRZHGSDWWHUQVFRPPRQWRPRVW3DUNSUHKLVWRULFVLWHVDQDO\]HGIRUOLWKLFWRRODQG ZDVWHÀDNHWUDLWV/LWKLFVRXUFHVIRUDOOWKHVLWH¶VIRUPDOWRROVLQFOXGLQJSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVZHUHIRXQG WREHPDLQO\ORFDO FRPLQJIURPZLWKLQDNPUDGLXV ZKLOHORFDOO\VRXUFHGLQIRUPDOWRRO PDWHULDOVZHUHHYHQPRUHFRPPRQDW %LJKRUQ)ODWVKXQWLQJVLWHVODFNLQJFRQVWUXFWHGJDPHGULYHWUDSVZDOOVDQGEOLQGVDSSHDUGHVLJQHG to support open terrain hunting of grazing game herds and early to secondary stage processing of prey FDUFDVVHVIRUPHDWKLGHVDQGERQHSURGXFWV'UDLQDJHVZDOHVULGJHVNQROOVODUJHURFNRXWFURSVDQG Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 83

VFDWWHUHGODUJHERXOGHU¿HOGVSURYLGHGQXPHURXVWHUUDLQIHDWXUHVIRUKXQWHUFRQFHDOPHQWLQQDWXUDO NLOODUHDV:KLOHFRQVWUXFWHGJDPHGULYHIHDWXUHVPD\EHLGHQWL¿HGLQWKHIXWXUH%LJKRUQ)ODWVLWVHOI SURYLGHVDQDWXUDOWRSRJUDSK\FRQGXFLYHIRUHI¿FLHQWRSHQWXQGUDKXQWLQJ Based on interpolation of data from a recent model of climate change and tree-line boundary FKDQJHVRQ0RXQW,GD5LGJHDQG)RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVVWRWKHQRUWKZHVWWZRRIWKHDERYHGHVFULEHG sites, 5GA2262 and 5GA2721, remained on alpine tundra above subalpine tree-line throughout the +RORFHQH FI%UXQVZLJE%UXQVZLJ'RHUQHUDQG'LJJVDEE 7KHUHPDLQLQJ WZRVLWHVDORQJZLWKVHYHUDORWKHUVLQWKH7RQDKXWXKHDGZDWHUVVLWHFOXVWHU VHH)LJ *$ and 5GA2712, are located within 55 m elevation of modern subalpine forest tree-line and would have H[LVWHGZLWKLQWKDWWUHHOLQHERXQGDU\IURPWKH(DUO\+RORFHQH /DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ WKURXJKHDUOLHVW /DWH+RORFHQH (DUO\$UFKDLF VXEHSRFKV &FDO\UESa&FDO\UES $Q(DUO\ Holocene tree-line at +130 m, as indicated in the climate model, would have advanced subalpine forest DNLORPHWHUXSVORSHLQWRZKDWLV%LJKRUQ)ODWVDOSLQHWXQGUDWRGD\$PLQLPDO0LG+RORFHQHWUHHOLQH rise of +70 m, documented by subalpine spruce tree remains preserved in an ice patch on the east slope RI0RXQW,GD5LGJHWRWKHQRUWKZRXOGKDYHSODFHGWUHHOLQHaPXSVORSHDWFD&FDO \UESSODFLQJDOOWKH7RQDKXWXKXQWLQJFDPSVZLWKGRFXPHQWHG/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQDQG(DUO\$UFKDLF occupations within upper subalpine forest margins.

The Flattop Mountain Game Drive Hunting System (DVWRIWKH%LJKRUQ)ODWVKXQWLQJWHUULWRU\LVRQHRIWKH3DUN¶VEHVWNQRZQJDPHGULYHVWKH)ODWWRS 0RXQWDLQ*DPH'ULYH /5  %HQHGLFW 7KH)ODWWRSGULYHLVDODUJHFRPSOH[RIGULYHZDOOVDQG DPEXVKSLWVUDQJLQJIURP3DOHRLQGLDQWLPHV &RG\DQG-DPHV$OOHQ)UHGHULFNFRPSOH[HVFD &FDO\UES WKURXJKDPDMRUSHULRGRIXVHGXULQJWKH(DUO\$UFKDLF3HULRG  14C cal yr b.p.) and into the most recent historic period (150 14C cal yr b.p.). The highest western SRUWLRQRI)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQH[WHQGVHDVWZDUGIURPLWVERXQGDU\ZLWK%LJKRUQ)ODWVDQGGHVFHQGV eastward through successive alpine, alpine-subalpine ecotone, subalpine forest and montane forest HQYLURQPHQWDO]RQHVWR%HDU/DNHDQGWKH*ODFLHU&UHHNYDOOH\ )LJ  )ODWWRS 0RXQWDLQ *DPH 'ULYH /5  H[WHQGV DORQJ DQ HDVWZHVW ULGJHOLQH VSXU NQRZQ DV )ODWWRS0RXQWDLQ )LJ 7KHVSXUULVHVZHVWWKURXJKERXOGHUIHOO¿HOGVDQGWXQGUDXQWLOLWFUHVWV at the Continental Divide. The site’s lower eastern segment begins just within the upper subalpine- alpine ecotone and terminates upslope in alpine tundra, ca. 380 m east of the Continental Divide at an HOHYDWLRQRIP VHH%HQHGLFW $JUDGXDWHVWXGHQWLQWKHPLGV(OL]DEHWK/DWH 3DOHRLQGLDQ&RG\ &RPSOH[@ SRLQWV´  ,QDGGLWLRQWROLWKLFDUWLIDFWV

Figure 22. *RRJOH(DUWKŒVDWHOOLWHLPDJHRI)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQ7KHWRSRIWKHLPDJHLVRULHQWHGWRWKHQRUWKZHVW DQGWKHHDUOLHUGHVFULEHGKXQWLQJWHUULWRU\³FURVVHVWKH7´DORQJWKH&RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGHWXQGUDULGJHOLQH

V\VWHPV RUGULYHJURXSV RQWKHPRXQWDLQFRQVLVWLQJRIVHYHQW\HLJKWFLUFXODUWRVHPLFLUFXODUURFN ZDOODQGGHSUHVVLRQEOLQGVVHYHUDOORZURFNZDOODOLJQPHQWVDQGURFNFDLUQOLQHV+HDOVRLQYHVWLJDWHG a small processing camp at the site’s lower (east) subalpine-alpine ecotone end, a locality subsequently UHVXUYH\HGE\81&LQ 'RHUQHUDQG%UXQVZLJ )LJVKRZVDPDSRIWKH)ODWWRS Mountain Game Drive, its early stage processing (initial butchering) camp at the drive’s southeast corner, and logistical-support hunting base camps, the latter located just inside subalpine forest on the PRXQWDLQ¶VQRUWKHDVWHUQORZHUVORSHV7KH¿JXUHZDVFUHDWHGIURPWRSRJUDSKLFDQGDUFKHRORJLFDOGDWD using digitized United States Geological Survey (U.S.G.S.) maps, site maps published by Benedict )LJVDQG DQGPDSSLQJLQIRUPDWLRQJDWKHUHGE\81&VXUYH\ 7KHQXPEHURIGLDJQRVWLFSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVUHFRYHUHGIURP)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQLVLPSUHVVLYH$W OHDVWVHYHQW\SURMHFWLOHSRLQWVDUHVWRUHGLQWKH5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUN0XVHXPDORQJZLWK other projectile points curated in other Colorado private and state institution collections (cf., Benedict $SSHQGL[ & 'RHUQHU DQG %UXQVZLJ   )ODWWRS 0RXQWDLQ¶V SURMHFWLOH SRLQW DVVHPEODJH VSDQV WKH UHJLRQ¶V HQWLUH FXOWXUH KLVWRU\ IURP WKH /DWH 3DOHRLQGLDQ 3HULRG &RG\(GHQ DQG -DPHV $OOHQ)UHGHULFNSURMHFWLOHSRLQWW\SHV&FDO\UES WRSURWRKLVWRULFHDUO\KLVWRULF (Ute, Arapaho, and Apache) times. The most commonly represented cultural period is the Early Archaic Mount Albion Complex (7,416-5,738 14C cal yr b.p.). Radiocarbon-dates of charcoal VHGLPHQWFRUHG IURP JDPH EOLQG LQWHULRUV %HQHGLFW  )LJXUHV    DQG D 81& WHVW excavated blind (Doerner and Brunswig 2008: 5-7) provide direct chronological evidence of game GULYHXVHDVHDUO\DV&FDO\UESDQGDVODWHDV&FDO\UES$' Along with the game drive and its associated processing area, archeological surveys documented IRXUQHDUE\KXQWVWDJLQJRUEDVHFDPSVRQWKHQRUWKHUQVORSHRI)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQ )LJ  Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 85

Figure 23. &RPSXWHU PDS RI WKH )ODWWRS 0RXQWDLQ *DPH 'ULYH /5  LWV PDLQ SURFHVVLQJ FDPS DQG IRXU support base camps (downslope and northwest and northeast of the drive).

7KUHHFDPSV/5/5DQG/5DUHFOXVWHUHGRQDPHDVWZHVWOLQHDORQJ WKHPRGHUQGD\ DQGSUHKLVWRULF /DNH+HOHQHWUDLOLPPHGLDWHO\EHORZDIUHHÀRZLQJQDWXUDOVSULQJ 7LPEHUOLQH 6SULQJ LQ XSSHU VXEDOSLQH IRUHVW )LJ  XSSHU ULJKW FRUQHU $ IRXUWK EDVH FDPS LV VLWXDWHGGRZQVORSHDQGQRUWKZHVWRIWKHPDLQJDPHGULYHDUHDDERYH/DNH+HOHQH )LJXSSHUOHIW FRUQHU $OWRJHWKHUWKHEDVHFDPSVUHSUHVHQW/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQWKURXJKHDUO\KLVWRULF1DWLYH$PHULFDQ occupations located on or near the earlier described prehistoric and early historic Big Trail which DVFHQGVWKHQRUWKHDVWVORSHRI)ODWWRS0RXQWDLQDQGFURVVHVWKHPRXQWDLQ¶VXSSHUFUHVWOLQHZHVWZDUG RYHUWKH&RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGHLQWRWKHHDUOLHUGHVFULEHG%LJKRUQ)ODWVKXQWLQJWHUULWRU\ FI%UXQVZLJ DQG/X[/X[  2QHVLWH/5ZDVRULJLQDOO\UHFRUGHGE\+XVWHG  DVDQRSHQFDPSZLWK OLWKLFWRROVEXWZLWKOLWWOHGHWDLORQLWVWRROW\SHV/DWHU81&DQDO\VLVRIDUWLIDFWVWKDW+XVWHGFROOHFWHG IURPWKHVLWHLGHQWL¿HGD/DWH$UFKDLFSURMHFWLOHSRLQW &FDO\UES DQGD81& survey recovered an Early Archaic corner-notched projectile point base (7,416-5,738 14C cal yr b.p.). $QRWKHUVLWH/5ZDVIRXQGWREHDVXEVWDQWLDOFDPSZLWKOLWKLFWRROVOLWKLFGHELWDJHDQG/\RQV VDQGVWRQHJULQGLQJVWRQHIUDJPHQWV&XOWXUDOO\GLDJQRVWLFDUWLIDFWVDW/5LQFOXGHG/DWH$UFKDLF (3,165-1,73514C cal yr b.p.) and Early Ceramic (1,735-85614C cal yr b.p.) projectile points and two small protohistoric-early historic Ute (Uncompahgre Brown) pot sherds (ca. 350-150 14C cal yr b.p.). 86 Robert H. Brunswig

Figure 24. $UHDGHWDLOPDSRIWKH)ODWWRS*DPH'ULYHHDUO\VWDJHSURFHVVLQJFDPSDQGVXEDOSLQHIRUHVW]RQH base camps.

$WKLUGEDVHFDPSVLWHLQWKH/DNH+HOHQH7UDLOFOXVWHU/5LVDPXOWLFRPSRQHQWSUHKLVWRULF open camp located 15 meters south of the modern and prehistoric trail. Its associated artifacts were IRXQGVFDWWHUHGRYHUWZRVKDOORZGUDLQDJHVZDOHVRQWKHQRUWKIDFLQJVXEDOSLQHIRUHVWVORSH )LJ  ,Q81&DUFKDHRORJLVWVUHFRYHUHGVL[SURMHFWLOHSRLQWVEHORQJLQJWR/DWH3DOHRLQGLDQ  &FDO\UES /DWH$UFKDLF &FDO\UES (DUO\&HUDPLF &FDO \UES DQG0LGGOH/DWH&HUDPLF &FDO\UES RFFXSDWLRQVDORQJZLWKVHYHUDOOLWKLF WRROV/\RQVVDQGVWRQHPHWDWHIUDJPHQWVDQGVHYHQW\WRROZDVWHÀDNHVLQWZROLWKLFFRQFHQWUDWLRQV )RXUFPWHVWSLWVZHUHH[FDYDWHGLQOLWKLFFRQFHQWUDWLRQUHYHDOLQJYHU\VKDOORZ FPGHHS  GHSRVLWVFRQWDLQLQJEXULHGDUWLIDFWVPDLQO\VPDOOVHFRQGDU\DQGWHUWLDU\ÀDNHVDQGUHPQDQWVRID VPDOOEDVLQKHDUWK %UXQVZLJD)LJEHORZ +HDUWKFKDUFRDOZDVUDGLRFDUERQGDWHGWR $' +4014C cal yr b.p. (Beta-169189), a terminal Early Ceramic cultural period date.

MODELING SEASONALLY SCHEDULED SUBSISTENCE MIGRATION 3$77(516,17+(1257+&(175$/&2/25$'252&.<02817$,16

,Q  -DPHV %HQHGLFW      SURSRVHG WZR VHDVRQDOO\VFKHGXOHG subsistence migration models for the North Central Colorado mountains, interior valleys, and eastern IRRWKLOOV WKH 8S'RZQ DQG 5RWDU\ PRGHOV %HQHGLFW¶V 8S'RZQ WUDQVKXPDQFH SDWWHUQ LQYROYHG summer seasonal migrations of hunter-gatherer bands from low altitude winter camps in the Colorado Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 87

Figure 25. 6LWH0DSRI/51RWHWKHWZROLWKLFFRQFHQWUDWLRQVDQGORFDWLRQVRIWKHSURMHFWLOHSRLQWV SS1  shown in bold letters and numbers.

)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVWRPRXQWDLQYDOOH\DQGXOWLPDWHO\WXQGUDKXQWLQJJURXQGV+HVXJJHVWHGWKDW WKH8S'RZQWUDQVKXPDQFHSDWWHUQZDVSDUWLFXODUO\FRPPRQGXULQJWKH(DUO\$UFKDLF3HULRGZKHQ warm, dry conditions limited summer hunting in the eastern plains and increased growing season lengths and bio-mass productivity in the high mountains. Based on then available archeological data, Benedict viewed seasonal migrations as heavily oriented toward hunting groups moving from the HDVWHUQIRRWKLOOVWRPRXQWDLQVDORQJWKH&RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGHDQGEDFNLQWKHLUVHDVRQDOURXQGV )LJ  At the time, Benedict (1992: 12) suggested high-altitude summer hunting was primarily accomplished by hunter-gatherers utilizing the Up-Down migration pattern who wintered in the eastern foothills and nearby high plains margins because: “people of the Mount Albion Complex obtained WKHLUWRROVWRQHH[FOXVLYHO\IURP(DVWHUQ6ORSHDQGKLJKDOWLWXGHVRXUFHV1R0LGGOH3DUNFKHUWVRU MDVSHUVKDYHEHHQLGHQWL¿HG´ +RZHYHUDQDO\VLVRI(DUO\$UFKDLFSURMHFWLOHSRLQWVIURP5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUN IRXQGWKH\ZHUHRYHUZKHOPLQJO\  PDQXIDFWXUHGRIORFDOO\DYDLODEOHWRROPDWHULDOVRULJLQDWLQJ west of the Continental Divide HJLQ0LGGOH3DUNDQG1RUWK3DUN %UXQVZLJD)LJ  3URMHFWLOHSRLQWPDWHULDOVRXUFHGDWDIURPERWKHDUOLHVWDQGODWHUFXOWXUDOSHULRGVSRLQWWRDYHU\ long-term pattern of orientation toward western slope intermontane valley occupations as much or more than ones focused toward the eastern slope foothills and plains. 88 Robert H. Brunswig

Figure 26. /RFDWLRQRI/5H[FDYDWLRQXQLWVLQOLWKLFFRQFHQWUDWLRQ7HVWXQLWDWWKHWRSFRQWDLQHGWKH radiocarbon-dated hearth. Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 89

Figure 27. Illustration of Benedict’s Up-Down seasonal transhumance system emphasizing eastern foothills-high mountains migration, superimposed on a GoogleEarth™ satellite image of North Central Colorado and South Central Wyoming.

%HQHGLFWGHVFULEHGKLV8S'RZQV\VWHPDVDQHDUO\³UXGLPHQWDU\´VWDJHRIVHDVRQDOWUDQVKXPDQFH HYHQWXDOO\VXFFHHGHGE\DQDOWHUQDWHSDWWHUQKHWHUPHGWKH5RWDU\RU³*UDQG&LUFXLW´V\VWHP,QWKH Rotary model, hunting-gathering bands which primarily wintered in the eastern foothills “departed WKHLUZLQWHUEDVHFDPSVDQG>LQODWHVSULQJZKHQPRXQWDLQSDVVHVDQGWXQGUDZHUHVWLOOVQRZFRYHUHG LQVHUWHGFRPPHQWE\DXWKRU@GULIWHGQRUWKDORQJWKHHDVWÀDQNRIWKH)URQW5DQJH´ %HQHGLFW 12). He viewed their strategy as circling the higher, snow-covered mountain ranges earlier in the VSULQJE\FURVVLQJORZHUSDVVHVLQQRUWKHUQ&RORUDGRDQGVRXWKHUQ:\RPLQJHJ&DPHURQ3DVV /D3RXGUH3DVV.LQJV&DQ\RQDQG1RUWK*DWH&DQ\RQLQWR1RUWK3DUNDQG0LGGOH3DUN2QFH HDVWHUQEDVHGKXQWLQJEDQGVDUULYHGLQWKHLQWHULRUPRQWDQH1RUWK3DUNDQG0LGGOH3DUNYDOOH\VWKH\ remained there until late spring or early summer when high altitude tundra game pastures opened to PLJUDWLQJHON%LJKRUQVKHHSDQGSUREDEO\VPDOOQXPEHUVRIPRXQWDLQELVRQZKLFKLQWXUQZHUH IROORZHGE\WKRVHPLJUDWLQJEDQGV )LJ  90 Robert H. Brunswig

In the course of their seasonal circuit north and west of Colorado’s Continental Divide, migratory KXQWLQJEDQGVDUHDVVXPHGWRKDYHFDUULHGVXSSOLHVRIÀDNHGVWRQHDQGJURXQGVWRQHWRROVIURPWKH eastern foothills, replenishing part RIWKHLUÀDNHGVWRQHWRRONLWVLQVSULQJDQGHDUO\VXPPHUZLWK ORFDO0LGGOH3DUNDQG1RUWK3DUNFKHUWMDVSHUTXDUW]LWHDQGSHWUL¿HGZRRG$FFRUGLQJWR%HQHGLFW they chose not to acquire grinding tool materials from interior mountain valleys, but instead carried HDVWHUQIRRWKLOOV/\RQVVDQGVWRQHWRROVLQWRWKRVHYDOOH\VDQGWUDQVSRUWHGWKHPEDFN HDVWZDUG WR high altitude (mainly alpine) hunting territories along the Continental Divide in mid-late summer and early fall. $QDO\VLVRIJURXQGVWRQHDUWLIDFWVGXULQJ81&¶V3DUNDUFKDHRORJLFDOLQYHQWRU\SURMHFWVXSSRUWHG %HQHGLFW¶V SUHPLVH WKDW JURXQG VWRQH PDWHULDO RQ KLJK PRXQWDLQ VLWHV LQ WKH 3DUN ZDV DOPRVW H[FOXVLYHO\ /\RQV VDQGVWRQH RFFXUULQJ RQO\ LQ /\RQV )RUPDWLRQ RXWFURSV LQ WKH (DVWHUQ )URQW 5DQJHIRRWKLOOV %UXQVZLJD6KURSVKLUH 7KHKLJKSHUFHQWDJH  RI/\RQV VDQGVWRQH HDVWHUQIRRWKLOOVVRXUFHG JULQGLQJVWRQHDUWLIDFWVDW5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUNVLWHV could support either of Benedict’s two transhumance models. However, this author believes that

Figure 28. ,OOXVWUDWLRQ RI %HQHGLFW¶V 5RWDU\*UDQG &LUFXLW 6HDVRQDO7UDQVKXPDQFH 6\VWHP VXSHULPSRVHG RQ a GoogleEarth Satellite Image of North Central Colorado and South Central Wyoming. Modeling Eleven Millennia of Seasonal Transhumance and Subsistence in Colorado 91

YDOLGLW\RIWKH5RWDU\PRGHOLVZHDNHQHGE\YLUWXDODEVHQFHRI0LGGOH3DUNDQG1RUWK3DUNVDQGVWRQH DUWLIDFWVLGHQWL¿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¿HOGUHVHDUFKLQ WKRVHYDOOH\VDUHDVZHOOFHPHQWHGDQGGXUDEOHDVHDVWHUQIRRWKLOOVVRXUFHG/\RQVVDQGVWRQH,WLV that durable quality that may explain why prehistoric Native Americans went to such great lengths LQWUDQVSRUWLQJKHDY\ NJ EORFNVRI/\RQVVDQGVWRQHWRPRXQWDLQWRSKXQWLQJVLWHV+RZHYHU UDWKHUWKDQQHFHVVDULO\LQGLFDWLQJ/\RQVVDQGVWRQHJULQGLQJVWRQHVZHUHFDUULHGNP  PLOHV LQD5RWDU\PLJUDWLRQFLUFXLWIURP)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVVRXUFHVWKURXJKWKH1RUWK3DUN 0LGGOH3DUNYDOOH\VWRKLJKDOWLWXGH5013KXQWLQJWHUULWRULHVWKLVDXWKRUVXJJHVWVWKHLUSUHVHQFHPD\ UHSUHVHQWVSHFLDOL]HGSURFXUHPHQWH[SHGLWLRQVIRU/\RQVVDQGVWRQHGLUHFWO\WRWKHHDVWHUQIRRWKLOOVE\ indigenous, interior montane resident hunting band members. An occasional alternative would have EHHQDFWLYHWUDGHIRU/\RQVVDQGVWRQHZLWKVHDVRQDOO\PLJUDWRU\EDQGVZKRRFFXSLHGZLQWHUVLWHVLQ WKHHDVWHUQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVRUWKHQHDUE\&RORUDGR3LHGPRQWDQGWUDYHOHGZHVWZDUGLQWRWKHSDUN in late spring and summer. ,IWKHDERYHVFHQDULRLVFRUUHFWLWVSODXVLELOLW\LVVXSSRUWHGE\WKHIDFWWKDW/\RQVVDQGVWRQHLVWLJKWO\ ERQGHGDQGGXUDEOHPDNLQJLWDGHVLUDEOHJURXQGVWRQHPDWHULDOWKDWFRXOGEHFDFKHGDQGXVHG\HDU after year in the severe freeze-thaw winter conditions found at most high- and mid- altitude mountain NLOODQGSURFHVVLQJVLWHV/HVVZHOOFHPHQWHGDQGVRIWHU0LGGOH3DUNDQG1RUWK3DUNVDQGVWRQHVZKLOH serving perfectly well as grinding stone material and situated close to interior montane valley sources ZKHUHWKH\FRXOGEHHDVLO\UHSODFHGZRXOGKDYHZRUQDQGEURNHQGRZQPRUHTXLFNO\LQKLJKWXQGUD IUHH]HWKDZDQGKLJKZLQGFRQGLWLRQV7KLVZRXOGKDYHVLJQL¿FDQWO\UHGXFHGWKHLUFRVWHIIHFWLYHQHVV particularly given the physical effort in moving heavy ground stone over horizontal distances of 50 to NP PLOHV DQGYHUWLFDOHOHYDWLRQULVHVXSWRP IW &DFKLQJDQGORQJWHUPUHXVH RIGXUDEOH/\RQVVDQGVWRQHJULQGLQJWRROVDWKLJKDOWLWXGHVLWHVZRXOGKDYHDOORZHGWKHLUFRQWLQXHGXVH for years, even centuries or millennia, without having to regularly return to eastern foothills sources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second source of evidence often cited as supporting highland-lowland transhumance systems based in either the Up-Down or Rotary models is the presence of interior montane lithic PDWHULDOVSUHGRPLQDQWO\.UHPPOLQJ 7URXEOHVRPH)RUPDWLRQ FKHUWLQ)URQW5DQJHIRRWKLOOVLWHV FI*OHLFKPDQ*OHLFKPDQDQG.DUKX0LOORQLJ +RZHYHUDVQRWHGHDUOLHU 92 Robert H. Brunswig

UHFHQWDQDO\VLVRIWKH(DUO\&HUDPLFOLWKLFDVVHPEODJHRIWKH9DOOH\9LHZSLWKRXVHVLWH /5  LQWKHIRRWKLOOVZHVWRI/RYHODQGGHWHUPLQHGWKDW0LRFHQHDJHRXWZDVKGHSRVLWVIURPHDVWHUQSODLQV SDOHRYDOOH\ ULGJHV LQFOXGH 7URXEOHVRPH )RUPDWLRQ .UHPPOLQJ FKHUW FREEOHV %UXQVZLJ in press  %UXQVZLJ'RHUQHUDQG'LJJVD6FRWW 7KHDXWKRUKDYLQJFROOHFWHGJUDYHOVDPSOHV RI.UHPPOLQJFKHUWIURPSODLQVVXUYH\VLQWKHPLGVFRQ¿UPHGWKDWVRPHSODLQVVRXUFHGFKHUWV ZHUHJHRORJLFDOO\LGHQWLFDOWR0LGGOH3DUNDQG1RUWK3DUNVDPSOHVDQG89OLJKWÀRUHVFHQFHDQDO\VLV VXSSRUWDFRPPRQ7URXEOHVRPH)RUPDWLRQRULJLQ7KLVGLVFRYHU\ZKLOHQRWREYLDWLQJWKHXSGRZQ RUURWDU\WUDQVKXPDQFHPRGHOVGRHVGLPLQLVKWKHYDOXHRIXVLQJ.UHPPOLQJFKHUWLQHDVWHUQ)URQW Range sites as an indicator of highland-lowland transhumance for either model. And while this fact does not LQYDOLGDWHHLWKHUPRGHOLWVXJJHVWVZHZLOOQHHGWRORRNHOVHZKHUHIRUVXSSRUWLYHHYLGHQFH In both of Benedict’s seasonal transhumance systems, cold-season (winter) residence was viewed DVSULPDULO\WDNLQJSODFHHDVWRIWKH&RQWLQHQWDO'LYLGHLQVKHOWHUHGKRJEDFNULGJHOLQHVRI&RORUDGR¶V )URQW 5DQJH IRRWKLOOV SURWHFWHG ULSDULDQ VWUHDP WHUUDFHV DQG EOXII URFN VKHOWHUV LQ WKH DGMDFHQW &RORUDGR3LHGPRQW+HVXJJHVWHGWKDW³SHRSOHDUHXQOLNHO\WRKDYHZLQWHUHGLQ0LGGOH3DUNRU1RUWK 3DUNZHVWRIWKH)URQW5DQJH7KHVHKLJKDOWLWXGHEDVLQVDUHVQRZFRYHUHGLQZLQWHUH[FHSWIRUWKH ZLQGLHVWULGJHVDQGNQROOV7KH\UHFHLYHFROGDLUGUDLQDJHIURPWKHVXUURXQGLQJPRXQWDLQVDQGRIWHQ UHJLVWHUWKHORZHVWWHPSHUDWXUHVLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV´ %HQHGLFW  +RZHYHUPDQ\DUHDVRIERWK1RUWK3DUNDQG0LGGOH3DUNWRGD\DUHFRPSDUDWLYHO\VQRZIUHH during winter months (cf., Surrovell et al. 2003: 4-5) and both prehistoric and historic data show that PDQ\JDPHVSHFLHVLQFOXGLQJELVRQHONSURQJKRUQDQGPXOHGHHURYHUZLQWHUHGLQERWKYDOOH\VZLWK preference for sheltered valley bottoms between protective ridge lines and along major river corridors VXFKDVWKH&RORUDGR 0LGGOH3DUN DQG1RUWK3ODWWHULYHUV 1RUWK3DUN  FI&DUSHQWHUHWDO )UHPRQW6XURYHOOHWDO (YHQGXULQJWKHPRVWVHYHUHFROGHSLVRGHRISRVW3OHLVWRFHQH WLPHV WKH

Figure 29. Evidence-supported seasonal migration model which emphasizes both interior-mountain valley to alpine and eastern foothills to alpine transhumance with a long-term bias toward interior montane migratory patterns.

FORAGING, PATCH CHOICE ECOLOGY, AND LOGISTICAL COLLECTING (&2120,&675$7(*,(62)35(+,6725,&52&.<02817$,1 HUNTER-GATHERERS

Theoretical concepts on hunter-gatherer subsistence strategies, based on analogues with historic and modern populations, have been the subject of archaeological research for well over a century. )URPWKHVWRWKHSUHVHQWGD\DUFKDHRORJLFDOWKHRULVWV%HWWLQJHU  %LQIRUG  1978, 1980), Cashdan (1992) and Kelly (1992, 1995, 1998, 2013) among others, have extensively IRUPDOL]HGPHWKRGDQGWKHRU\DERXWKXQWHUJDWKHUVXEVLVWHQFHVWUDWHJLHVIRFXVHGRQZKDWLVNQRZQDV WKH)RUDJLQJ6SHFWUXPLQYROYLQJVRFLRHFRQRPLFV\VWHPVUDQJLQJIURPKLJKO\PRELOHDQGVHDVRQDOO\ based foraging to less mobile, more highly residential and logistically-organized collector behavior. While there have been many permutations and arguments for and against applications of forager- 94 Robert H. Brunswig collector theory and concepts, broad-scale use of their fundamental principles as functional Middle- Range theory for explaining prehistoric to historic hunter-gatherer behavior has remained constant FI.HOO\6HOOHW*UHDYHVDQG

Alpine tundra hunting territories discussed here, despite their short summer growing seasons, also TXDOLI\DVKLJKGHQVLW\SDWFKLVODQGVLQWKH3DUN¶VPRXQWDLQODQGVFDSHVSURYLGLQJKLJKO\QXWULWLRXV alpine grass and forb forage for herds of large grazing herbivores that, in turn, attracted Native American hunters to its high country for thirteen millennia. As shown by the common occurrence of grinding stones at game drives and food processing sites, harvesting and processing of alpine food plants along with game animal carcasses further enhanced the alpine tundra’s role as a short-term but KLJKO\UHZDUGLQJ KLJKGHQVLW\SDWFK HFRV\VWHP FI)HVWD%LDQFKHW 2YHUDOOSURGXFWLYLW\RI alpine rangelands through time would have varied, subject to long-, medium-, and short- term climate conditions and their effect on moisture, temperature and the length of growing seasons. Modeling of VXFKFOLPDWHFKDQJHRQODUJHKHUELYRUHVVXFKDVHONZKLFKXVHDOSLQHWXQGUDDVWKHLUSULPDU\VXPPHU UDQJHSUHGLFWVVLJQL¿FDQWLQFUHDVHVLQJDPHKHUGVL]HVRFFXUGXULQJPRUHSRVLWLYH HJZDUPHUDQG wetter) climate periods (Wang et al. 2002). Elements of both forager and collector subsistence strategies, but with a strong forager bias, are GRFXPHQWHGLQDERYHGHVFULSWLRQVRI3DUNKXQWLQJWHUULWRULHVDQGVLWHV%DVHFDPSV FHQWUDOSODFHV  from which hunting-gathering forays originated, are characteristic of both forager and collector systems DQGDSSHDUFRPPRQWRDOOGHVFULEHG3DUNKXQWLQJWHUULWRULHV7XQGUDJDPHGULYHVLWHVZLWKDVVRFLDWHG EXWFKHULQJWRROVWRROUHIXUELVKPHQW ÀDNHVFDWWHUV DQGJULQGLQJVWRQHFRQFHQWUDWLRQVDQGVXEVLGLDU\ primary and secondary game processing camps, some located away from the drives themselves, represent detailed planning and logistical organization consistent with collector behavior. Medium WRVKRUWWHUPFDPSVLQVKHOWHUHGXSSHUVXEDOSLQHIRUHVWDQGDOSLQHVXEDOSLQHHFRWRQH NXPPKRO]  locations provided a secure staging area, or base camps, for pending tundra hunts, including game GULYHRSHUDWLRQVDQGORFDWLRQVIRU¿QDOVWDJHKXQWLQJDQGJDWKHULQJIRUD\JDPHDQGSODQWSURFHVVLQJ 7XQGUDVLWHVZHUHZKHUHJDPHZDVGULYHQDPEXVKHGDQGNLOOHGDQGFDUFDVVHVFXWLQWRVHFWLRQVIRU transport to lower elevation base camps or readily-butchered meat was cut off bone, cut into strips, and dried for lighter-weight transport to those base camps. During initial processing of hunted game, edible tundra plants (mainly those with root bulbs), many useful for mixing with animal fat and grease and GULHGSRZGHUHGPHDWIRUSHPPLFDQZHUHFROOHFWHGGULHGDQGJURXQGLQWRÀRXUXVLQJGXUDEOHJULQGLQJ stones left on site and re-used for decades or centuries until they were worn down and discarded. The construction and re-modeling of game drive walls, blinds, and, in some cases, drive walls and URFNFDLUQOLQHVRYHUPLOOHQQLDDQGKXQGUHGVRIKXPDQJHQHUDWLRQVVXJJHVWVLJQL¿FDQWSODQQLQJDQG labor organization, again verging on logistically-planned collector behavior. Base camps, located in more sheltered areas with their own concentrated natural resources (game, food and medicinal plants, ¿UHZRRG WUHHV DQG EUDQFKHV IRU KLGHFRYHUHG VKHOWHUV DQG DEXQGDQW ZDWHU  SURYLGHG DGGLWLRQDO VXEVLVWHQFHPDWHULDOVDVZHOODVVHFXUHSURWHFWHGORFDWLRQVIRU¿QDOVWDJHSURFHVVLQJRIPHDWERQH hides, plant products, and tool and weapon repair. $UFKDHRORJLFDO HYLGHQFH IRU RSHQ WXQGUD KXQWLQJ WHUULWRULHV VXFK DV %LJKRUQ )ODWV KRZHYHU support the existence of a well- planned and organized forager hunting strategy but perhaps not as logistically organized as game drive hunting systems. :LWKWKHVHIDFWVLQPLQGLWFDQEHVXUPLVHGWKDWKXPDQKXQWLQJV\VWHPVLQWKH3DUNUHSUHVHQW a long history (up to thirteen millennia, including the earliest pioneer Clovis hunters) of seasonally transhumant hunting-gathering with elements of both forager and collector behavior with a bias toward shorter residence (forager) hunting and camp site activity but often with elements of long-term SODQQLQJDQGFROOHFWLYHEDQGWDVNRUJDQL]DWLRQ GULYHFRQVWUXFWLRQFRRUGLQDWLRQRIEDQGPHPEHUVIRU DQLPDOGULYHDQGNLOOWDVNVDQGPHDWDQGSODQWSURFHVVLQJUROHV  96 Robert H. Brunswig

CONCLUSION

5HFHQW DUFKDHRORJLFDO UHVHDUFK LQ 1RUWK &HQWUDO &RORUDGR¶V 5RFN\ 0RXQWDLQV SRLQWV WR WKH H[LVWHQFHRIDQH[WUDRUGLQDULO\ULFKFXOWXUDOODQGVFDSHH[HPSOL¿HGE\WKRXVDQGVRIVLWHVSURGXFHG E\PLOOHQQLDRIKXQWHUJDWKHUHUEDQGVRYHUODLGDQGGHHSO\LQWHJUDWHGLQWRWKH3DUN¶VGLYHUVHQDWXUDO landscapes. That evidence suggests a complex story of human achievements spanning more than four KXQGUHGKXPDQJHQHUDWLRQVEHIRUHWKH¿UVW(XURSHDQH[SORUHUVHQWHUHGWKH$PHULFDQ:HVW0RVWRI that story, as described in the preceding article, deals with evolving, and often highly sophisticated, economic systems, and to a lesser degree, social (hunter-gatherer bands) aspects of long-departed 1DWLYH$PHULFDQDQFHVWRUV:KLOHPXFKZRUNUHPDLQVWRIXUWKHUUH¿QHRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHQDWXUH and extent of past socio-economic systems in the region, past and on-going research has opened the path to more completely understanding and interpreting those systems beyond subsistence and broad social organization. 2YHUWKHSDVWGHFDGHWKHUHKDVEHHQDVXVWDLQHGUHVHDUFKHIIRUWE\WKLVDXWKRUDQGKLVFRLQYHVWLJDWRUV to explore physical (archaeological) and ethnographic evidence which helps explains how past Native Americans integrated spiritual beliefs and spiritually-inspired behavior with socio- economic systems WRERWKGH¿QHDQGFRSHZLWKWKHLURIWHQFKDOOHQJLQJSK\VLFDOZRUOGVWKURXJKWLPH %UXQVZLJF %UXQVZLJ0F%HWKDQG(OLQRII'LJJVDQG%UXQVZLJ $OWKRXJKWKDWUHVHDUFKLVRQJRLQJ it has, over more than a decade, documented that, at least in more recent late prehistoric and early historic times, native peoples such as the Ute viewed their world as inhabited by spirit beings and places of great spiritual power which, at times, needed to appeased, and at others, could be manipulated E\ ULWXDO DQG FHUHPRQ\ IRU WKHLU DGYDQWDJH7KHLU FRQFHSWXDO RU FRJQLWLYH ZRUOGYLHZ DQG OLNHO\ WKRVH RI HDUOLHU QDWLYH SHRSOHV H[WHQGLQJ EDFN WR WKH /DWH ,FH$JH DSSHDUV WR KDYH HQYLVLRQHG D seamless, interwoven fabric of the mundane, everyday world with that of a supernatural world. In psychological and anthropological, if not religious, terms, those beliefs, and actions associated with them, infused native peoples with a strong sense of community, both with each other and with their natural and supernatural worlds. That sense of community and a conviction that, through spiritual cultural action (ritual and ceremony) united with technology, sophisticated subsistence planning, and social cooperation, they could exert substantial control over the world around them, giving powerful mechanisms for survival in an often unforgiving environment.

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Colorado . In Ancient and Historic Lifeways of North America’s Rocky Mountains, edited by Robert H. Brunswig and William B. Butler, pp. 411-424. Department of Anthropology, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley. 2005 $QFLHQW 7UDLOV DW 5RFN\ 0RXQWDLQ 1DWLRQDO 3DUN Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Denver, Denver. 0$'2/(5,&+$5')   *HRORJ\RIWKH3RQWLDF3LW$UFKDHRORJLFDO6LWH5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUN&RORUDGR U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 84-223. Denver. 0$<(50$5,( 1989 )RUHVW&DQ\RQ3DVV5RFN\0RXQWDLQ1DWLRQDO3DUN/DULPHU&RXQW\&RORUDGRD+LJK$OWLWXGH Survey . Denver Chapter, Colorado Archaeological Society, Denver. 0(7&$/)0,&+$(/'$1'.'%/$&.  $UFKDHRORJLFDO([FDYDWLRQVDWWKH

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