The Corpse in the Early Bronze Age. Results of Histotaphonomic And
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Archaeologia Austriaca, Band 102/2018, 135–167 © 2018 by Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 135 doi: 10.1553/archaeologia102s135 The Corpse in the Early Bronze Age. Results of Histotaphonomic and Archaeothanatological Investigations of Human Remains from the Cemetery of Franzhausen I, Lower Austria Kirsten Mandl Friederike Novotny Maria Teschler-Nicola Estella Weiss-Krejci Abstract Zusammenfassung – Leichenbehandlung in der Frühbronze It has recently been suggested by British archaeologists and anthro- zeit. Resultate histotaphonomischer und archäothanatologischer pologists that mummification may have been widespread in Bronze Untersuchungen von menschlichen Überresten aus dem Gräberfeld Age Europe. This article presents the results of a study that, for the von Franzhausen I, Niederösterreich first time, investigates the question of whether the people who inhab- Jüngsten Theorien zufolge war Mumifizierung in der Bronzezeit ited central Europe during the Early Bronze Age treated the bodies in Europa weit verbreitet. Dieser Beitrag beschäftigt sich erstmals of their dead prior to deposition in order to prevent decay and pre- mit der Frage, ob die frühbronzezeitlichen Bewohner Zentraleuro- serve the soft tissue. The study relies on data from the cemetery of pas ihren Toten eine dem Erhalt des Weichteilgewebes förderliche Franzhausen I in Lower Austria. The cemetery, excavated between Behandlung zukommen ließen. Die Daten stammen vom zwischen 1981 and 1983, contained 714 Early Bronze Age graves and two pits 1981 und 1983 ausgegrabenen Gräberfeld von Franzhausen I, das with human remains. A sample of 22 skeletons from 22 graves was 714 frühbronzezeitliche Gräber und zwei Gruben mit menschlichen investigated using macroscopic, post-hoc archaeothanatological, and Skelettresten umfasst. Eine Stichprobe von 22 Skeletten aus 22 Grä- histotaphonomic analyses. Thin sections of the femora of 18 out of bern wurde makroskopischen, post-hoc archäothanatologischen und 22 individuals show high degrees of microbial tunnelling resulting histotaphonomischen Analysen unterzogen. Femur-Dünnschliffe from extensive putrefaction processes. Thin sections of femora from von 18 der 22 Individuen zeigen einen hohen Grad an mikrobiellem four individuals show less bioerosion indicating that the microbial Befall, der von Verwesungsprozessen herrührt. Femur-Dünnschliffe invasion accompanying autolysis and decomposition was arrested at von vier Individuen weisen geringere Bioerosion auf, was darauf hin- an early stage of the taphonomic process. Since the femora of these weist, dass Autolyse und Fäulnis begleitende mikrobielle Invasoren four individuals are partially discoloured green we lean towards the in einem frühen taphonomischen Stadium gestoppt wurden. Da die assumption that the good preservation of the internal bone micro- Femora dieser vier Individuen teilweise grün verfärbt sind, lässt sich structure was caused by a post-depositional uptake of heavy metals die gute Erhaltung der inneren Knochenmikrostruktur mit der post- eroding from copper and bronze grave goods, mediated by a coffin depositionalen Aufnahme von Schwermetallen aus kupfernen und environment. bronzenen Grabbeigaben in einem Sargmilieu erklären. Keywords Schlüsselbegriffe Funerary customs, mortuary archaeology, mummification, corpse Bestattungssitten, Gräberarchäologie, Mumifizierung, Leichenbe- preparation, archaeothanatology, bone diagenesis, histotaphonomy, handlung, Archäothanatologie, Knochendiagenese, Histotaphono- Early Bronze Age, Lower Austria, Franzhausen I. mie, Frühbronzezeit, Niederösterreich, Franzhausen I. 136 Kirsten Mandl et al. 1. Introduction record these forms of preparation can only be recognised Processes of decomposition that take place in a dead body under favourable conditions and through careful docu- cannot be ignored by any society. A corpse does not qui- mentation and sampling during excavation. Treatments etly disappear. When rigor mortis ends, micro-organisms such as burning are easily recognised because they contrib- become highly active and the corpse begins to rot. The ute to disarticulation and fragmentation and leave visible transformation is accompanied by bloating, the emanation structural changes in the bones. Some forms of treatment of methane and a sulphurous smell, discolouration and the such as active excarnation, dehydration, and chemical and gradual detachment of the upper skin layer.1 In some in- thermal modification,9 may not be as apparent, especially stances the body may even produce a noise.2 All of these when there is no disarticulation of the bones10 and only the processes set the human senses on alert. Unless abandon- soft tissue has been affected. Depending on the method, cut ment is an option,3 the biological reality of the dead body marks on the bones may be an indicator of either defleshing and its predisposition to decay means that it is imperative or of evisceration, especially when the thoracic viscera are for survivors to do something about it.4 In today’s Europe, also removed. In the latter case one would expect cuts on the usual response is to remove the corpse from the place either the ventral side of the lower thoracic vertebrae or on of death as soon as possible, to cool it and to store it in a the sternum and the ribs. However, it should be emphasised morgue until its burial in the ground or cremation. In the that evisceration is not a prerequisite for mummification.11 prehistoric past, responses were probably much more var- Enhanced dehydration can also be accomplished using the iable, although exactly how variable is not always easy to heat emanating from a fire and by draining the body fluids determine. Today we are probably only looking at a small with a cloth or some other absorbent substance.12 section of a much larger prehistoric population that, due to Prehistoric mummified corpses that, over the course various taphonomic processes, has not been preserved in the of centuries or millennia have been transformed into skel- archaeological record.5 etons, can easily be mistaken for ‘primary burials’.13 This ‘mummy problem’14 can have serious implications for ar- 1.1. Treatment of the Corpse chaeological interpretation. If articulated, mummified, and A society’s response to the rotting corpse and the employ- macerated corpses are moved around15 but their treatment, ment of distinctive post-mortem corpse treatments can pro- manipulation, and re-deposition go unnoticed, the assump- vide a window into ancient attitudes towards death and the tions about the form of the original burial, the chronological afterlife, offer an understanding of the relationship between relationship with associated artefacts, the level of people’s body and ‘soul’6 and unmask group identities and social dis- engagement with the corpse, the identity of the deceased, tinctions.7 The minimum preparation8 afforded to a deceased per- 9 Aufderheide 2003. son who died under regular circumstances usually consists 10 According to recent taphonomic studies, Neolithic bodies from Ҫ of washing, shrouding, or dressing. In the archaeological atalhöyük had probably been excarnated through partial consump- tion by vultures. Within the first days or weeks after death they still retained their ligaments and were deposited in a fully articulated state. 1 Iserson 1994, 42–43. – Hochmeister, Grassberger, Stimpfl – Pilloud et al. 2016. 2007, 19. – Reiter, Ilbeygui, Stein 2007, 16–17. 11 We apply the term ‘mummification’ to all corpse treatments that 2 It is no coincidence that in the past decaying corpses were instinc- result in soft-tissue preservation, be it via natural processes (as for tively feared in societies that practiced inhumation. Barber 1987 example with Ötzi the Iceman) or by artificial means (Rameses II, argues that the belief in revenants arose out of misconceptions con- Lenin, Evita Perón, etc.). However, we would like to emphasise that cerning the nature of decomposition. we only maintain this loaded term, which immediately brings to mind 3 In the past, abandonment of the corpse was a frequent response to Egyptian or South American mummies, in the absence of an accept- death among hunter-gatherer populations: e.g. Fourie 1928, 95. able alternative. 4 Nilsson Stutz 2008. 12 See Beckett et al. 2017 on mummification without evisceration 5 Parker Pearson 1999, 5. – Weiss-Krejci 2011a, 68. – Booth, among the Ibaloy of North Luzon, Philippines. Madgwick 2016, 14. 13 A primary burial is defined as an untreated corpse, deposited in 6 We would like to stress that the term ‘soul’ is probably inadequate the flesh shortly after death and not disturbed at any later point in as a description of prehistoric conceptions of the spiritual essence of time. – See also Pilloud et al. 2016, 3. a person. 14 Weiss-Krejci 2011a, 78. – Weiss-Krejci 2011b, 166. 7 Binford 1971. – Carr 1995. – Scherer 2015. 15 Desiccated articulated royal corpses of the Inca were regularly 8 We follow terminology by Binford 1971, 21 and Carr 1995, 130 brought into the public domain in order to attend state ceremonies who differentiate body preparation (e.g. washing) from body treat- and answer important questions. – Brundage 1963, 179. – McEwan ment (mummification, cremation, mutilation, etc.).Sprague 2005, 70 2006, 140. – Weiss-Krejci 2013. – For further examples see Aufder- calls them all ‘body treatments’. heide 2003. The Corpse in the Early Bronze Age 137 and even the archaeological age of the dead body may be mound near the Heuneburg, Germany. Here the presence misinterpreted.