Consultants in Natural Resources and the Environment

Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

Prepared for⎯

Upper Thompson Sanitation District 2196 Mall Road PO Box 568 Estes Park, Colorado 80517

Submitted to—

U.S. Department of Agriculture Rural Development Colorado Office Denver Federal Center Building 56, Room 2300 Denver, Colorado 80225-0426

Prepared by⎯

ERO Resources Corporation 1842 Clarkson Street Denver, Colorado 80218 (303) 830-1188

Written by⎯

Katherine Mayo

Prepared under the supervision of⎯

Jonathan Hedlund, Principal Investigator

State Permit No. 2020-77455 SHPO Report ID LR.RD.R1 ERO Project No. 20-082

February 2021

For Official Use Only: Disclosure of site locations prohibited (43 CFR 7.18)

Denver • Durango • Hotchkiss • Idaho www.eroresources.com OAHP1421 Colorado Historical Society - Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation Colorado Cultural Resource Survey Cultural Resource Survey Management Information Form I. PROJECT SIZE Total federal acres in project 8.63 Total federal acres surveyed 8.63 Total state acres in project Total state acres surveyed Total private acres in project 12.23 Total private acres surveyed 12.23 Total other acres in project 3.38 Total other acres surveyed 3.38

II. PROJECT LOCATION County: Larimer USGS Quad Map: Glen Haven, CO and Panorama Peak, CO PrincipalMeridian: 6th

Township 5N Range 72W Section 29 NW 1/4 of SW 1/4 Township 5N Range 72W Section 29 SE 1/4 of NW 1/4 Township 5N Range 72W Section 29 SW 1/4 of NW 1/4 Township 5N Range 72W Section 29 SW 1/4 of NE 1/4 Township 5N Range 72W Section 29 SE 1/4 of NE 1/4 Township 5N Range 72W Section 29 NE 1/4 of NE 1/4 Township 5N Range 72W Section 29 NW 1/4 of NE 1/4

III. SITES

Resource Type Eligibility Management Recommendations Supporting Linear Supporting Linear Archival Research Archival Contributes to Contributes a No Further NoWork Further Preserve / Avoid Preserve Non-supporting Non-supporting Linear Segment Linear Paleontological Not Eligible Need Need Data Prehistoric Unknown Excavate Segment Monitor Historic Eligible District Other Smithsonian Test Number

5LR4004.1 X X X X 5LR9454.6 X X X 5LR13357.2 X X X 5LR14835 X X X

IV. ISOLATED FINDS

Resource Type Paleontological Prehistoric Unknown Smithsonian Historic Number

5LR14836 X 5LR14837 X

(Page 1 of 1) Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado Abstract

On behalf of the Upper Thompson Sanitation District (UTSD), Mott MacDonald, LLC contracted ERO Resources Corporation (ERO) to conduct a cultural resource survey for UTSD’s proposed new Wastewater Treatment Facility (WWTF) Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project in Estes Park, Colorado. UTSD proposes to demolish the existing 1970s WWTF on U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) property and has acquired property for construction of a new WWTF and outfall to the Big Thompson River southeast of the Mall Road and State Highway 34 intersection. The project will also replace the existing Fish Creek Lift Station on USBR property as well as construct a new Thompson River Lift Station; a proposed alternative of which is also located on USBR property.

UTSD seeks funding support from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Rural Development (RD) program and/or the Colorado Water Resources Power and Development Authority State Revolving Fund program. USDA RD programs require consideration of a project’s potential effects on cultural resources per Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) (54 United States Code § 300101 et seq.). The Nationwide Programmatic Agreement among the USDA RD, the National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers, and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation for Sequencing Section 106 allows the USDA RD to delegate authority to their applicants and the applicant’s consultants (i.e., ERO) to coordinate directly with the Colorado State Historic Preservation Officer pursuant to 36 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) § 800.2(c)(4) and 7 CFR 1970.5(b)(2) as amended in 2018.

ERO defined the area of potential effect (APE) as 24.24 acres to include the entire proposed project planning area and potential alternatives. ERO conducted a Class III pedestrian survey of the APE and documented six cultural resources in the APE: a segment of the Olympus Siphon (5LR4004.1), a segment of the Estes to Lyon TAP transmission line (5LR9454.6), a segment of the historic Big Thompson Canyon Road (5LR13357.2), a precontact open camp (5LR14835), and two isolated finds (5LR14836 and 5LR14837). ERO also excavated 33 shovel tests in landforms with potential for buried cultural deposits.

ERO recommends 5LR14835 eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). ERO recommends segments 5LR4004.1, 5LR9454.6, and 5LR13357.2 as nonsupporting of the eligibility of their respective linear resources. The isolated finds are recommended not eligible for inclusion in the NRHP. No further work is recommended for all resources recommended not eligible or nonsupporting.

Although 5LR14835 is recommended eligible for listing in the NRHP and is located in the APE, no development is proposed that would affect the site and the site will remain protected. ERO recommends that the site is fenced during construction to avoid inadvertent impacts. Because 5LR14835 will not be impacted by project activities, ERO proposes a determination of “no adverse effect to historic properties” pursuant to 36 CFR 800.5 of the NHPA.

h:\marketing\materials\report templates 2016\report basic template 2019.dotx ERO Project No. 20-082 i ERO Resources Corporation

Contents Abstract ...... i Project Description ...... 3 Natural Environment ...... 7 Cultural Overview ...... 8 Precontact Context ...... 9 Paleoindian Era (12,000 to 7500 BP) ...... 10 Archaic Era (ca. 7500 to 1900 BP) ...... 11 Early Archaic Period (7500 to 5000 BP) ...... 11 Middle Archaic Period (5000 to 3000 BP) ...... 12 Late Archaic Period (3000 BP to AD 150) ...... 13 Late Prehistoric Stage (AD 150 to 1540) ...... 14 Early Ceramic Period (AD 150 to 1150) ...... 14 Middle Ceramic Period (AD 1150 to 1540) ...... 15 Contact Stage (AD 1540 to 1860) ...... 17 Historical Context ...... 18 Exploration ...... 18 Settlement ...... 19 Transportation: Roads ...... 20 Modernization of Colorado: Colorado-Big Thompson Project ...... 21 Methods ...... 22 Historic Property Identification ...... 22 Cultural Resource Documentation ...... 23 Archaeological Sites ...... 23 Historic Period Sites...... 24 Evaluative and Exploratory Testing ...... 25 Artifact Analysis ...... 25 Debitage Analysis ...... 25 Flaked Stone Analysis (modified flakes, bifaces, cores) ...... 27 Projectile Point Analysis ...... 28 Ground Stone Analysis ...... 28 Criteria for Evaluation ...... 29 File and Literature Review ...... 31 Survey Results ...... 33 Resource Descriptions ...... 34 5LR4004.1: Olympus Siphon (segment) ...... 34 5LR9454.6: Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line (segment) ...... 35 5LR13357.2: Big Thompson Canyon Road (segment) ...... 36 5LR14835: Precontact open camp ...... 39 Isolated Finds ...... 41 Exploratory Testing ...... 42 Geology Literature Review ...... 42 Existing Conditions ...... 42 Testing Results ...... 43

ERO Project No. 20-082 1 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

Toeslope ...... 43 Upper Terrace ...... 44 Lower Terrace ...... 45 Geomorphic Summary ...... 46 Summary and Management Recommendations ...... 46 References Cited ...... 47

Figures Figure 1. Project location...... 5 Figure 2. Overview of APE...... 6 Figure 3. Project overview showing the location of the proposed outfall to the Big Thompson River at the northeast corner of the APE, looking toward Mount Olympus...... 7 Figure 4. Project overview of the Big Thompson River Valley looking toward the Olympus Dam (at photo right, outside of APE) and existing UTSD WWTF...... 8 Figure 5. Projectile point measurements...... 28 Figure 6. 5LR9454.6, overview of Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line from Mall Road...... 35 Figure 7. Abandoned portion of the Big Thompson Canyon Road as it cuts into the toeslope below granite outcrops. Small and medium sized pine trees grow within the sandier deposits of the old road...... 37 Figure 8. Overview of the current Mall Road and bridge over the Big Thompson River...... 38 Figure 9. 5LR14836, isolated projectile point...... 42 Figure 10. Overview of toeslope area cut by the old Big Thompson Canyon Road (5LR13357.2), which is now overgrown with mid-sized pine trees...... 43 Figure 11. Overview of upper terrace, with the Big Thompson River floodplain at photo left. ... 44 Figure 12. Overview of lower terrace on margins of the Big Thompson River floodplain...... 45

Tables Table 1. Width-to-thickness ratios for biface stages...... 28 Table 2. Previous cultural inventories within the APE...... 31 Table 3. Previous cultural resources within or intersecting the APE...... 32 Table 4. Revisited and newly documented sites...... 34 Table 5. Management recommendations...... 46

Appendices Appendix A Cultural Resource Location Map Appendix B OAHP Cultural Resource Documentation Forms Appendix C 5LR14835 Site Map. Appendix D Shovel Test Locations.

ERO Project No. 20-082 2 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

Project Description

On behalf of the Upper Thompson Sanitation District (UTSD), Mott MacDonald, LLC contracted ERO Resources Corporation (ERO) to conduct a cultural resource survey for UTSD’s new Wastewater Treatment Facility (WWTF) Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project in Estes Park, Colorado. UTSD proposes to demolish its existing 1970s WWTF, including the existing Thompson River Lift Station (TRLS), on U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) property and construct a new WWTF on UTSD’s nearby property southeast of the State Highway 34 and Mall Road intersection. In addition, the project will replace the existing Fish Creek Lift Station (FCLS) on USBR property as well as construct a new TRLS; a proposed alternative of which is also located on USBR property. UTSD seeks funding support from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Rural Development (RD) program and/or the Colorado Water Resources Power and Development Authority State Revolving Fund program.

The existing WWTF, TRLS, and FCLS are located on USBR properties and UTSD’s use of the properties is covered by a perpetual lease. The proposed project will require a new special use permit from the USBR, however the USBR declined to be the lead federal agency. The USDA will be the lead federal agency for the undertaking. USDA RD programs require consideration of a project’s potential effects on cultural resources per Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) (54 United States Code § 300101 et seq.). The Nationwide Programmatic Agreement among the USDA RD, the National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers, and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation for Sequencing Section 106 allows the USDA RD to delegate authority to their applicants and the applicant’s consultants (i.e., ERO) to coordinate directly with the Colorado State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) pursuant to 36 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) § 800.2(c)(4) and 7 CFR 1970.5(b)(2) as amended in 2018.

Based on planning level plans, ERO defined the area of potential effect (APE) as 24.24 acres to include the entire project area and proposed alternatives (Figure 1). Due to existing modern infrastructure and construction disturbance, ERO conducted a Class III pedestrian survey on previously undeveloped areas (16.8 acres); i.e. the footprint of the new WWTF including an outfall along the Big Thompson River, as well as the footprint of the proposed alternative TRLS and associated interceptor pipeline (Figure 2). ERO conducted a Class I file search and literature review and visual inspection from adjacent road corridors for the remaining areas because they consist of existing modern infrastructure. These areas

ERO Project No. 20-082 3 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado include the existing WWTF, TRLS, the FCLS, and Mall Road (6.6 acres). Additionally, ERO did not survey the APE south of SH°34 (0.84 acre) due to complete disturbance from road and utility construction.

In addition to the USDA and USBR, other federal and state agencies have interest in the existing WWTF and the proposed project. The Olympus Siphon, for example, is owned and operated by the Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District (Northern Water) as part of the Colorado-Big Thompson (C-BT) project is located under Mall Road just south of the existing plant and will require crossing by the proposed Mall Road interceptor extension. UTSD also treats wastewater generated by the Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP) via a service agreement. Finally, a Western Area Power Administration (WAPA) overhead powerline and ROW traverses the APE. At this time, it is ERO’s understanding that the project does not currently require authorization and compliance with Section 106 of the NHPA by either Norther Water, the RMNP, or WAPA.

The APE is located on the Glen Haven and Panorama Peak 7.5-minute U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) quadrangles. The legal location is Section 29 of Township 5 North, Range 72 West of the Sixth Principal Meridian in Larimer County, Colorado. On August 20, 2020, ERO archaeologists Katherine Mayo and Alex Freidl surveyed 10.16 acres of the APE using a Class III pedestrian survey of 20-meter (m) intervals and reviewed the remaining 7.44 acres from adjacent road corridors. On September 17, 2020, ERO archaeologists Katherine Mayo, Jonathan Hedlund, Justin Batista, and Mason Seymore conducted evaluative testing and exploratory testing of alluvial landforms in the APE. On November 5, 2020 ERO archaeologists Katherine Mayo and Alex Freidl surveyed the remaining 6.6 acres of the APE using a Class°III pedestrian survey of 20-m intervals.

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i E p a f c h f e i o l i c n t t y Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

Natural Environment

Contained within the Southern Rocky Mountain geological province (Fenneman 1931), the APE is located on either side of the Big Thompson River Valley downstream from Lake Estes. The Big Thompson River flows east and drains into the South Platte River. The area is characterized by the Big Thompson River, which is lined by heavily vegetated wetlands and alluvial terraces. A mile to the east, Mount Olympus sits 8,800 feet (ft) above sea level (asl) (Figure 3). Granite finger ridges and exposures surrounding the valley result in gradually sloping fan deposits. Much of the APE is situated within or around urban development and infrastructure associated with the Olympus Dam, including the existing UTSD WWTF (Figure 4). The elevation of the APE ranges from 7,420 to 7,500 ft asl. The ground visibility ranges from 10 to 100 percent. The surface geology consists of quaternary-aged alluvium and Silver Plume Granite (Bucknam and Braddock 1989).

Figure 3. Project overview showing the location of the proposed outfall to the Big Thompson River at the northeast corner of the APE, looking toward Mount Olympus.

ERO Project No. 20-082 7 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

Figure 4. Project overview of the Big Thompson River Valley looking toward the Olympus Dam (at photo right, outside of APE) and existing UTSD WWTF.

Based on the Web Soil Survey data compiled by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (Natural Resources Conservation Service 2020), soils within the APE consist of (in order of dominance) Lumpyridge-Rofork complex on the northern toeslopes above the Big Thompson River, Chaffee loam within the river basin floodplain, and Chasmfalls coarse sandy loam on the south side of the Big Thompson River (Natural Resources Conservation Service 2020).

The Montane Zone in the occurs from 8,000 to 10,000 ft asl. The Montane Zone contains thick tree groves, open meadows, and riparian environments. Ponderosa pine trees dominate the warm south- facing slopes and can reach up to 150 ft tall (Mutel and Emerick 1992). The cooler north-facing slopes contain a mix of Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, and lodgepole pine. Aspens and riparian species are found along mountain streams or lakes. Cultural Overview

The APE is located east of the Continental Divide, but the culture-history of both the South Platte River and northern Colorado river basins are relevant to this discussion (Gilmore et al. 1999; Reed and Metcalf 1999). Considerable data are available for Rocky Mountain National Park (Brunswig 2005), located west of the APE, and the Indian Peaks that extend southward along the Front Range (Cassells 1997). The chronology and culture-history of the South Platte River Basin is emphasized here.

ERO Project No. 20-082 8 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

The temporal framework for northeast Colorado is divided into three stages: Precontact (12,000 BP to AD 1540), Contact (AD 1540 to 1860), and Historic (AD 1860 to 1945). The Precontact period is divided into stages: Paleoindian (12,000 to 7500 BP), Archaic (ca. 7500 to 1900 BP), and Late Prehistoric (AD 150 to 1540). These stages are further divided into periods marked by changes to the environment, settlement strategies, and changes to material culture.

Precontact Context Hunter-gatherer models proposed for the Southern Rocky Mountains include the Mountain Tradition (Black 1991, 1997), which suggests a year-round settlement strategy by a cultural tradition within the mountains that developed in situ; Benedict’s up-down and rotary/Grand Circuit models (Benedict 1981, 1992a; Benedict and Olson 1978) that provide a simplistic but data-driven model for the Early Archaic Mount Albion Complex and the Early Ceramic period/Hog Back Phase, respectively; and a transhumance model for the region provided by Brunswig (2005).

Benedict’s up-down model for the Mount Albion Complex simply suggests seasonal movement of people from the Plains-Foothills transition (or Hogback region) zone, where there are a number of winter campsites with Early Archaic components, up to the Continental Divide, and back again. His model is based on the lack of Mount Albion points west of the Divide, where—if groups were practicing a rotary- type model—the points would be expected to have been discarded before groups geared up to again cross the Divide. The rotary-type model, then, describes a counterclockwise movement of people north along the Plains-Foothills Ecotone into Wyoming and circling west and then south, down into North and Middle Parks, before crossing the Divide and back to the Hogback area of winter campsites.

Brunswig’s model is broad, and is not applied to a historical period, but involves a three-step process: late spring/midsummer establishment of base camps at low elevations such as Estes Park; from midsummer into early fall, establishment by specialized subsistence task groups of “staging” campsites below the Alpine Zone for hunting and foraging for resources; and finally, from the late fall and through the early spring, wintering at lower elevations such as the Hogback area along the base of the Foothills and the parks west of the Continental Divide.

Precontact occupation of the high country of the Front Range is influenced by the following factors (Benedict 1992a:1):

• Location at the headwaters of major river systems • Abundant late-lying and perennial snowbanks that made the region virtually immune to drought • Severe periglacial climate that restricted human habitation to warm seasons and to intervals without excessive snow • Convenient access to mild wintering environments and low-altitude resources • Scarcity of edible plants that could be harvested in large quantities • Extensive tundra uplands that attracted bighorn sheep, elk, and other large ungulates in summer • Lack of good-quality toolstone at high elevations

ERO Project No. 20-082 9 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

Paleoindian Era (12,000 to 7500 BP) The Paleoindian Era is the earliest definitively recognized temporal stage in the South Platte River and Northern Colorado River Basins and is characterized by a mobile settlement strategy and a subsistence strategy generally focused on big game hunting. By the end of the era, Paleoindians began to settle into the landscape and began to use a broad spectrum of both faunal and floral resources. The era includes three major periods distinguished primarily by projectile point styles and, to a lesser degree, by subsistence patterns: Early period – Clovis (13,400 to 12,500 BP), Goshen (13,000 to 12,700 BP), and Folsom (12,800 to 11,500 BP)]; Middle period – Agate Basin (10,500 to 10,000 BP), Hell Gap (10,000 to 9,500 BP), and Cody (9,500 to 8,500 BP); and Late period or Plano, which includes the Frederick/James Allen (ca. 8,400 to 8,000 BP) and the Foothills-Mountain (ca. 10,000 to 8,000 BP) Complexes (Kornfeld et al. 2010).

The nature of the late Paleoindian occupation of the Southern Rocky Mountains was determined logistically organized and derived primarily from the Plains, based on morphological similarity (Pitblado 1999). Along the Continental Divide, Paleoindian occupation is fleeting but evident. Two of the more significant sites include Caribou Lake (5GA22) and the Fourth of July (5BL120) sites, both located in the Indian Peaks region. Caribou Lake (elevation 3,400 m asl) produced an approximate occupation date of 8500 BP and included Jimmy Allen and other lanceolate projectile points (Benedict 1985, 1992b; Pitblado 1999, 2000). Based on lithic raw material and Plains-based morphological similarity of the points, Pitblado (2000) suggested a counterclockwise, rotary/Grand Circuit–type (Benedict 1990, 1992a) seasonal settlement strategy to explain the diverse raw material, including Front Range (eastern), Middle Park (western), and northern sources at the site. Dating to about 6000 BP, the Fourth of July site (Benedict 1981) also produced a relative abundance of late Paleoindian points, specifically Jimmy Allen and generalized Foothills-Mountain styles. The approximate 6000 BP date, if actually dating the Jimmy Allen occupation, would be perhaps the latest known date for the complex.

Late Paleoindian projectile points are most abundant in nearby Rocky Mountain National Park, where numerous cultural resource surveys have gathered expanse datasets over the decades, and Brunswig (2005) reports 30 sites with recovered diagnostic points. The only firmly dated late Paleoindian component is from the Lawn Lake site (5LR318), where the extreme basal portion of a probable Jimmy Allen point was found in association with a hearth dated to 8000 BP (Brunswig 2002). Particularly germane to the current discussion was the discovery of a number of sites in the upper Tonahutu Basin on the western side of the Continental Divide that produced Foothills-Mountain variants and Jimmy Allen points (Brunswig 2002). This high-altitude basin exhibited an extremely high site density for such a geographically confined area and likely reflects either a staging area for descending Tonahutu Creek to the Kawuneeche Valley and the headwaters of the Colorado River, or a base camp used prior to traversing Bighorn Flats and descending Flattop Mountain into Estes Park. The route across the divide at Bighorn Flats is known ethnographically from the Ute as the Big Trail. Given the number of late Paleoindian points on surface multicomponent sites, a certain number of these sites likely reflect

ERO Project No. 20-082 10 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado occupational components dating to this period; however, the diminutive size of some of the lanceolate points would suggest curation and reworking by later occupants.

Archaic Era (ca. 7500 to 1900 BP) The Archaic Era is a temporally extensive period marked by broad-spectrum hunting and gathering. Aside from a decreased emphasis on large game and an increased emphasis on the gathering and processing of vegetal food, as evidenced by the marked increase in ground stone in the archeological record, settlement strategies appear similar to those of the Late Paleoindian period, when “settling in” to the local landscape took place. It has been suggested, however, that changes in technology may be attributable to climatic changes that caused groups to move into the high country of the Rocky Mountains from the Plains (Benedict 1979). Changes in lithic technology include a decrease in size and an increase in the diversity of projectile point styles to large corner- and side-notched types. Another technological change appears to be an increased reliance on pit and basin structures for both habitation and storage. Sites such as Yarmony, located along the upper Colorado River in northwest Colorado, demonstrate the use of semisubterranean architecture (Metcalf and Black 1991) during the Early Archaic period. Yarmony was also an important site in the development of the Mountain Tradition concept (Black 1991) that suggests year-round occupation of the mountains by groups that largely developed in situ from the Late Paleoindian period and later. West of the divide and Estes Park, the wattle-and-daub structures dated to the Early and Middle Archaic periods at the Granby Site (Wheeler and Martin 1982) also suggest more substantial structures occupied into the colder months.

Early Archaic Period (7500 to 5000 BP) Some researchers have postulated the mountains and Hogback/Foothills regions as a refuge from adverse climatic conditions on the Plains during the Altithermal (Benedict 1979; Benedict and Olson 1978). The data seem to reflect this hypothesis: The majority of the documented Early Archaic components in eastern Colorado are in sites within the Southern Rocky Mountains or in the Hogback Valley along the Plains-Foothills transition zone north of the Palmer Divide. Occupations that date to this period east of the mountain front are represented by campsites such as Van Bibber Creek (Nelson 1969), Magic Mountain (Irwin-Williams and Irwin 1966), Cherry Gulch (Nelson 1981), LoDaiska (Irwin and Irwin 1959), Willowbrook, Wilbur Thomas Shelter (Breternitz 1971), and other sites within the Hogback Zone (Johnson et al. 1997). These sites are both open and sheltered. Tool kits comprise a variety of Early Archaic point styles using almost exclusively local lithic materials (Tate 1999). These styles represent a transition from straight lanceolate styles, common to the Paleoindian period, to a predominance of low side-notched forms. These changes, among other material culture changes, are thought to reflect a greater diversification of resource exploitation by Early Archaic people.

The extensive work conducted by Benedict in the Indian Peaks region led to the recognition of the Mount Albion Complex, defined by a projectile point style with low side- to weak corner-notches and nearly always manufactured from coarse-grained raw material such as quartzite and orthoquartzite (Benedict and Olson 1978). Although reported from sheltered Hogback sites along the base of the Front

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Range, the occurrence of Mount Albion points is prolific in the Southern Rocky Mountains. The complex was first defined from work conducted at the Hungry Whistler game drive (5BL67) and campsite (5BL70), situated high in the Indian Peaks at an elevation of 3,500 m. The complex derives its name from Albion Ridge, the topographic feature on which the game drive was constructed. The game drive itself is a smaller version of the Flattop Mountain system, which includes a single drive wall, 2 hunting blinds, and 187 cairns. Nearby are two other small game drive systems, 5BL65 and 5BL66. In addition to the more than 40 Mount Albion points, the assemblage includes end and side scrapers, perforators, generalized bifaces, and ground stone (both milling slabs and hand stones). Stemmed, indented base projectile points, similar to McKean Complex variants, were also recovered, indicating reuse or reoccupation of the site during the Middle Archaic period. Benedict dated the Mount Albion Complex occupation of the game drive at 5800+125 BP and the McKean Complex occupation at about 4010+90 BP and possibly as early as 5300+130 BP. Radiocarbon data from the campsite (5BL70) indicates an occupation between about 5700 and 5300 BP. A terminal date for the complex was not offered by Benedict, but the arrival of the McKean Complex ca. 5000 BP is suggested here.

Based on his regional synthesis of sites with known Mount Albion components, Benedict suggested a simple up-down settlement strategy between the Hogback Valley along the Plains-Foothills Ecotone and the Continental Divide. The System-wide Archeological Inventory Program (SAIP) survey effort (Brunswig 2005) and other inventories in Middle and North Parks have largely corroborated Benedict’s assessment that Mount Albion people did not venture west of the divide or travel northward if on a counterclockwise, rotary-type settlement strategy.

The SAIP survey (Brunswig 2005) reported 42 Early Archaic components (from a total of 149 documented points), based on surface finds of Mount Albion Complex and large, low side-notched forms more typical of the northern Rocky Mountains. Three game drive systems have Early Archaic components, including 5GA1095, 5GA2002, and 5LR6, the Flattop Mountain game drive system.

Middle Archaic Period (5000 to 3000 BP) The Middle Archaic period begins an occupation fluorescence of sorts for the Western Plains and Foothills region, especially the area within the Hogback Valley. Sites such as Falcon’s Nest, Crescent, Bradford House II, Swallow (Johnson et al. 1997), LoDaisKa (Irwin and Irwin 1959), Cherry Gulch (Nelson 1981), and Magic Mountain (Irwin-Williams and Irwin 1966; Kalasz and Shields 1997) all contain significant Middle Archaic components (Larmore 2002), best represented by the suite of indented-base projectile point types known as the McKean Complex. Evidence suggests that the McKean Complex may have originated in a core area in the Southern Rocky Mountains and expanded north, south, and east from this area as effective moisture increased after the early Holocene droughts (Gilmore 2012). McKean point types include the technologically indistinct Duncan and Hanna, McKean lanceolate, and the side-notched Mallory. A fourth point type, the MM6 (Irwin-Williams and Irwin 1966), occurs in association with the other point types at sites within the Hogback Valley west of Denver and are believed to be at least temporally associated with the McKean Complex. More recently, work along the

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Palmer Divide has revealed the first evidence for architectural remains during this period (Gantt 2007; Black et al. 2003).

In general, Middle Archaic components are common in eastern Colorado and along the Foothills but are virtually unknown in and around Estes Park. Larmore (2002) incorporated McKean Complex projectile points from the nearby Rocky Mountain National Park museum and those collected during the SAIP survey (Brunswig 2005) in his analysis of regional mobility strategies during the Middle Archaic. Excavation at the Albion Boardinghouse site (5BL73) in the Indian Peaks dated projectile points stylistically similar to Mallory points to 5370 + 145 BP (Benedict 1975), which falls within the Early Archaic period. Gilmore (2012), in an analysis of radiocarbon dates from sites with McKean Complex projectile points, accepted the occupation date from the Albion Boardinghouse site and suggested an origination of the McKean Complex in the Southern Rocky Mountains, from which they spread to the Bighorn Mountains and Yellowstone River headwaters and further north before returning to the northern Foothills of Colorado. Indented base projectile points have been collected from Flattop Mountain Game Drive (5LR6), and despite the clear occupation emphasis during the Early Archaic, the only Archaic-age radiocarbon date from 5LR6 is from the Middle Archaic. Three Hanna-like projectile points have been recovered within the boundaries of the game drive system as well as a single radiocarbon date from this period.

Late Archaic Period (3000 BP to AD 150) Generally, Late Archaic components increase significantly from the Middle Archaic, based on the shift from stemmed point forms to large side-notched projectile points. The majority of documented occupations from this period are from multicomponent sites from the Foothills and eastern Colorado. Single-component Late Archaic sites are not common in and around Estes Park and could contribute important information to our knowledge of the Late Archaic period.

For the Late Archaic period, there are no projectile point type designations other than generic “Late Archaic.” Benedict (1990) designated a suite of corner-notched points recovered from the Coney Lake site (5BL94) in the Indian Peaks as “Coney Lake Corner-notched,” but the designation is not widely used. It has been suggested that the more deeply corner-notched Late Archaic point styles may reflect a direct development from earlier McKean Complex (Hanna) stemmed forms (Kainer 1976; Larmore 2002; Wood 1967), which would indicate potential cultural continuity from the Middle to Late Archaic periods. The use of ground stone and an emphasis on broad-spectrum hunting and gathering continues during the Late Archaic. By the end of the period, about 2,000 years ago, bow and arrow technology begins to appear, as evidenced by the decrease in neck width and a reduction in overall size of the points.

At least 30 sites within nearby Rocky Mountain National Park have Late Archaic components, based on projectile points. Of the excavated sites within the area, Pontiac Pit contained a Late Archaic component (Liestman 1984) as did Bode’s Draw (Benedict 1993), located near Estes Park. Bode’s Draw returned a date of 2270 + 80 BP from a slab-lined oven. The Fourth of July site (5BL153), located in the

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Indian Peaks Wilderness, also contained a significant Late Archaic component, based on the sheer number of projectile points recovered over the years (Benedict 2000).

Late Prehistoric Stage (AD 150 to 1540) The transition between the Late Archaic and Early Ceramic periods is recognizable in the archeological record by obvious changes in technology (bow and arrow and ceramics); a marked increase in population, based on the number of radiocarbon dates; a decrease in residential mobility; changes in economy (more intensive processing of natural resources and incipient agriculture); and changes in mortuary practice that echo those associated with the Plains Woodland cultures of the Central Plains (Gilmore 1999, 2008). However, not all of the changes were coeval, as the bow and arrow likely preceded adoption of ceramics. The Middle Ceramic period is characterized by a decrease in population, the arrival of new migrants, and a technological change toward small side-notched projectile points and plainware ceramics. As discussed below, the end of the Middle Ceramic becomes blurred with that of the Protohistoric /Late Ceramic (Brunswig 2005) period, terms that are problematic for defining the archeological record.

Dating approximately from 1850 to 400 BP (AD 150 to 1540), the Late Prehistoric is divided into two periods within the South Platte River Basin context: Early Ceramic (1850 to 800 BP, AD 150 to 1150) and Middle Ceramic (800 to 400 BP, AD 1150 to 1540) (Gilmore 1999). Aside from technological changes to projectile point styles and ceramic technology, the transition between the two periods did not have a noticeable effect on settlement and subsistence strategies (Gleichman et al. 1995).

Early Ceramic Period (AD 150 to 1150) The Early Ceramic period is defined by the transition from the atlatl to the bow and arrow, the introduction of ceramic technology, the appearance of incipient horticulture, and a general expansion in population. As in the Archaic stage, most Early Ceramic occupations occur in multicomponent sites, although there is also a significant increase in the number of single-component sites dated to this period (Gilmore 1999). It is usually the case that the most intensive occupations at multicomponent sites date to the Early Ceramic period, suggesting a combination of longer occupations, more frequent occupation, and possibly a greater number of occupants. There is no indication of a shift in types of fauna exploited, although an increase in reliance on vegetal resources is suggested by macrobotanical evidence.

Cord-marked ceramics assignable to the Early Ceramic Plains Woodland culture appear in the archeological record after ca. AD 150 to 300 in the eastern half of Colorado. This appearance represents diffusion of technology rather than an actual migration of Woodland people from the Central Plains. Following the introduction of ceramics, there is a transition from large corner-notched dart points to smaller corner-notched points, indicating the introduction of the bow and the eventual replacement of the atlatl and dart, although this transition seems to have occurred over several hundred years (O’Neil et al. 1988).

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Incipient horticulture in the Platte River Basin is indicated by the presence of Zea mays in several Early Ceramic components at sites in the area bounded by the crest of the Palmer Divide on the south, and sites in the Hogbacks/Foothills on the west such as LoDaisKa (Irwin and Irwin 1959), Bayou Gulch (Gilmore 1991), and Franktown Cave (Gilmore 2005). These sites with Early Ceramic components containing maize are clustered in northeastern Colorado, and the occurrence at Bayou Gulch of Zea mays pollen in soil samples and on several ground stone artifacts (stratigraphically associated with a bison scapula) with modifications and use wear are suggestive of use as a hafted digging tool or hoe (Gilmore 1991). This evidence, coupled with corn kernels, cobs, and stalks at Franktown Cave (Gilmore 2005) suggests that maize was grown locally. Early Ceramic period dates associated with corn in the Palmer Divide include a 2-sigma calibrated range of AD 1185 to 1260 for four cobs from Franktown Cave, and corn pollen in soil samples and recovered from ground stone at Bayou Gulch was associated with a feature dated AD 1020 to 1220. The bison scapula digging tool was recovered from a feature dated AD 1040 to 1220. All of these dates span the transition between the Early and Middle Ceramic periods.

Decreasing mobility during the Early Ceramic period is indicated by the increased number of habitation structures dating to this period. Evidence for habitation structures dating to the Early Ceramic period includes stone circles that may represent more temporary hide or brush structures (Brunswig 1990, 1996, 1999); more substantial stone-walled structures (Morris and Litzinger 1985; Nelson 1971); shallow pit structures (Brunswig 1999; Gilmore 1991; Tucker et al. 1992); and lean-tos within naturally sheltered sites (Brunswig 1996; Kalasz and Shields 1997). Although these sites may indicate greater sedentism, the majority of sites dating to this period are thought to represent short-term occupations. The general indications for Early Ceramic occupations point toward a continuation of a hunting and gathering economy similar to that of the previous Archaic Era.

Only four known sites within the Park have cord-marked ceramics; when including small corner-notched projectile points (often assigned to the Hog Back Phase of the Early Ceramic period), the number of sites increases to 33. One of the few excavated sites around Estes Park with an Early Ceramic component is Bode’s Draw (Benedict 1993), which contained diagnostic projectile points and a date of 910 ± 80 BP from a rock-filled roasting pit and 820 ±80 BP from a charcoal-filled basin hearth. Benedict attributed the component to the Hog Back Phase (Nelson 1971). Cord-marked ceramics were recovered from the Caribou Lake site (5GA22), located in the Indian Peaks Wilderness Area (Benedict 1985) at an elevation of 3,200 m asl. Although not uncommon, cord-marked ceramics at high-elevation sites indicate extended occupation and more intensive vegetal processing. Cord-marked ceramics are virtually unknown from the western side of the Continental Divide, further indicating that travel from the eastern Plains did not extend across the Continental Divide.

Middle Ceramic Period (AD 1150 to 1540) Post-AD 1150 occupations in the northeastern part of Colorado are often attributed to the Upper Republican aspect of the Plains Village tradition. Although Upper Republican peoples were sedentary horticulturalists who lived in villages to the north and east of Colorado, in Nebraska and Kansas, there is little documented evidence for structures associated with Upper Republican sites on the Piedmont or

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Plains of Colorado. Evidence of agriculture during this period is also sparse (Gilmore et al. 1999). One kernel of corn was found in association with an Upper Republican occupation in the Agate Bluff area of north-central Colorado (Irwin and Irwin 1957). The corn noted above for the Bayou Gulch and Franktown Cave sites dates to the transition between the Early and Middle Ceramic periods, and it may be associated with the later part of the Early Ceramic period. Franktown Cave contains sherds from several Upper Republican vessels, as well as many side-notched points similar to those found in Upper Republican components to the east. It has been hypothesized that Upper Republican sites in Colorado represent site unit intrusions into the area by hunting groups from villages to the east (Wood 1971, 1967). However, more recent work indicates the eastern part of the state was actually occupied by Upper Republican groups who were full-time hunter-gatherers adapted to the environments of the High Plains and culturally affiliated with horticulturalists to the east (Scheiber and Reher 2007).

As compared to Early Ceramic period sites, far fewer Middle Ceramic period sites have been recorded in eastern Colorado. Populations are thought to be lower in eastern Colorado outside the southeastern area of Colorado occupied by Apishapa Phase people during the Middle Ceramic period, and components dating to this period reflect shorter occupations by smaller, more mobile groups (Brunswig 1996). The majority of sites are situated below 6,000 ft asl (1,830 m), which is consistent with the general trend of population movement from the mountains and Hogbacks/Foothills out onto the Plains through time. As compared with the Early Ceramic period, the small number of Middle Ceramic sites suggests population declined significantly between the peak (ca. AD 1100 to 1200) and 1540 (Gilmore 2008). Brunswig (2005) reports only two occurrences of Middle Ceramic sherds (Obliterated Cordmarked) within the nearby Rocky Mountain National Park, which supports an interpretation that occupation during this period was oriented toward the Plains.

In recent years, discoveries at archeological sites in the southern Rocky Mountains and western High Plains of Colorado and Wyoming demonstrate a 14th- to 15th-century Athapaskan (proto-Apache) presence in this region, particularly along the Front Range (Brunswig 2012; Gilmore and Larmore 2012). Athapaskan movement into the area may have been facilitated by the decrease in resident Middle Ceramic period populations. These sites provide a remarkably tight cluster of dates with an associated 2-sigma calibrated date of AD 1300 to 1650, which encompasses the transition between the Middle Ceramic and Protohistoric periods (Clark 1999; Gilmore 1999). Early Athapaskan sites tend to occur in high-elevation settings: a complete western Dismal River vessel found along the flank of Pikes Peak (Ellwood 2002); the Eureka Ridge site, which represents the largest western Dismal River ceramic assemblage in eastern Colorado, in the Foothills south of Estes Park (Gilmore and Larmore 2005); and proto-Apache occupations (Dismal River ceramics) found at Lawn Lake (Brunswig 2002) and in the Indian Peaks (Kindig 2000).

The Ute are also believed to have arrived in Colorado by the Middle Ceramic period (Baker et al. 2007), based on the occurrence of Uncompahgre Brown ware. Although tenuous, a beginning date for Ute occupation in Colorado west of the Continental Divide has been placed ca. AD 1100 (Reed 1995). Punctate and plain pottery attributable to Uncompahgre Brown ware have been recovered at Caribou

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Lake (Benedict 1985) and dated at three sites within the area (5GA2705, 5LR9826, and 5LR10216). Radiocarbon dates from organic residue indicate an occupation within the area beginning ca. AD 1300 to 1750, although ethnohistorically the Ute are known to have visited the area into the late 1800s. Given the number of Uncompahgre Brown ware sherds collected from Old Man Mountain (Benedict 1985), it would appear that Estes Park was visited frequently by the Ute, with the mountain used as a vision quest site.

Contact Stage (AD 1540 to 1860) The Contact stage (400 to 100 BP, AD 1540 to 1860) represents the time of European arrival into what is now the southwestern United States and the indirect flow of European goods into Native American culture. Although European contact occurs during this stage, sites continue to represent indigenous populations largely unaffected by European expansion. Very little information exists regarding Contact Stage occupation of the region, but it is generally acknowledged that the Ute primarily occupied the mountains west of the Continental Divide and the intermountain basins of North, South, and Middle Parks (Baker et al. 2007), while the Comanche and Arapaho occupied the eastern Plains (Clark 1999).

Brett (Brett 2003) considers the Ute and Northern Arapaho residential groups who occupied the area year-round, and the Shoshone, Cheyenne, Apache, and Comanche visitor groups who seasonally migrated to the area. Archeological evidence of the earliest Ute presence in north-central Colorado dates to 1000 to 1400 BP, based on the occurrence of culturally modified trees, brush-structure architecture known as wickiups, and Uncompahgre Brown ware pottery. The Ute continued to occupy the area around Estes Park until their restriction to reservations in 1863 and 1865 (Brunswig 2005). Ethnographic studies indicate that the Utes occupied the area for thousands of years (McBeth 2007). The Northern Arapaho migrated to the Front Range in the early 1800s and occupied the vicinity until the 1860s (Brett 2003; Brunswig 2012). Although the U.S. government forcibly removed the Ute from the area, the Ute maintain an oral history of visitation in the area for subsistence and religious practices throughout history.

The number of Contact Stage components in eastern Colorado increases in comparison to the Middle Ceramic period (Gilmore 2008), although Contact Stage occupations remain rare in the Colorado Piedmont and Foothills area. This situation is probably the result of a lack of research emphasis. A cluster of Contact Stage sites to the northeast at the Plains-Foothills transition, including the Lykins Valley site, contains evidence of two Contact Stage occupations, the upper of which had an associated radiocarbon date and clay pipe that both indicate a likely late 17th-century date (Clark 1999; Ohr et al. 1979).

Contact Stage cultural resources are rare within the immediate area, owing primarily to the difficulty in identifying archeological sites from this period with no definitive diagnostic markers. Definitive resources from this period include wickiups and culturally modified trees. Research has shown that Native American groups, especially the Ute, used the bark on living trees to construct trays, baskets, cradle boards, and material for roofs and walls, while the inner bark was used with the sap as a poultice

ERO Project No. 20-082 17 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado for a variety of ailments and was eaten as a delicacy or an emergency food in cases of starvation. The inner bark is rich in nutrients and minerals such as iron, calcium, magnesium, zinc, phosphorous, and vitamin C (Martorano 1999).

Wickiup architecture is most often attributed to the Ute (Baker et al. 2007) and was built either free standing or supported by a larger tree. Brush structures were also constructed against bedrock outcrops as a form of expedient shelter. Artifacts are often sparse to nonexistent around wickiups (Martin et al. 2012).

Historical Context The following historical themes are derived from the historical context for Colorado (Church et al. 2007) but are specific the types of cultural resources encountered during this survey.

Exploration The exploration period overlaps with the Protohistoric period described above, and is focused on European and Euro-American arrival in the broader region. European/Euro-American exploration of the Estes Park area follows general state and national trends in European/Euro-American Western exploration and political expansion. The period of significance for exploration in Estes Park includes themes in government and scientific-funded expeditions as well as independent and commercial establishment of trading posts, trading routes, and areas to exploit game and other natural resources, ranging from ca. 1820 until ca. 1875. The beginning of this period of significance is loosely defined by the earliest known written records of the area left by European and Euro-American explorers, and ends after the early European/Euro-American establishment of permanent settlements and completion of geologic and land surveys that mapped nearly the entire region.

Written records from government-funded expeditions provide information about the earliest-known contact between Europeans, the Rocky Mountain region, and Native Americans. The Coronado expedition in 1540 provided Europeans and Americans with the first information about natural resources and trail corridors in the Southwest (Simmons 2000). The Spanish trade networks became important transportation and trade networks for later European/Euro-American trapper traders. Trapper-traders, Native Americans, and local guides participated in important U.S. Government-funded expeditions including the Pike Expedition (July 1806 to July 1807), the Fremont Expeditions in 1845, 1848, and 1853, and the Farnham Expedition (1844) (Simmons 1992).

By the 1830s individual trappers and trading companies established fur trading posts along the South Platte River. Hunters and trappers would harvest furs from mountain parks to sell at trading posts from which freighters would transport the furs to commercial buyers and sellers at coastal markets and commercial centers in the eastern U.S. Trappers would spend winters at shared cabins or well- established trading posts, and use established Native American trails along river drainages. Trading posts along the South Platte River include Fort Lupton/Fort Lancaster (1836-1845), Fort Jackson/Henry

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Fraeb’s Post (1836-1838), Fort Vasquez (1838-1842), and Fort Saint Vrain/Fort Lookout/Fort George (1838-1844).

Fur trapper-trader Rufus B Sage left the earliest known written account of the areas today known as Estes Park. In 1842, Sage explored the adjacent regions of North and Middle Parks, and in 1843 traveled over Wind River Pass and along Saint Vrain Creek and Big Thompson River into Estes and Moraine parks. Historians identified Sage’s route based on his descriptions of the area’s geology (Black 1969; Carothers 1951; Hafen and Hafen 1965). Sage’s accounts of the region also included a general reverence for the beauty of the area, and specific information about the area’s plants and game.

The fur trade was short-lived and ended by 1850, due in part to wildlife depletion and changing fashion trends. Evidence of the earliest Europeans and Euro-Americans in the area is also available in place names. In addition to Longs and Pikes peaks being named for government explorers, a number of historians credit fur trader Philip Thompson as the namesake of the Big and Little Thompson Rivers (Butler 2005).

American’s interest in the region increased after the 1859 discovery of gold in the territory and the ensuing gold rush which led to permanent settlements. During the 1860s and 1870s, independent explorers, the U.S. government, and scientific institutions sponsored expeditions to identify mineral and natural resources and to map the territory. Among these explorers was John Wesley Powell’s “Colorado Scientific Exploration Expedition,” in which Powell, 30 students, and Rocky Mountain News editor William Byers climbed Longs Peak in 1868. Wesleyan University and the Illinois Natural History Society funded Powell’s expedition for the purpose of mapping the area and its resources. The USGS also oversaw important efforts to map the territory along the 40th Parallel, and chartered Clarence King and Ferdinand Vandiveer Hayden to explore the Estes Park and the nearby Rocky Mountain National Park area in 1871 and 1873.

Settlement Euro-Americans began establishing year-round residences in and around Estes Park by the late 1850s. Many of the area’s pioneer settlers were typically attracted to the area because mountain parks provided plentiful grass and water for cattle and small gardens, potential mineral resources, timber for construction materials and fuel, and game. As the result of government expedition reports, the area gained attraction for its agricultural and commercial tourism industry. The period of significance for pioneer settlement and development of the resort industry begins ca. 1857 when Euro-Americans began establishing permanent settlements in and around Estes Park.

During this period of significance, settlers left behind few records describing themselves, their properties, visitors, and industry in the area (Butler 2005). After the discovery of gold in Colorado in 1859 and Congress’ passage of the Homestead Act in 1862, which allowed land claims up to 160 acres, many Euro-Americans entered the Colorado Territory to prospect and/or establish farms and ranches and other businesses to support the early mining industry. The Homestead Act allowed citizens of the

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United States to claim 160 acres of land. If, after five years, the homesteaders had met the requirements for improvement, the General Land Office (GLO) would permanently deed the land to the settler. GLO records only provide information about people who successfully “proved up” and improved their 160-claims over a 5 year period.

Historians consider Joel Estes to be the first Euro-American to establish a permanent settlement in the area. Estes came to the mountain park that today bears his name (Estes Park) in 1860 to establish a cattle ranch (Buchholtz 1983; Butler 2005; Carothers 1951). Estes built a cabin for his family along Fish Creek, where they lived until 1866. Other prominent pioneer settlers in and around Estes Park were cattle ranchers, including Abner Sprague, who settled in Moraine Park in 1874; John Hupp, who settled in Upper Beaver Meadows in 1875; Guy Hollowell, who settled in what is now Hollowell Park in 1887; and the William Barns Ranch, later known as the Hondius Ranch, established in Upper Beaver Meadows in 1898 (Atkins 1964; Butler 2005; Buchholtz 1983; Carothers 1951).

Mining camps established during this period often comprised several tents and a few log cabins. The small mining towns were quickly abandoned after local mines failed to produce profitable ore, and most of the small mining towns were abandoned by 1886 (Butler 2005).

The period of significance ends in 1915 when Congress established the Rocky Mountain National Park and most of the first generation of the region’s settlers were converting their ranches to commercial interests. Many pioneer settlers quickly learned that providing goods and services to tourists was more profitable than ranching, and by 1880 most ranchers had converted their properties into dude ranches (Butler 2005; TEC, Inc. 2010). The period of significance for recreation includes significant trends in the resort industry in and around Estes Park after 1915.

Transportation: Roads Native Americans established the earliest trail networks throughout the region, which European explorers and trapper-traders later mapped and used. Prospectors and settlers followed existing trails from the Front Range into Estes Park. Ranchers, loggers, and resort owners improved these trails for wagon use and constructed new roads. State and federal governments established a numbered highway system and oversaw road improvements and new road construction for automobile use and to improve access to the nearby Rocky Mountain National Park. Therefore, the period of significance for transportation in the area begins during the European/Euro-American exploration period (ca. 1820) and ends after completion of Mission 66 highway projects (1960s).

To get to Estes Park during the early and mid-1800s, most people would follow a trail along the St. Vrain River to the Little Thompson River. After 1860, local settlers and ranchers began improving these trails and clearing new trails for wagon use. Prospectors, local ranchers, and business operators looking to profit from the region’s natural resources like ore, timber, and game – and later, tourism – formalized wagon road development during the latter half of the 1800s. While the small roads miners and loggers

ERO Project No. 20-082 20 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado constructed to extraction areas, mines, and sawmills were short-lived based on industrialists’ use of the area, a number of the roads that ranchers constructed before 1900 are in use today.

One of the earliest-known formal roads is the Lyons to Estes Park toll road that Alexander MacGregor built in 1875. Bald Mountain Road, constructed beginning in 1876, is among the first free roads to the area. Local residents, ranchers, and resort owners collaborated on road maintenance and construction, and also constructed the first alignments for Big Thompson Canyon Road, Bear Lake Road, and Wild Basin Road during the first few years of the 1900s (Butler 2005; Standish 2004; TEC, Inc. 2010).

Because there was no railroad into Estes Park, wagon and automobile road development was an important undertaking in the first half of the 20th century for local commercial resort operators, ranchers, and the administrators of the newly created, nearby Rocky Mountain National Park.

After the Colorado Highway Commission, the predecessor to the Colorado Highway Department (and later the Colorado Department of Transportation), was organized under a federal charter in 1909, the few automobile owners in Colorado became active in interstate auto clubs advocating for the construction of recreational roads and state highways in Colorado. As a result of poor funding from limited licensing revenues and few grants from the federal government (despite the 1916 Public Roads and Federal Highways Acts), by 1920 roads in Colorado were still poorly marked and had rough surfaces. It was not until World War I that the federal government began providing better funding for strategic road development across more rural parts of the country (Associated Cultural Resource Experts 2002). As a result of technological advances in the automobile, road construction methods, and agriculture, the 1920s witnessed the advent of the numbered highway system and increased popularity of roadside motor inns, restaurants, and curio shops along newly founded Main Streets along major state and interstate highways.

Road construction boomed during the Great Depression, and highway projects focused on improving existing rural routes by straightening their alignments, adding materials to create hard surfaces, and widening the rights-of-way to support larger and more vehicles. By 1940, the Works Progress Administration oversaw the improvement of more than 5,000 miles of rural routes in Colorado (Associated Cultural Resource Experts 2002).

Highways and automobiles also allowed people to live further from urban centers and facilitated suburban and industrial development in the region after World War II.

Modernization of Colorado: Colorado-Big Thompson Project Important to the lives of rural Colorado residents and this period of significance, New Deal–era regulation resulted in the Federal Government’s construction and operation of new public power systems across the country. In 1935 Congress passed the Federal Power Act and created the Rural Electrification Authority to fund the organization and operation of rural electric cooperatives and construction of new electrical generation and transmission projects (King 1984; Schweigert 1998). At the time, larger towns in northeastern Colorado were serviced by small electric companies. Under the

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Federal Power Act, they benefitted from low-interest loans from the federal government for construction and operation of electric plants and transmission lines to electrify rural homes (Colorado State Planning Commission 1938; Fisher 1989; Schweigert 1998). In addition to funding, the act provided for local governments to organize local rural electric associations. The Rural Electrification Authority oversaw construction of large, interstate electrical projects such as the C-BT to provide power to northern Colorado and the Eastern Plains.

The C-BT Project, authorized by Congress in 1937, was designed to divert water from the upper Colorado River Basin under the Continental Divide to electrical generation facilities on the Big Thompson and South Platte Rivers. Construction of the C-BT Project began in 1938; from 1938 to 1959 the USBR oversaw the construction of 13 reservoirs and regulating basins, 25 earth and rockfill dams and dikes, 6 powerplants, 3 major pumping stations, 24 tunnels, 11 canals, 16 major siphons, and 8 penstocks, 43 substations and switchyards and 785 circuit miles of transmission lines. Within the APE, the USBR contracted the construction of the Olympus Siphon (5LR4004) and the Estes to Lyons TAP transmission lines (5LR9454); the 115 kV transmission line conveys electricity from the C-BT Project’s hydroelectric plant in Estes Park to the Lyons plant. In 1977, Congress created the Department of Energy, including Western Area Power Administration, which took over ownership and operation of the C-BT facilities on Colorado’s plains immediately afterwards (Schweigert 1998). Methods

Historic Property Identification This cultural resource survey provides compliance under Section 106 of the NHPA and its implementing regulations under 36 CFR Part 800 by undertaking a “reasonable and good faith effort” to identify historic properties (defined as listed in or eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP)) within the defined APE. Identification and documentation standards conform to federal land managing agency requirements and secondly to guidelines provided by the SHPO. In doing so, the standards imposed by the Secretary of the Interior for the Identification, Documentation, and Evaluation of Historic Properties are also met. All personnel supervising survey and documentation are listed in applicable federal and state permits and meet or exceed the Secretary of the Interior’s Professional Qualification Standards (36 CFR 61).

Historic properties may consist of buildings, structures, objects, or sites and can include districts, landscapes, and traditional cultural properties. The National Park Service has established an age criterion of 50 years for historic property evaluation and to be listed in the NRHP (but see criteria consideration (g) for an exception to the age guideline); in some instances, a federal agency will establish the age criterion at 45 years to account for the duration of the undertaking.

Cultural resources not identified in the Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation (OAHP) file search and historical records were identified during pedestrian survey. This project used standard pedestrian survey transects spaced 15 to 20 m apart to identify unknown cultural resources within the

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APE. The APE is defined by the lead federal agency, generally in consultation with the SHPO, and means “the geographic area or areas within which an undertaking may directly or indirectly cause alterations in the character of use of historic properties, if any such properties exist” (36 CFR 800.16).

Cultural Resource Documentation ERO documents cultural resources according to a standardized approach to ensure consistency and accuracy. Sites are digitally documented from multiple perspectives, and all significant tools, diagnostic artifacts, and features are photographed to scale. The site datum is also photographed if physically established and directed by the land managing agency. Individual site maps are produced using a mapping grade (submeter and subcentimeter capable) Trimble GeoXH Explorer global positioning system (GPS) unit. Elements of the site map include all cultural features, diagnostic and point provenience artifacts (designated as field specimens (FS)), artifact concentrations (AC), major vegetation breaks and contour topography, modern features and disturbances, and the site datum (whether physically established or for location purposes).

All required forms are completed digitally in the field using a tablet. Archaeological resources and newly defined segments of linear resources such as ditches and railroads were documented using a Management Data Form (OAHP1400) and appropriate component form (precontact archaeology, historical archaeology, or linear); the boundaries of newly defined linear resource segments are limited to the extent of the resource within the APE. Newly identified historical buildings and structures were documented on an Architectural Inventory Form (OAHP1403). Previously recorded cultural resources identified during the OAHP file search were revisited and reevaluated on OAHP form 1405; if the resource has not been reevaluated within the last 10 years and/or substantial changes have occurred to the property since the previous evaluation, ERO rerecorded and reevaluated the resource by completing new state documentation forms. Location maps (Appendix A) and OAHP resource documentation forms (Appendix B) are included only for agency consultation and reside permanently with the OAHP.

Archaeological Sites The NRHP defines an archaeological site as “the place or places where the remnants of a past culture survive in a physical context that allows for the interpretation of these remains” (Little et al. 2000). Archaeological sites must retain sufficient context to convey purposeful and patterned human activity. Isolated finds (IF) represent evidence of past human activity that is either not patterned (as in the inadvertent loss or discard of one or more artifacts), too limited to qualify as a site, or indicative of conscious discard of material culture manufactured and/or used for its primary purpose elsewhere. Professional judgment is generally used to distinguish between purposeful activity and isolated occurrences of artifacts often attributable to “background noise.”

For purposes of this project, an archaeological site is defined as an artifact scatter of more than 10 artifacts in a 10-m-diameter area or less than 10 artifacts with one or more site features. Isolated thermal features, rock art panels, and human burials are considered archaeological sites. Surface lithic scatters that occur in a very confined area and consist of a single raw material may be attributable to a

ERO Project No. 20-082 23 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado single event, single reduction episode, or exhibits limited information potential. Project APEs that contain suitable lithic raw material or are in proximity to a primary source may produce an abundance of lithic scatters. An evaluation of raw material, flake density, spatial distribution, and overall cultural context is required to make an informed decision of isolated reduction episodes. The production of a complete biface can produce dozens of thinning flakes, for example, but such flakes typically provide limited information regarding human behavior. Lithic scatters with multiple raw material types and artifact classes are considered archaeological sites. A ceramic scatter may contain dozens of individual sherds, but if the sherds represent a single vessel, the scatter is considered an IF.

Precontact site types are defined by the classes of artifacts found. Lithic scatters are defined by the presence of flaked lithic tools and debitage and are generally interpreted as representing short-term occupation and limited activities related to the production or rejuvenation of stone tools; open camps are defined by the presence of diverse artifact classes, including ground stone and often thermal features, which indicate longer occupations, possibly by a greater number of people. Open and sheltered architectural sites are defined by the presence of the remains of habitation structures (such as stacked masonry walls) or by rubble mounds and pit structure depressions representing the presence of larger or more elaborate architecture. Sheltered camps, in contrast, are found under natural rock overhangs or in other protected places but without associated architecture. Finally, lithic procurement areas must exhibit primary or secondary lithic raw material available on-site, such as nodules eroding from bedrock, lamellar bedrock, or as clasts found in a secondary context (such as alluvial cobbles) at a distance from the primary source. A quarry must exhibit evidence for precontact excavation, evidenced by holes dug to access geologic outcrops or gravel sources.

Historic Period Sites Historic period sites include such purposeful activities as homestead, ranching or agricultural complexes; mining complexes; federal work programs; timber harvesting; and industry, among other site types. Age criteria is established for potential historic sites by referencing general land office (GLO) patents, county assessor records, state water division records, historical maps, and 15′ USGS maps. Historical dumps and artifact scatters without features are evaluated on a case-by-case basis. A single artifact class within a dump, such as sanitary cans, is recorded as an isolated occurrence; conversely, dumps that exhibit diverse artifact classes and date prior to the early part of the 20th century may be documented as archaeological sites, given their information potential.

Linear structures such as water conveyance systems, transmission lines, trails, and roads are documented as sites. An isolated fence line is generally not recorded as a resource unless it demarcates a boundary significant to the history of the area and can be physically linked with a purposeful activity; an isolated fence line may also be documented as a feature of a larger resource. The SHPO currently considers all linear resources eligible for listing in the NRHP unless proven otherwise through documentation and archival research of the linear resources in their entirety.

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Depending on their cultural context, single or small clusters of mining prospect pits with no associated artifacts are documented as IFs due to general ubiquity and limited information potential.

Evaluative and Exploratory Testing Systematic shovel testing was used to evaluate if significant subsurface cultural deposits are present and to inform locations for test unit excavations and future mitigative excavations. The locations chosen for shovel testing were informed by surface artifact concentrations and suitable areas of sediment deposition.

Testing entails the hand excavation of shovel tests (STs) to identify buried archaeological deposits. STs are generally about 35 centimeters (cm) wide by 90 cm deep (approximately 1 ft wide by 3 ft deep), regardless of the presence or absence of cultural material, to obtain a better understanding of the depositional context. Sediment excavated from the STs is sifted through a 1/4-inch mesh screen, and the ST is backfilled.

Evaluative STs help determine the nature, extent, and significance of buried cultural materials at known sites and will likely provide sufficient evidence to support eligible or not eligible recommendations for the SHPO. Evaluative STs were spaced 10 m apart within and around sites.

ERO identified landforms in the APE that may contain buried cultural deposits not visible on the surface. Exploratory STs focused on areas with potential for intact buried cultural materials. Exploratory STs are generally spaced 30 m apart. If artifacts are recovered during exploratory testing, additional STs (radials) are excavated at 10-m intervals to determine the distribution of buried cultural material throughout the landform. Once the landform has been evaluated as either too young or disturbed, excavations will cease on that landform.

For artifacts recovered from STs, a bulk artifact type such as debitage was bagged and assigned a provenience number based on the depth or level from which it was recovered. Each tool is assigned an individual provenience number.

Following excavation, recovered artifacts were collected and returned to the ERO laboratory where they were washed, left to air dry, catalogued according to provenience, and entered into a Microsoft Access database specifically designed to organize the information and material recovered during excavations. The artifacts will eventually be retained by UTSD.

Artifact Analysis Debitage Analysis Debitage analysis combined the interpretation-free flake typology of Sullivan and Rozen (1985) with a modified approach to Ahler’s (1989) aggregate analysis method. Replication studies have determined that combining the two methods increases the explanatory power of debitage variability (Magne 2001;

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Prentiss 2001). The modified approached to mass analysis involves placing the flake on a graded template outlined with the different size grades detailed below.

The following flake attributes were recorded: completeness (Sullivan and Rozen 1985), size grade (Ahler 1989), termination type, platform type (Andrefsky 1998), amount and type of cortex, and presence/absence of thermal exposure. The following size grades are used:

7 = > 2.5 cm 6 = between 2.5 cm and 2 cm 5 = between 2 cm and 1.5 cm 4 = between 1.5 cm and 1 cm 3 = between 1 cm and 0.5 cm 2 = between 0.5 cm and 0.25 cm 1 = < 0.25 cm Completeness follows Sullivan and Rozen’s (1985) method that assigns flakes among four categories based on the presence/absence of certain flake attributes. Types include complete (striking platform and all margins present); broken (striking platform present, one or more margins absent); fragment (striking platform absent); and shatter (no single interior surface). These categories are essentially free from a priori interpretation and assignments are highly replicable, although Sullivan and Rozen (Sullivan and Rozen 1985; Rozen and Sullivan 1989) have correlated completeness with percussion type and general flaking stages. Their propositions have remained controversial and are not without interpretive flaws (Carr and Bradbury 2001), yet their association of a high percentage of shatter with core reduction has been repeatedly confirmed through experimental work. Assigning flakes a priori to reduction stages (i.e., early stage biface thinning flake) have been found to be methodologically flawed and subject to replicability issues (Sullivan and Rozen 1985).

ERO also recorded striking platform attributes for each analyzed complete and broken flake. Such attributes retain characteristics of the struck objective piece and therefore provide important information regarding reduction technology. Recorded attributes include: cortical; single-facet; single facet and lipped; multiple facet; multiple facet and lipped; multiple facet, lipped, and ground. These attributes can be grouped into categories such as simple (i.e., single-facet) or complex (i.e., multiple facet) to facilitate more general observations about reduction strategy.

Dorsal cortex (or weathering rind) was recorded as an estimated percentage with the following categories: none, less than or equal to 50 percent, more than 50 percent, 100 percent, or platform only. Cortex is often examined as an indicator of lithic stage reduction, where higher numbers of cortex- bearing-flakes are indicators of initial core reduction and early reduction stages. DPW, however, can be recovered in the immediate vicinity in secondary (e.g., within the Castle Rock Conglomerate formation) or primary (Dawson Arkose formations) contexts. When recovered from the former context, DPW often exhibits a rounded to subrounded/angular weathering rind (cortex). When recovered from its primary context, DPW can be recovered as angularly fractured nodules splitting off of entire petrified logs. These sources do not contain any weathering rind or cortex on the interior, and the exterior of the log

ERO Project No. 20-082 26 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado may only exhibit the fossilized outer bark of the tree. The ability to procure DPW without any cortex on a regular basis limits the usefulness of the attribute on this particular material type.

The following attributes associated with thermal exposure were recorded for each flake: crazing, spalling, oxidation, or waxing. A single flake can bear none of these attributes (e.g., no evidence of thermal exposure present) or all. Crazing is angular networks of hairline fractures that may or may not result in actual fracturing of the material. Spalled material exhibits pock-marked, pitted, or pot lidded surfaces where the original dorsal or ventral flake surface has been exfoliated. Oxidation is caused by changes to the mineral impurities of the material that often results in a change in color (Luedtke 1992:94). Waxing or a change in luster may dull the surface exposed to heat and increase glossiness of the interior material that is visible only when a flake is detached.

Flaked Stone Analysis (modified flakes, bifaces, cores) Recorded attributes on stone tools include type; raw material; maximum length, width, and thickness; condition; cross-section; use-wear; descriptive edge angle (low, medium, or high); and type of retouch. Bifaces are classified according to five stages defined by Callahan (1979), which is determined calculating the width-to-thickness ratio (Table 1) (Callahan 1979). Stage 1 bifaces are essentially blanks that are difficult to identify as such; stage 2 bifaces have been edged only; stage 3 bifaces have been thinned with flakes reaching the approximate centerline with little to no cortex remaining; stage 4 bifaces are preforms that have been fully thinned with a flat cross-section; and stage 5 bifaces have been completed and usually exhibit hafting modification or retouched edges (Andrefsky 1998). When bifaces lacked complete measurements, stages were estimated based on morphology rather than strict width- to-thickness ratio.

One of the more common flaked stone tool types are modified flakes, defined as flakes with a single interior surface with one or more edges modified through retouch. Common forms include expediently modified flakes with minimal retouch along one or two margins. Formal modified flakes may be classified as end or side scrapers. ERO categorizes modified flakes based on the number of margins that exhibit retouch and if the retouch is unifacial or bifacial. Typological categories such as end scrapers or side scrapers are reserved for modified flakes with highly patterned retouch.

Common use-wear includes step-fractures, unpatterned flaking confined near the edge, and polish along the working edge of stone tools (Keeley 1980). Artifacts chosen for use-wear analysis include a sample of bifaces, unmodified flakes with macroscopic wear, and modified flakes with unusual morphology. Different use-wear generally correlates with the hardness of the material being worked on; step- fractures typically occur when working a stone tool against hard woods, and polish will result from hide working, for example. Although stone tool form reasonably correlates with function, based on previous experimental studies (Hayden 1979; Keeley 1980; Odell 2003), use-wear analysis provides an empirical test of function.

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Table 1. Width-to-thickness ratios for biface stages. Biface Stage Width-to-Thickness Ratio Edge Angle 1 N/A N/A 2 2.0 to 4.0 50 to 80 3 3.0 to 4.0 40 to 50 4 4.1 to 6.0 25 to 45 5 4.1 to 6.0 25 to 45

Projectile Point Analysis Recorded morphological attributes of projectile points included condition, raw material, tip shape, blade edge shape, shoulder shape, notch shape, notch location, stem shape, base shape, corner shape, flaking pattern, transverse cross-section, and longitudinal cross-section. Measurements (cm) taken on points included maximum length (a), width (c), and thickness (g); neck (d) and basal width (e); neck length (b); notch depth (f); and basal indent depth (h) (Figure 5). Additional attributes, such as use-wear or wear as the result of hafting and retouch modification, were also noted and described. Projectile points were assigned to point seriation categories based on morphology.

Figure 5. Projectile point measurements.

Ground Stone Analysis Recorded attributes on ground stone tools include type; raw material; morphology of the implement; basic metric data (maximum length, width, and thickness); the number of modified surfaces; extent of modification/use-wear on each surface; presence of thermal alteration; and, when possible, inferences of use. Methodology is adopted from Adams (2002).

Each use surface was described as being light, moderate, heavy, nearly worn out, worn out, or indeterminate (Adams 2002). Surfaces were also assessed for attributes that showed the tool having been battered, carved, chipped, drilled, flaked, ground, ground and chipped, ground and pecked, ground edge, ground polished and pecked, pecked, pecked edge, pecked perimeter, polished, polished and pecked, or indeterminate (Adams 2002). Based on morphology and material type attributes, ground stone tool type and use was assessed.

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Criteria for Evaluation Documented cultural resources are evaluated for their eligibility to be listed in the NRHP. Significance criteria are codified under 36 CFR 60.4, summarized below:

The quality of significance in American history, architecture, archaeology, and culture is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association, and

a) that are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history [Criterion A]; or b) that are associated with the lives of persons significant in the past [Criterion B]; or c) that embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction, or that represents the work of a master, or that possess high artistic value, or that represent a significant or distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction [Criterion C]; or d) that have yielded, or are likely to yield, information important in prehistory or history [Criterion D].

Cultural resources that do not meet the 50-year age criterion but that are integral parts of a historic district or carry exceptional importance to the history of the region are considered for eligibility under criteria consideration (g).

Certain kinds of properties are not usually considered for listing in the NRHP: religious properties, moved properties, birthplaces and graves, cemeteries, reconstructed properties, commemorative properties, and properties achieving significance within the past fifty years” (U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service 1997). In order for a property to be eligible under a criteria consideration, the property must qualify for one of the four criteria and must possess integrity. Regional contexts and multi-property nominations are used to evaluate significance under Criteria A, B, and C by defining a period of significance in which the cultural resource achieved significance given events important to the interpretation of history.

Regional contexts identified in the Cultural Overview are used to evaluate significance under Criterion D by determining whether a potential property has the potential to answer defined research questions and/or date to a defined period of significance. Historical sites representative of the built environment (i.e., buildings, structures, and engineered features) typically qualify for listing in the NRHP under at least one of the first three criteria (A–C). Archaeological sites typically qualify exclusively under Criterion D, with notable exceptions. An otherwise heavily disturbed site may still retain information potential from intact features (potential chronometric or subsistence data) or discrete areas of the site that retain physical integrity. Archaeological sites with significant sediment deposition remain potentially eligible for listing in the NRHP even without evaluative testing.

Sites evaluated as “needs data” may be eligible under one or more criteria but require further work to determine NRHP eligibility. Cultural resources recommended “needs data” are predominantly

ERO Project No. 20-082 29 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado archaeological sites (either precontact or historical) suspected of containing buried cultural deposits or historical sites where additional research is necessary to ascertain significance. Sites that are evaluated as not eligible for listing in the NRHP do not meet any of the eligibility criteria or have lost physical integrity. Cultural resources are assessed for integrity only if the site meets one or more eligibility criteria. Eroded or otherwise heavily disturbed archaeological sites are typically not considered eligible since the ability to convey significance in the form of intact cultural deposits (i.e., information potential) has been lost through natural or modern disturbance.

For a property to be eligible under one or more criteria, the property must possess physical integrity and retain most if not all aspects of integrity: location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association. Most important of these for any building or structure are the aspects of location, design, and setting. Any property or linear resource that has been relocated/realigned no longer retains integrity of location, perhaps the most important aspect of integrity. The aspect of design is important for demonstrating a building or structure’s association with significant historical trends, and is required for a property to qualify under Criterion A or C. Considering most historical properties are still in use, a resource can maintain integrity of design if materials have been maintained in-kind to the design of the original structure or building; for example, in-kind replacement of materials such as wood siding or railroad hardware with modern materials does not diminish integrity of design. However, modern maintenance and upgrades to earthen ditches such as the placement of modern diversion structures and concrete lining does diminish the ditch segment’s ability to support eligibility under Criterion A or C. The aspects of feeling and association are intrinsically linked to the aspect of setting; suburban development and modern intrusions on the setting of a potential historic property diminish its ability to convey significance.

ERO uses the following generalized approach to assess integrity under Criterion D. Most archaeological sites are considered to be in their original location unless post-depositional processes, such as erosion, have transported artifacts away from their original context. Artifacts can move both vertically and horizontally in subsurface contexts. The site retains location if no significant post-depositional processes have altered the primary context of the artifacts. The aspect of design is present if the relationship between features or activity loci is apparent and the spatial organization of the site is discernible; design may also be present in highly formalized tools such as projectile points, ceramic vessels, architectural elements, or individual features. Setting refers to the surrounding physical environment of a site, which may be affected by modern development or changes to the natural environment (such as important biotic species) through climate change or modern development. Setting is considered intact if the surrounding environment is similar to the environment during the time of occupation. The aspect of materials is almost always retained due to the nature of the archaeological record and the material culture inherent to archaeological sites: If there were no physical artifacts or features (i.e., materials) present, there would not be a site. Workmanship is retained by the presence of artifacts, architecture, or features emblematic of a particular culture or people, such as a Puebloan kiva or a Clovis projectile point. The aspect of feeling is difficult to ascertain for archaeological sites and is often dependent on Native American perspective. Very few of the physical features present during occupation of a

ERO Project No. 20-082 30 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado precontact site still exist in the present to convey a property’s character. A site that retains association can be linked to a particular cultural-historical period through the presence of diagnostic artifacts or architectural elements or by chronometric means.

Each documented cultural resource described in the Survey Results section, below, is provided a recommendation of NRHP eligibility and evaluated for project effects. Based on this documentation, the lead agency will provide a determination of eligibility for each documented cultural resource based on ERO’s recommendation and will provide a determination of project effects on historic properties. The lead agency will then provide the SHPO an opportunity to review and provide comment regarding NRHP eligibility and project effects per 36 CFR 800.4 through 800.5. If, during consultation between the lead agency and SHPO, a determination of “adverse effects to historic properties” occurs, further consultation is required to resolve adverse effects. File and Literature Review

ERO conducted a file and literature review for the project with the OAHP on August 26, 2020 (File Search No. 23018). Five previous inventories have occurred within the APE (Table 2) and approximately 40 percent of the APE is previously surveyed. Most of the previous inventories are linear surveys, following transmission lines and for sewer line installation. However, the USBR conducted a larger block survey for the Olympus Dam in 1995 (LR.R.14).

Table 2. Previous cultural inventories within the APE. State Project No. Report Title (Date) Institution LR.E.R10 Class I and Class III Cultural Resources Inventory of the Estes - Lyons 115kV Western Area Power Transmission Line Between Structures 0/6 To 0/7, 1/1 to 1/6, 2/1 to 2/5, 3/3 Administration to 3/4, 4/2 to 4/9, 5/1 to 5/9, 6/1 to 6/8, 7/2 to 7/9, 8/2 to 8/9, 9/1 to 9/7, 10/2 to 10/4, 11/1 to 11/8 for Vegetation Maintenance and Tree Cutting Activities (2008) LR.E.R12 Class III Inventory Of The Estes-Lyons, Estes-Pole Hill, And Flatiron-Pole Hill Alpine Archaeological 115-Kv Transmission Lines, Larimer County, Colorado (2012) Consultants, Inc. LR.R.NR49 Intensive Cultural Resource Survey of Proposed Upper Thompson Sanitation James Enterprises Inc. District Sewer Line, Larimer County, Colorado (2007) LR.R.R14 A Class III Cultural Resource Inventory Survey on Reclamation Land at Olympus BOR Nebraska-Kansas Dam and Lake Estes Reservoir, Larimer County, Colorado (1995) Area Office LR.R.R47 A Cultural Resources Inventory of the Big Thompson Power Plant to Flatiron Smith Environmental, Substation Transmission Line and Sections of the Estes Substation to Lyons Inc. Substation Transmission Lines, Larimer County, Colorado (SEI #2005-216) (2006)

According to OAHP records, four cultural resources overlap the APE; three are linear resources and include the Olympus Siphon (5LR4004), the Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line (5LR9454) associated with the C-BT, and Fish Creek Road (5LR13281) and one is a precontact IF (5LR11228) (Table 3). 5LR4004 is a siphon buried beneath the APE along Mall Road at the existing WWTF and is not visible on the surface. USBR determined 5LR4004 not eligible for listing in the NRHP in 1998. 5LR9454 is the Estes to Lyon TAP transmission line that crosses the APE at the existing WWTF. Alpine Archaeological

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Consultants, Inc. documented 5LR9454 in 2011 and recommended the resource not eligible for listing in the NRHP.

Table 3. Previous cultural resources within or intersecting the APE. Smithsonian Associated NRHP Eligibility Status Resource Type Status Site No. Report Nos. (Date) 5LR4004 MC.R.R26 Olympus Siphon Officially not eligible, 1998 Relocated—redocumented buried segment in the APE 5LR9454 MC.E.R41, Estes to Lyons TAP Field not eligible, 2011 Relocated—redocumented LR.E.R12 transmission line segment in the APE 5LR11228 LR.R.R47 Precontact IF Field not eligible, 2005 Did not relocate 5LR13281 Not listed Fish Creek Road Field not eligible, 2014 Site relocated––determined outside of APE

Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc. (CRA) documented the historical alignment of Fish Creek Road (5LR13281) in 2014 and recommended it as not eligible for listing in the NRHP. OAHP records indicate 5LR13281 overlaps the APE at the FCLS. However, based on CRA’s documentation, the resource closely follows the modern alignment of Fish Creek Road, which is located outside the APE. Furthermore, the modern construction of the FCLS has completely altered the landscape of the APE in that area, and no trace of a potential historical alignment of Fish Creek Road was discernable in the field.

ERO reviewed historical maps, aerial photographs, assessor records, and Colorado’s Decision Support System database (Colorado Decision Support System 2020; Colorado State Highway Department 1936; Nationwide Environmental Title Research 2020; U.S. Surveyor General’s Office 1894; U.S. Geological Survey 1905, 1962a, 1962b). The APE can be divided into three main areas: south of the Big Thompson River, along Fish Creek Road south of SH 36, and north of the Big Thompson River (Figure 2).

An 1874 GLO map depicts a wagon road along the south side of the Big Thompson River (U.S. Surveyor General’s Office 1894). By 1905, the road is depicted as coming from Loveland through the Big Thompson Canyon and crossing the Big Thompson River via a bridge in the APE (U.S. Geological Survey 1905), and was still in that alignment by 1936 (Colorado State Highway Department 1936). The 1962 USGS map indicates that the road was improved into Mall Road to connect SH 34 to SH 36 (U.S. Geological Survey 1962b). This alignment of Mall Road trended upslope and west of the Big Thompson River, but after construction of the UTSD WWTF in the mid-1970s, the road was rerouted to trend southwest and upslope of the WWTF. The Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line is depicted on the 1962 USGS map and, based on aerial photography, remains in its current alignment (Nationwide Environmental Title Research 2020; U.S. Geological Survey 1962b). According to modern aerial imagery, most of the area south of the Big Thompson River is disturbed by the WWTF and associated infrastructure.

A 1905 USGS map depicts the Dunraven Ranch near the APE around the existing FCLS (U.S. Geological Survey 1905). Lord Dunraven owned vast swaths of the land in Estes Park, and his ranch and hotel were famous resorts in the late 19th century (Aspen Daily Times 1905). The ranch house was moved outside the APE in the late 1940s during the construction of Lake Estes (Estes Park Trail 1947). In fact, much of

ERO Project No. 20-082 32 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado the landscape surrounding the APE changed after construction of the Olympus Dam and Lake Estes in 1947. Construction of UTSD’s WWTF and other infrastructure in the mid-1970s disturbed approximately 40 percent of the APE, all of which is primarily on the south side of the Big Thompson River and along Fish Creek Road.

North of the Big Thompson River is an abandoned segment of the historic Big Thompson Canyon Road (a portion of which was later improved into Mall Road) (U.S. Geological Survey 1905). The road may have followed an old stage route connecting Loveland to Estes (Scott and Schwayder 1993). However, according to Abner Sprague, an Estes Park local in the late 19th century, the “original road from Loveland did not follow [the] Big Thompson” due to its rock-bound cliffs (Estes Park Trail 1935). The Big Thompson Canyon Road was opened in 1903 and is depicted as such in the 1905 USGS map (Estes Park Trail 1935; U.S. Geological Survey 1905). Construction of SH 34 began in 1920. According to aerial imagery from 1938 and the 1936 Colorado State Highway Department (CSHD) map, the original intersection of SH 34 and Mall Road was a Y-junction (Colorado State Highway Department 1936). In addition, five dwellings and a commercial building were closely grouped at this Y-junction (Colorado State Highway Department 1936; Nationwide Environmental Title Research 2020). However, sometime between 1950 and 1990, the intersection was changed to its current T-junction (Nationwide Environmental Title Research 2020). The small arms of the Y-junction remain visible in the APE (Nationwide Environmental Title Research 2020). All of the buildings that were in the APE were dismantled, and ERO found no evidence of their foundations around the highly disturbed intersection. The single building that remains is located west of Mall Road and situated outside the APE.

Areas that were previously disturbed north of the Big Thompson River include Mall Road, along the east side of Mall Road in the open field, and the southern edge of SH 34 where UTSD proposes to install a gravity sewer. Survey Results

ERO documented a segment of the Olympus Siphon (5LR4004.1), a segment of the Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line (5LR9454.6), a new segment of the historic Big Thompson Canyon Road (5LR13357.2), and one new buried precontact open camp (5LR14835) (Table 4). In addition, ERO documented two precontact IFs. ERO did not relocate 5LR11228 in the APE. During survey ERO identified previously undisturbed landforms with potential Pleistocene- and Holocene-age deposits that might contain buried cultural material. Therefore, ERO conducted evaluative subsurface testing at 5LR14835 and exploratory testing of the intact alluvial landforms in the APE.

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Table 4. Revisited and newly documented sites. Smithsonian Site No. Resource Type/Name NRHP Eligibility Recommendation 5LR4004.1 Olympus Siphon (segment) Eligible/nonsupporting 5LR9454.6 Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line (segment) Eligible/nonsupporting 5LR13357.2 Big Thompson Canyon Road (segment) Eligible/nonsupporting 5LR14835 Precontact open camp Eligible

Resource Descriptions 5LR4004.1: Olympus Siphon (segment) Description: This segment of the Olympus Siphon is buried under Mall Road at the intersection with the existing UTSD WWTF. The resource is south of the Big Thompson River on the granite slopes above the river valley. Vegetation consists of ponderosa pine and Engelmann spruce on the sides of Mall Road. The elevation averages 2,279 m (7,480 ft) asl.

Because the resource is buried and not visible on the surface, ERO’s evaluation relies on the previous documentation. The Olympus Siphon was previously documented by Christine Pfaff and Joe Simonds with USBR during The Colorado-Big Thompson Project Historic Context and Description of Property Types (MC.R.R26) (Pfaff 1999). USBR determined 5LR4004 as not eligible for listing in the NRHP in 1998.

This segment of the Olympus Siphon is 0.2 mile long (1,040 ft) long and 10 ft 9 inches wide. The siphon is a concrete pipe that connects from the Olympus Dam to the Olympus Tunnel for a length of 0.8 mile. Two fixed wheel gates (both of which are located outside the APE and the evaluated segment) control a flow of water with a capacity for 550 cubic ft per second.

According to Pfaff and Simonds’ extensive C-BT research, a portion of the Olympus Siphon was built in 1949 by David G. Gordon and Bressi & Bevanda Constructors and was finished in 1950 by the well- known Peter Kiewit and Sons Company (Pfaff 1999). The siphon was part of the larger C-BT project that diverted water from the Colorado River to the east slope for local municipalities and irrigation.

NRHP Eligibility: ERO did not document the entire extent of the siphon and, therefore, recommends the entire resource eligible for listing in the NRHP under Criterion A. The siphon is associated with the C-BT, the state’s largest transmountain water diversion system, which was a keystone project for the development of Colorado’s eastern slope (Criterion A). Based on archival research, the siphon was built by Peter Kiewit and Sons, but there is no evidence that directly links the siphon to the well-known contractor Peter Kiewit himself and, therefore, the siphon is not eligible under Criterion B. The segment that ERO documented is buried, but the previous documentation indicates that the siphon does not retain distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction (Criterion C). Further investigation will not yield additional important information regarding the history of the relationship between this siphon and the larger C-BT diversion system (Criterion D).

ERO recommends that the documented segment is nonsupporting of the overall eligibility of the entire resource. According to the previous description, this segment of the siphon is a concrete pipe without

ERO Project No. 20-082 34 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado any distinctive attributes or unique features. While the segment retains physical integrity, it does not retain any aspects that contribute to the resource’s historical association.

Management Recommendations: No further work.

5LR9454.6: Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line (segment) Description: This segment of the Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line is located near the intersection of Mall Road and the existing UTSD WWTF (Figure 6). The line is south of the Big Thompson River and situated on the toeslopes above the river valley. Vegetation consists of ponderosa pine, Engelmann spruce, willow, and grasses on the sides of Mall Road. The elevation ranges from 2,266 to 2,277 m (7,435 to 7,471 ft) asl.

Figure 6. 5LR9454.6, overview of Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line from Mall Road.

This segment of transmission line is 0.24 mile long (1,254 ft) and trends roughly west-northwest to east- southeast across the existing WWTF and Mall Road. The segment consists of one wood pole H-frame structure that is approximately 60 ft tall and 24 ft wide and holds five separate galvanized steel wires. Based on aerial imagery, this segment is in its original location. Segment 5LR9454.6 is part of the 115 kV transmission line that extends 16 miles from the Estes Park Powerplant to the Flatirons Powerplant in Loveland, Colorado, which in turn is just a portion of the larger Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line. The transmission line was built in 1950 by J & J Construction Co. as part of the larger C-BT project under the ownership of USBR (Schweigert 1998).

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Kurt Schweigert with ACRE originally documented the transmission line in 1998 (Schweigert 1998). Schweigert evaluated the entire Estes to Lyons line, which included several unique steel lattice towers as well as more common wood pole H-frame structures. Schweigert recommended the line eligible for listing in the NRHP under Criterion C. The steel towers are an early and rare type of structure used in the C-BT system. Alpine Archaeological Consultants revisited 5LR9454 in 2011 and recommended the resource not eligible for listing in the NRHP because the section of transmission line they evaluated exclusively contained the wood pole H-frame structures.

NRHP Eligibility: ERO did not document the entire extent of the transmission line and, therefore, recommends the entire alignment eligible for listing in the NRHP under Criterion C. While the line is associated with the C-BT, the state’s largest transmountain water diversion system, which was a keystone project for the development of Colorado’s eastern slope, the line is not significant to the development of the C-BT project as a historic event (Criterion A). The line is not associated with a significant historical figure (Criterion B). The segment that ERO documented exclusively contains a single wood pole H-frame structure that does not retain distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction. However, the remainder of the unevaluated portion contains steel towers that are early and rare structures used in the C-BT system (Criterion C). Further investigation will not yield additional important information regarding the history of the relationship between this transmission line and the larger C-BT project (Criterion D).

ERO recommends that the documented segment is nonsupporting of the overall eligibility of the entire resource because the segment does not retain features (i.e., steel towers) or those aspects of integrity that convey the historical significance of the entire resource.

Management Recommendations: No further work.

5LR13357.2: Big Thompson Canyon Road (segment) Description: Segment 5LR13357.2 is on either side of the Big Thompson River due east of Lake Estes. The road segment generally connects between SH 34 and SH 36 and east down the Big Thompson Canyon. Portions of the road are situated on terraces along the river as well as cut into the toeslope below the granite hillsides. Moderate sized ponderosa pine trees are growing in the abandoned road alignment. Ground surface ranges from 50 percent in the abandoned portions of the road segment and 100 percent on the active portion of segment 5LR13357.2. The elevation ranges from 2,266 to 2,296 m (7,435 to 7,535 ft) asl.

5LR13357.2 is a segment of the historical Big Thompson Canyon Road alignment that consists of an abandoned portion (on the east side), an improved portion following the existing Mall Road, and a bridge over the Big Thompson River. The abandoned portion represents the original alignment and consists of a 10-ft-wide sandy swale with pine trees growing in it (Figure 7). Mall Road is an active improved crowned road that has modern materials and measures 40 ft wide. The 90-ft-long-span

ERO Project No. 20-082 36 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado concrete and steel bridge with concrete wingwalls is consistent with the materials and design aesthetic of modern bridges (Figure 8).

An 1874 GLO map depicts a wagon road along the south side of the Big Thompson River (U.S. Surveyor General’s Office 1894). 5LR13357 may have followed an old stage route connecting Loveland to Estes Park (Scott and Schwayder 1993). However, according to Abner Sprague, an Estes Park local in the late 19th century, the “original road from Loveland did not follow [the] Big Thompson” due to its rock-bound cliffs (Estes Park Trail 1935). The Big Thompson Canyon Road was opened in 1903 and is depicted as such in the 1905 USGS map that also shows the bridge (Estes Park Trail 1935; U.S. Geological Survey 1905). The eastern portion of segment 5LR13357.2 was abandoned circa 1920 during the Colorado Highway Department's construction of SH 34.

Figure 7. Abandoned portion of the Big Thompson Canyon Road as it cuts into the toeslope below granite outcrops. Small and medium sized pine trees grow within the sandier deposits of the old road.

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Figure 8. Overview of the current Mall Road and bridge over the Big Thompson River.

The bridge and the remaining portion of segment 5LR13357.2 that trended south over the Big Thompson River was likely improved by the county and has since received additional improvements and updated materials. The 1936 CSHD map and 1962 USGS map indicates that the road connected SH 34 to SH 36 (Colorado State Highway Department 1936; U.S. Geological Survey 1962b). Based on archival maps and aerial imagery, this portion of 5LR13357.2 did not remain in its historic alignment (Nationwide Environmental Title Research 2020; U.S. Geological Survey 1962b). The southern end of Mall Road originally trended upslope and west of the river; however, after construction of the UTSD WWTF in the mid-1970s, the road was rerouted to trend southwest and upslope of the WWTF.

NRHP Eligibility: ERO did not document the entire extent of the historic Big Thompson Canyon Road alignment and, therefore, recommends the entire alignment eligible for listing in the NRHP. The original road served as a transportation corridor between Loveland and Estes Park prior to 1920; therefore, the road may be associated with Estes Park’s early transportation routes (Criterion A). The road is not associated with any known person significant to history (Criterion B). The segment that ERO documented does not retain distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction, but very little of the road has been previously documented and it is unknown if the unevaluated remainder of the road exhibits any such characteristics (Criterion C). Further investigation will not yield additional important information regarding the history of the relationship between this road and transportation in Estes Park (Criterion D).

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ERO recommends that the documented segment is nonsupporting of the overall eligibility of the entire resource. This segment is either overgrown with vegetation or replaced with modern materials; therefore, the segment does not retain any physical integrity or any aspects of integrity that convey historical association.

Management Recommendations: No further work.

5LR14835: Precontact open camp Description: The site is eroding from the exposed profile of a south-facing slope 20 m north and 20 m above the Big Thompson River. The site extends downslope onto a terrace that is 5 m above the height of the river. A ridge of exposed granite is 15 m north and less than 5 m to the west. Vegetation consists of ponderosa pine, grasses, sumac, rabbit brush, and prickly pear cactus. The main slope consists of brown sandy loam colluvium derived from fan deposits of the surrounding exposed granite boulders and ridges to the north. Ground visibility on the slope tread is less than 30 percent but the exposed profile is 100 percent. The elevation is 2,268 m (7,442 ft) asl.

This precontact open camp consists of an artifact concentration (AC1), ground stone (FS1), a biface fragment (FS2), debitage (n=24), fire-cracked rock (FCR; n=7), and burnt bone fragments, most of which appears to be in secondary context from erosion. The site is concentrated on the slope, but two flakes and FS2 are on the toeslopes below. Moderate disturbances include erosion, slopewash, the old Big Thompson Canyon Road, game trails, and sediment erosion due to decreased vegetation. Rodents are also active in the upper fan deposits.

AC1 contains most of the FCR and four bone fragments eroding from the upper 40 to 90 cm of the exposed slope. AC1 is likely the eroded remains of a hearth feature. FS1 is a red fine-grained sandstone mano fragment made up of two pieces that refit. FS2, located on the toeslope, is a red chert distal biface fragment.

The lithic materials are diverse and include local and nonlocal materials including quartz crystal, quartzite, orthoquartzite, cherts (including Kremmling chert), and chalcedony. The debitage (n=24) range from size grade 3 to 7, although most are smaller than size grade 5. The debitage exhibit a mix of completeness and platform type, with some lipped and ground facets. A small number of debitage retain portions of their dorsal cortex or exhibit characteristics of thermal exposure.

Based on the artifact assemblage, activities at the site included late-stage stone tool manufacturing and food processing and indicate the site functioned as an open camp.

Evaluative Testing Results: ERO excavated 17 STs at 5LR14835 to evaluate the nature, lateral and vertical extent, and significance of the precontact deposits (Appendix C). STs were excavated into four main landforms: the fan deposits of the slope, the toeslope, and two terraces. Disturbance from the old road was confirmed by ST1, which indicates the road grade was infilled with 20 cm of loose sand and

ERO Project No. 20-082 39 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado modern plastic trash, overlying orange brown fine-grained sand with 10 to 20 percent subrounded gravels and subangular to subrounded granitic rocks.

ST2, placed on the upper fan deposits of the slope above AC1, yielded burnt bone, FCR, charcoal, and a ground stone fragment 10 to 35 cm bgs. Due to the potential significance of the archaeological materials, ERO ceased excavation and, therefore, does not know the vertical extent of the cultural material in the slope. However, the surrounding exposures of bedrock help define the lateral extent of the site within these fan deposits. ST2 revealed 20 cm of gray brown silt loam with moderate structure followed by a stratum of dark gray brown silty loam. Based on the structure, low gravel content, and color, the sediments reflect soil development and potential buried A horizon. The presence of artifacts in this horizon indicates that the remainder of the slope does have potential to contain significant intact buried archaeological materials.

ERO excavated nine STs (ST3, ST4, ST16, ST19, ST20, ST21, ST27, ST30, and ST32) in the narrow toeslope deposits below the granite boulders. ST3, ST4, ST16, ST19, ST20, ST21, and ST27 were placed downslope of the abandoned Big Thompson Canyon Road, while ST30 and ST32 were placed upslope in areas unaffected by the road cut. In general, the stratigraphy on the toeslope consists of 20 to 30 cm of gray brown sandy loam with few gravels (less than 2 percent) followed by 30 cm of brown loamy sand, 20 cm of dark brown sand to loamy sand, and underlaid by yellowish brown sand deposits. The STs reflect a series of low-energy slopewash deposits with little structure over older well-sorted alluvia. Six STs (ST4, ST16, ST19, ST21, ST30, and ST32) yielded cultural materials from the upper strata, including nine debitage from 0 to 50 cm bgs and burnt bone from 60 to 70 cm bgs. ST30 and ST32 yielded four debitage at 30 to 40 cm bgs at the gray brown loamy sand and brown loamy sand contact. In general, the debitage recovered from STs reflects a diversity of material types and characteristics similar to those on the surface.

Further testing within the toeslope is needed to determine if the archaeological materials downslope of the road cut are in primary context or are a result of erosion and road disturbance. However, based on the low artifact frequency and the distribution of artifacts from 0 to 50 cm bgs across the upper two strata, the archaeological materials south of the road are likely not in primary context. Therefore, the area of the site south of the roadcut is a noncontributing portion of the site.

ERO excavated six STs (ST5, ST6, ST17, ST18, ST22, and ST28) into the broad terrace below the slope. STs revealed 35 cm of dark brown sandy loam with a granular structure and 5 to 10 percent rounded gravels followed by 15 cm of gray brown sandy loam. Most tests ended at 50 cm bgs in yellowish brown loamy sand deposits with large impassable cobbles. The upper strata exhibit soil development and characteristics of a stable landform while the lower deposits are likely derived from high-energy flood events. All of the STs in the terrace were negative for cultural material.

Based on the results of the ST data, portions of the site have potential for significant buried cultural deposits. The quantity and variety of artifacts, along with the presence of a possible feature and burned bone, indicate extended or repeated use of the location. The lack of artifacts in the terrace sediments

ERO Project No. 20-082 40 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado suggest the occupants preferred the slopes rather than what may have been the active floodplain or wetlands.

NRHP Eligibility: ERO recommends the site eligible for listing in the NRHP under Criterion D. The site, including a potential hearth feature, is buried in an intact slope with a potential soil horizon. Therefore, the site has potential for intact buried cultural deposits that contain significant information regarding precontact occupation (Criterion D). The portion of the site south of the abandoned Big Thompson Canyon Road (5LR13357), however, is not intact and is a noncontributing portion of the site. The site is not associated with any known event or significant figure (Criteria A and B), nor does the site embody any distinct characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction (Criterion C).

While portions of the site are eroding from their depositional context or are disturbed by the old road, ST results indicate that portions of the site on the slope remain in their original location. The site lacks the aspect of setting as development is visible in all directions, the scars of the old road have disturbed a portion of the site, and the traffic from SH 34 creates constant noise. The site retains the aspect of materials in the form of the lithics. Aspects of design, workmanship, association, and feeling were not observed but are likely intact subsurface.

Management Recommendations: Avoid and protect.

Isolated Finds ERO documented two IFs: a projectile point (5LR14836) and a gray orthoquartzite flake (5LR14837). 5LR14836 is a white semitranslucent quartzite projectile point with a blunted tip with reworked lateral margins that are straight to semiexcurvate leading to sloping shoulders, rounded side notches, and a slightly expanding and convex base (Figure 9). The base is not ground, but is slightly crushed, possibly from contact with a hafting element. The transverse cross-section is ovate, and the longitudinal cross- section is irregular. The point measures 3.2 cm long by 1.8 cm wide by 0.7 cm thick with a 1.25 cm neck width, a 1.4 cm base width, and a 0.35 cm notch depth. 5LR14836 is similar to Mt. Albion dart points of the Early Archaic period, albeit slightly smaller (Benedict and Olson 1978).

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Figure 9. 5LR14836, isolated projectile point. Exploratory Testing

ERO identified and tested potential Holocene-age terraces and areas of slopewash in the APE that could contain buried cultural deposits. Areas with potential for buried cultural deposits included the upper and lower terraces, toeslope deposits, and areas close to previously documented prehistoric resources. The upper terrace is situated south of the toeslope, east of Mall Road, and north of the lower terrace and the Big Thompson River floodplain.

Geology Literature Review ERO conducted a preliminary geomorphic review of the APE using aerial images, National Cooperative Soil Survey data, and USGS maps for the area (Braddock and Cole 1990; Bucknam and Braddock 1989; Cole and Braddock 2009; Nationwide Environmental Title Research 2020; Natural Resources Conservation Service 2020; Tweto 1979). According to the USGS map specific to the quadrangle, the surface geology in the APE north of the Big Thompson River and west of Mall Road consists of quaternary-aged alluvium (Qal) and Silver Plume granite (Ysp) (Bucknam and Braddock 1989). Granite is exposed in the northeast corner of the APE. Soils consist of the Lumpyridge-Rofork complex, Chaffee loam, and Chasmfalls coarse sandy loam (Natural Resources Conservation Service 2020).

Existing Conditions A desktop review and the pedestrian survey indicate that the APE north of the Big Thompson River and east of Mall Road is mostly undisturbed. The undisturbed area contains two terraces (upper and lower) that are bound to the north by slopewash deposits eroding from granite slopes and to the west and south by the current floodplain of the Big Thompson River. A segment of the Big Thompson Canyon Road (5LR13357.2) follows the toeslope along the south side of SH 34 and east through 5LR14835. The road is now a swale infilled with sand, mature trees, and shrubs. Additionally, utilities along the east side of Mall Road have disturbed the western edge of the upper terrace. ERO did not test areas with known previous disturbance.

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Testing Results ERO excavated 16 STs that targeted three main landforms: the toeslope, the upper terrace, and the lower terrace. Exploratory STs were spaced 30 m apart across three east-west lines and along a single north line (Appendix D). ST depths typically ended 50 to 100 cm bgs. Deeper testing was attempted with a bucket auger in every other ST, but cobbles generally prevented excavation beyond 100 cm. Testing confirmed the expectations set forth in the desktop geomorphic review – that there are areas with sufficient undisturbed sediment accumulation with potential for intact buried cultural deposits, but no cultural material was recovered from exploratory testing.

Toeslope The toeslopes below the granite exposures are found on the northern edge furthest from the river and at the northeast corner of the APE. Much of the toeslope has been disturbed by the old road (5LR13357), which follows the toeslope. ERO tested the remaining toeslope below the road. ST24, as well as ST27 associated with 5LR14835, indicate the toeslope consists of three strata – 20 cm of brown sandy loam to loamy sandy followed by 80°cm of brown sand and underlain by an orange coarse sand with cobbles. The gravels are subrounded and are consistently less than 5 percent. The sediments are all derived from slopewash off the Ysp, with the upper two strata representing different low-energy slopewash events that are underlain by higher-energy episodes.

Figure 10. Overview of toeslope area cut by the old Big Thompson Canyon Road (5LR13357.2), which is now overgrown with mid-sized pine trees.

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Upper Terrace The upper terrace is located 120 m northwest of the Big Thompson River and at least 3 to 5 m above the height of the current channel (Figure 11). Most of the terrace is undisturbed, and precontact IFs were found on the surface (5LR14836 and 5LR14837); therefore, ERO anticipated potential for intact buried cultural deposits.

ERO excavated ST7 through ST15, ST23 through ST26, ST29, and ST31 into the terrace. Across the terrace the upper 25 cm of deposition are gray brown sandy loam with moderate structure and less than 10 percent rounded gravels. ST22 and ST23, which were excavated further from the river in the northeast, contained redoximorphic features caused by prolonged periods of saturation. Below 25 cm, the second stratum varies from 15 to 70 cm thick and consists of yellow brown sandy loam with a slight increase in rounded gravel content. The undulating and often mottled lower contact transitions to orange coarse sand to sandy clay loam with much larger rounded cobbles (up to 10 cm in diameter) that prevented further excavation. This lower stratum is likely derived from high-energy flood events.

Figure 11. Overview of upper terrace, with the Big Thompson River floodplain at photo left.

Cobbles are closer to the surface near the terrace scarp and increase in depth to the north away from the river. A levee follows the terrace scarp. Trending west on the terrace, STs lacked the upper soil horizon and encountered the second stratum with an increased gravel content. ST33, for example, revealed only 30 cm of the yellow brown sandy loam with 30 percent gravels before terminating at impassable cobbles. An older channel alignment that was closer to the west side of the terrace may

ERO Project No. 20-082 44 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado have resulted in these higher-energy deposits and, in combination with potential modern disturbances, stripped away the upper soil horizon.

The ST results indicate that portions of the upper terrace have an intact and stable soil horizon with sufficient deposition for buried cultural material, but no cultural material was encountered.

Lower Terrace The lower terrace is 75 m northwest of the river and is 1 to 2 m above the height of the current river channel. Historical trash and debris are found more frequently on the surface of the lower terrace and may indicate it was previously disturbed prior to 1994 (Nationwide Environmental Title Research 2020). The lower terrace is within the floodplain of the Big Thompson River (Figure 12) and, therefore, ERO anticipated this terrace to have low potential for intact buried cultural deposits. ERO excavated two STs (ST13 and ST14) into the lower terrace. The upper 8 to 17 cm consist of dark brown sandy loam with a mottled angular and platy structure with less than 5 percent angular gravels and redoximorphic features. This is followed by 10 to 15 cm of mottled orange and dark brown sandy clay loam with friable angular gravels and an oxidized contact with the underlying yellow fine-grained sandy gravels. These lower gravels exhibit CaCO3 rinds.

Figure 12. Overview of lower terrace on margins of the Big Thompson River floodplain.

The oxidized inclusions are characteristic of redox conditions and indicate that the lower terrace was often saturated with water either from being in the floodplains or from a marshy environment.

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Unlike the rounded gravels and cobbles associated with the upper terrace deposits, the angular granitic gravels in the lower terrace have unclear origins. If they were transported by the river, they were not entrained for a long time. Because no granite exposures are directly upstream, their origin may be artificial and potentially associated with the Olympus Dam construction upstream.

Geomorphic Summary ST results indicate the APE north of the Big Thompson River consists of three main depositional landforms: the slope colluvium along the toeslope, an intact upper alluvial terrace with soil development, and the lower high-energy floodplain-step. The ST results indicate that the upper terrace has accumulated sufficient deposition and characteristics of a Late-Pleistocene-aged soil that is relevant to the preservation of archaeological sites. However, all STs were negative for cultural material within this stratum. Summary and Management Recommendations

Within or overlapping the APE are six cultural resources; including a segment of the Olympus Siphon (5LR4004.1), a segment of the Estes to Lyon TAP transmission line (5LR9454.6), a segment of the historic Big Thompson Canyon Road (5LR13357.2), a precontact open camp (5LR14835), and two precontact IFs (5LR14836 and 5LR14837). ERO also excavated 33 STs in areas with potential to contain buried cultural deposits.

ERO recommends 5LR4004, 5LR9454, and 5LR13357.2 eligible for listing in the NRHP and recommends segments 5LR4004.1, 5LR9454.6, and 5LR13357.2 nonsupporting of the eligibility of their respective linear resources. ERO recommends 5LR14835 eligible for listing in the NRHP. Both IFs are not eligible for inclusion in the NRHP. No further work is recommended for all resources recommended not eligible or nonsupporting.

Although 5LR14835 is recommended eligible for listing in the NRHP and is located in the APE, no development is proposed that would affect the site. Regardless, ERO recommends that the site is fenced during construction to avoid inadvertent impacts. Because 5LR14835 will not be impacted by project activities, ERO proposes a determination of “no adverse effect to historic properties” pursuant to 36 CFR 800.5 of the NHPA.

Table 5. Management recommendations. Smithsonian NRHP Eligibility Management Resource Type/Name Number Recommendation Recommendation 5LR4004.1 Olympus Siphon (segment) Eligible/nonsupporting No further work 5LR9454.6 Estes to Lyons TAP transmission line Eligible/nonsupporting No further work (segment) 5LR13357.2 Big Thompson Canyon Road (segment) Eligible/nonsupporting No further work 5LR14835 Precontact open camp Eligible Avoid and protect 5LR14836 Precontact IF Not eligible No further work 5LR14837 Precontact IF Not eligible No further work

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Appendix A Cultural Resource Location Map For Official Use Only: Disclosure of Site Locations Prohibited (43 CFR 7.18)

ERO Project No. 20-082 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

Appendix B OAHP Cultural Resource Documentation Forms For Official Use Only: Disclosure of Site Locations Prohibited (43 CFR 7.18)

ERO Project No. 20-082 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

Appendix C 5LR14835 Site Map. For Official Use Only: Disclosure of Site Locations Prohibited (43 CFR 7.18)

ERO Project No. 20-082 ERO Resources Corporation Cultural Resource Survey Upper Thompson Sanitation District New Wastewater Treatment Facility Preliminary Engineering Report and Funding Project Larimer County, Colorado

Appendix D Shovel Test Locations. For Official Use Only: Disclosure of Site Locations Prohibited (43 CFR 7.18)

ERO Project No. 20-082 ERO Resources Corporation