Worlock Pope, Catherine (2015) Placing come and go: locating the lexical item. PhD thesis, University of Nottingham.

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Placing Come and Go: Locating the Lexical Item

Catherine Worlock Pope, BA, MA

Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

July 2015

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In memory of David and the promise I made him

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Abstract

By examining language simultaneously along the paradigmatic and syntagmatic axes, Sinclair (2004a) identified the lexical item as an object of the discourse comprising an obligatory core and semantic prosody, and optional collocates, colligates and semantic preferences. This research investigates Sinclair’s theoretical model by locating the lexical items that are associated with the complementary verbs come and go in the spoken and written discourses in a selection of the International Corpora of English (ICE). The corpora selected are ICE-Canada, -GB, -India and –Jamaica. This research is innovative in that it adapts Sinclair’s methodology to examine high frequency lexical items across different discourses and different World Englishes It establishes that there is a significantly greater difference in frequency of the lexical items associated with come and go within the different discourses of the ICE corpora in comparison to between the ICE corpora. It replaces the core with the node, it introduces structural preference and discourse preference as co-selection components of the lexical item, and it substitutes semantic force for the term semantic prosody as defined by Sinclair: the ‘reason why [the item] is chosen’ (Sinclair 2004a: 144). Thus the lexical item comprises an obligatory node and semantic force, and optional collocates, colligates, structural preferences, semantic preferences and discourse preferences. As a consequence of these theoretical and methodological adaptations, this research shows that semantic forces with the associated co-selection components can function in tandem and that semantic forces, again with the associated co-selection components, can function in layers. The research concludes that the lexical item is not an identifiable object in the discourse, but it is the syntagmatic realisations of a paradigmatic choice.

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Acknowledgements

There have been many wonderful people who have supported me over the past few years so it is with some reservation that I am singling out just a few to acknowledge here: Michael Hoey and Mike Scott for their inspirational lectures, their abounding enthusiasm both for their subject and for their students, without which I would never have thought I might undertake this research; Michaela Mahlberg for her help and guidance in getting started; and Michael Stubbs for his discussions on philosophy and his valuable advice, without which I might have abandoned this research along the way. There are my supervisors, Svenja Adolphs and Ron Carter; who have continually given me constructive suggestions and positive encouragement. In addition, Ron has also guided me skilfully through the whole doctorate process and supported me when “life” has unfortunately interfered with my research. Without his kindness, his understanding, his patience, and his invaluable input I could not have completed this research. There is Lydia Wallman, in the School of English office, for always knowing the answer to my queries, and for always sorting out my problems. And there is Kevin Harvey, my internal examiner, for his positive approach, considered feedback and help through the final stages of my doctorate. Of my friends I must single out Vincent Docherty for always reminding me that it is what one does not do rather than what was does in life that one invariably regrets; Rosemarie and Eric Hutchinson, for sharing their experiences with me; and Richard Thorne, without his backing, encouragement and practical support this research might never have been finished. Finally I must mention my children, Fredrik Fuglesang and Anna Lisa Fuglesang, who have always been there cheering me on. 5

Contents

Abstract ...... 3 Acknowledgements ...... 4 Chapter 1 The Introduction ...... 8 1.1 Research question(s) ...... 9 1.2 Paradigmatic and syntagmatic axes ...... 10 1.3 Lexical Bundles ...... 11 1.4 Concgrams ...... 11 1.5 Pattern Grammar ...... 12 1.6 Lexical Grammar ...... 13 1.7 Lexical Priming ...... 14 1.8 Linear Unit Grammar ...... 15 1.9 The Data ...... 15 In the chapters that follow …...... 18 Chapter 2 The lexical item ...... 21 2.1 The Whole...... 22 2.2 The Parts...... 25 2.2.1 Collocation ...... 25 2.2.2 Colligation ...... 26 2.2.3 Semantic Preference ...... 28 2.2.4 Semantic Prosody ...... 29 2.2.5 Core...... 32 In summary ...... 33 Chapter 3 Come and Go ...... 35 3.1 Multi-word verbs ...... 38 3.2 Deixis ...... 39 In summary ...... 40 Chapter 4 The Corpora ...... 42 4.1 Spoken v. written language ...... 42 4.2 The International Corpus of English ...... 45 In summary ...... 49 Chapter 5 Organising the data ...... 51 5.1 Frequencies ...... 56 5.2 Statistics ...... 57 5.2.1 Data ...... 57 5.2.2 Non- parametric v. parametric ...... 57 5.2.3 Between and within ICE corpora ...... 57 5.2.3 Pairwise Comparisons...... 59 5.2.4 Further Test ...... 62 In summary ...... 64 Chapter 6 Examining the data ...... 65 6.1 The co-selection components...... 66 6.2 Deictic co-selection components of come and go ...... 67 6.3 Ante and Post co-selection collocations ...... 67 6.4 Location ...... 68 6.5 Familiar idioms ...... 68 6.6 Post pre-set collocates ...... 69 6.6.1 go and...... 69 6.6.2 come back ...... 70 6.6.3 go back ...... 71 6

6.6.4 come from ...... 72 6.6.5 come in and go in ...... 74 6.6.6 go into ...... 77 6.6.7 come on ...... 77 6.6.8 go on ...... 79 6.6.9 come out...... 80 6.6.10 go out ...... 81 6.6.11 go through ...... 81 6.6.12 come to...... 82 6.6.13 go to and go to the ...... 84 6.6.14 come up ...... 85 6.7 Ante pre-set collocates ...... 86 6.7.1 they come and they go ...... 86 6.7.2 to come and to go ...... 87 6.7.3 have to go ...... 88 6.7.4 you come and you go ...... 89 6.8 Discourse managers ...... 90 6.9 Sports reporting ...... 93 6.10 Replacement speech/thought verbs ...... 96 In summary ...... 97 Chapter 7 Narrowing the focus ...... 99 7.1 to go to ...... 99 7.2 come and and and go ...... 104 7.3 come and go ...... 110 In summary ...... 114 Chapter 8 The lexical item revisited ...... 115 8.1 The Parts...... 115 8.1.1 Collocation ...... 115 8.1.2 Colligation ...... 116 8.1.3 Struct