Civic Bulletin No. 36 April 2004

CiC CENTER FOR CIVIC INNOVATION AT THE MANHATTAN INSTITUTE This Works: Crime Prevention and the Future of Broken Windows Policing William J. Bratton, James Q. Wilson, George L. Kelling, Reverend Eugene Rivers and Peter Cove William J. Bratton is the Chief of for the Los Angeles Police Department and former Police Commissioner of New York City (1994-96). James Q. Wilson is professor emeritus at the Anderson School at UCLA and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom (2003). George L. Kelling is a senior fellow at the Manhattan Institute and Director of the Police Institute at Rutgers University. Reverend Eugene Rivers is co-founder of the Ten Point Coalition and pastor of the Azusa Christian Community. Peter Cove is the founder of America Works. This Civic Bulletin is adapted from the transcript of a conference held at the Milken Institute in Santa Monica, CA on December 4, 2003.

WILLIAM BRATTON: Thank you all for coming. shares my vision and optimism, and believes that This is an exciting evening for me in that for the Los Angeles can become the safest large city in first time I have the opportunity to be with both America. This is one of the reasons that I wanted George Kelling and James Q. Wilson at the same to come to Los Angeles and return to policing, and time, and they are two individuals whose writings so, about a year ago, for the first time in my profes- on crime and policing tactics have profoundly in- sional police career, I applied for a job—as Los fluenced my career, and as a result profoundly in- Angeles' Chief of Police. fluenced the lives of millions of others who are I have never sought a position in all the years significantly safer today thanks to their research. that I have spent in the field of criminal justice. I In fact, it is no exaggeration to say that there have always had the good fortune to be sought af- are many people who are alive today who would ter, rather than having to go looking for great op- not be if not for the writings of these two schol- portunities. And so it was somewhat humbling and ars, as well as the efforts of the thousands of po- something of a career risk competing for a posi- lice officers who have taken to practicing much tion that I had no certainty that I would be offered. of what they preach. In fact, when I entered the competition to be- This conference is a significant event and I come Los Angeles Police Chief (and it was very would like to thank the Manhattan Institute and the much like a competition) the then president of Milken Institute for making it possible. the police commission, who has since then become The safest large city in America. That expres- not only a terrific professional colleague but also sion, coupled with the name Los Angeles, doesn't a close personal friend, , advised me make sense to a lot of people. It just doesn't add through intermediaries not to even apply. In short, up. Fortunately, I work for Mayor Jim Hahn, who it was an intimidating process at the outset. But I

MANHATTAN INSTITUTE 2 city inthiscountry. York Citycouldbecomewhat large itistoday, thesafest arguably believedthatNew course, ever in1990nobodywouldhave Of CIVIC BULLETIN those whodon'tbelieve thatitisanessential com- time controversial, philosophy. thesame successful,butat dows policing",avery innovation in.That is"broken win- and Iengage theactivities thatmy officers allof nerstone for police, have always usedasacor- of aschief that I, Americanpolicinginnovation, aninnovationtrue Kelling.son andGeorge two These a mencreated two menthatIhave alreadymentioned,James Wil- the from and policingwas hisexposuretoconcepts tremendous accomplishment. York down inNew crime hasgone isa andthat . Regardless, straightyears thirteen for the asthemurder capitalof and neck withChicago YorkNew now areontherise,andthey're neck by almost6percent.Unfortunately, homicidesin try. year, This York crimeinNew Cityisdown again- is today, cityinthiscoun- arguablythesafestlarge believedYork thatNew it Citycouldbecomewhat der thatMayorYork. GiulianiandIshared inNew life, andonsocialdisor- on crime, onthequalityof thatwe couldhave arealimpact same sharedbelief sharedenergy, the that we hadthesamekindof Angeles.crime inLos Mayor HahnandIrealized that hecould transform belief Hahn hadastrange er anothercandidate,Rudolph Giuliani—Mayor beforewithanothermayor—orhad nineyears rath- Hahn and,similartoanearlierconversation Ihad city. thisgreat of forthepotential appreciation Ihadatrue I feltthat inLosAngeles,monitoring teamforalmostayear thefederal vice, butalso, having worked of aspart thatIcouldcontributetopublicser-I hadmore city. thisgreat of muchvery wanted tobecomethenextpolicechief And Isay controversial still becausethereare shapedMayorWhat Giuliani'sviews oncrime course, in1990nobody would have ever Of Eventually, tomeetMayor Ihadtheopportunity 9/11,Ifeltthat all,aftertheevents of of First knew before we did, before the experts did, that did, we theexperts before before knew did, day. themevery because theyexperienced They ty, causedthemfear, what andwhy itcaused fear. thecommuni- onwhatconcerned tofocus started I my asayoung career sergeant. mulative of stage my career, thefor- of earlystage for meatavery cars, andbroken windows. was awake-up That call We complaints aboutprostitutes, heard abandoned thought thatwe thatcommunity knew insideout. murder, robbery,every every We rape. andevery to theteethwithvarious crimestatistics. Iknew want you."At thetime, tohearfrom Iwas armed police meetings. "We'rewe thepolice", said."We knock ondoors, peopletocome andencourage we would inlocalneighborhoods, handoutleaflets Fourcommunity meetingsinBoston. nightsaweek lifecrimes. of stillignorequality Justice surveys victimization of UniversalThe CrimeReportandtheDepartment crime, stillfocusesonthoseseriouscrimes. ing of crime, thenationalreport- of thereporting Indeed, serious crimes: rapes, robberies, andviolentassaults. on for aneighborhoodandwe ourenergy focused local feedback. We thought we was knewwhat right dents, timepolicedidn'tinvite becauseupuntil that theresi- of borhoods andlistentotheconcerns intoneigh- ideathatpoliceshouldgo unheard-of basedonthe calledneighborhoodpolicing, program 1990s.ing" inthelate1980sandearly came tobepopularlyknownas"community polic- what hood policinginitiative, of theforerunner chusetts, neighbor- Iwas city'sfirst enlistedinthat 1970s. even they itinthe late before wroteabout years theypreachedsoeloquentlyaboutfiveticed what field forover years, thirty andassomeonewho prac- dows hasbeeninthis policingasapractitionerwho America. ButIbelieve citiesin inbroken win- large Yorknot inmakingNew thesafest Angeles orLos cityasafercity, makingany andcertainly ponent of These seemingly minor crimes unnerved them seemingly minorcrimesunnerved These didweAnd what hearfromthecommunity? toholdpoliceand Ibegan As ayoung sergeant, In Bostoninthe1970swewere developing a inBoston,Massa- As ayoungpolicesergeant MANHATTAN INSTITUTE 3 magazine on our efforts Governing It will be a more difficult transition in Los An- It will be a more difficult There are that many people who do not believe and what we in New WhatYork, showed we This year in are today. making a difference We Quality of life crimes destroy the citizens' trust and confidence in government's is public ability to provide which its first obligation, safety. spent a Friday afternoon some of and spent a Friday Rudy with the central The us was question he asked his aides. take already had anticipated: "Can you one Kelling on it work and make in the subways what worked could. We said we the streets of We New York?" windows in broken confidence have to continue again implement it policing, and we'll here in Los Angeles. because the es- however, geles York, than in New in in our favor had working sential element that we and this is referenced in a very well- New York, written article in Angeles is that there are manyhere, people in Los of in the effectiveness who do not believe broken policing. windows police count, that police can make a difference, and police count, that police can make crime is most significantly that who believe impact- or economic circumstances, demographics, ed by racism. I understand that crime is influenced all by any it's caused by but I don't believe those factors, of them. that I stronglycaused by crime is believe is learned, and since all behavior behavior, individual crim- the police can do something about controlling imparting by correcting that behavior, inal behavior, a new ethic of order to our communities—regard- less of The or ethnic make-up. racial, their economic, com- challenge for police is to do this consistently, and particularly society in a democratic passionately, constitutionally. as ours, such very differ- is that in two in Los Angeles, will show extraordinarily different police ent cites with two departments, both in terms of as tac- size as well and styles of histories, traditions, tics, policing, that an enormousthe police can make difference. 25 percent. over by homicides are down this city, 5 percent. And that's about by crime is down Overall We had a hard time establishing community po- had a hard time establishing community We polic- windows broken This that is not to say the flexibility first showed ofWe win- broken The successful. reduction in subway were We licing in the American police profession in the late licing in the American police profession finally managed we but to insti- 90's, 80's and early succeeded because rank and file We tutionalize it. serious vio- police understood that in addition to quality oflent crimes, life crimes were tearing apart fabric ofthe civic were the neighborhoods they Quality ofpolicing. the citizens' life crimes destroy trust and confidence in government's ability to pro- vide its first obligation, is public safety. which a It is more like ing is a magic solution to crime. that use to cure a doctor will prescription powerful patient. It is an essential component,a sick in many but in and of instances the essential component, itself it is not going any prob- city's crime to solve oflem. But it can be used in a variety It is ways. an incredibly misunder- later, 20 years now, even because stood paradigm and crime control tactic, many people still don't understand that it can be applied in many different ways. when George Kelling policing in New York dows recruited when he was doing con- me there in 1990 He encour- Authority. with the Transit sulting work and apply broken aged to New me to come York crime with the idea that, policing to subway windows as it seemed in 1990, iffar-fetched it succeeded in enough faith in have someone would the subways, us to try of it on the streets New York. crime and quality of life crimes attracted the atten- tion of and Giuliani, the then-candidate Rudy in 1993 and to New York George and I traveled the so-called victimless crimes have a victim-and a have victimless crimes the so-called the entire Ultimately, neighborhood. the victim was a cancer that crime was and the city, the victim was didn't really but we cities, America's destroying was really not did We the 1970s. recognize that during and until Kelling way recognize it in an institutional article Wilson wrote their “Broken Windows” in voice 1982, where they put into a strong, powerful a concept that resonated people who not only with but reso- neighborhoods, in these fear-ridden lived that patrolled them. nated with the police 4 FBI crimestatistics. inthenewspapersand the most reported because thosecrimesare lawlessness contributetoasenseof they greatly offenses, life of muchsmallerinnumberthanquality violentcrimesare While CIVIC BULLETIN New YorkerNew "Tipping Point," article an magazine subway MalcolmGladwell systemthat usedinhis asitwere. thegarden, ing of aweed- lifepolicing—through qualityof through covered we that couldimpact moreseriouscrimes andFBIcrimestatistics.in thenewspapers We dis- lessness becausethosecrimesarethemostreported law- fenses, contributetoasenseof theygreatly lifeof- are much smallerinnumber thanqualityof ity todealwithseriouscrimes. violentcrimes While crimes toenhanceyourabil- life qualityof ment of understoodhow you couldusetheenforce-truly YorkNew Police CityDeputy Commissioner, who policemen, Jacktime great Maple, thelate, great theall- YorkNew in1994 andworked withoneof whenIwent into andthenagain on withGeorge, Iworked that systemproject discovery onthetransit actualcrime. wasthereby influence That ourgreat and fectively how aboutitself influence acityfeels policing orafocusonqualityoflifecrimestoef- gram that I am sure you are all very familiar with. you familiar thatIamsure areallvery gram andinitiatives,efforts one—apro- for Compstat ous crimes.We doingthatthroughavariety are of life issues,at thesametimethatwefocusonseri- crime, onqualityof much attentiononthesignsof we as that needtofocus the sameunderpinning, we areapproaching itinmuch thesameway, with but different, isvery here location. Ourchallenge forced toredirectourlimitedresourcesanother We down clamp ononecrimehotspotandthenare fromfiretofire. running the policeareconstantly cityatthesametime,pact theentire inLosAngeles toim- thedepartment thesheersize of of virtue that, unlikeNewYork, we by where hadtheability IcommandedinNewYork.what of thesize thatisone-fourth with apoliceforce Let me use the example of the New York theNew City Let meusetheexampleof But much onusingbroken windows depends The main difficulty thatwe is maindifficulty here arefacing The with it because to make an arrest in New York inNew with itbecausetomake anarrest City crimes like a$1.15faretheft. didn'twantmentality thatthey minor toaddress but thesubway theproblem, policehada ing of the fare evaders. We accurate understand- hadavery turnstile, andcount standatout onceamonth, every wouldThey documented it. literally have peoplego day worse andwasgrowing allthetime. cared aboutthem,increasedto250,000peoplea seemed thatnobodywas maintainingthem oreven underturnstiles, orovergo turnstiles, becauseit characters whowould scruffy of sion, intheform fareevasion. Fare eva- of dealing withtheproblem you whenyou aredlight. werestoppedat was atstreetlevel intimidating with asqueegee part him moneyinmuch thesameway thathiscounter- you intimidating togivethere withhishandout, orpettycriminalwould bestanding and abeggar the subway through theadjacentgate, you hadtogo into dalized theturnstiles, inorder to get sothat pest,orthepettycriminalwhovan- thesqueegee of day would they ery encounterthesubway version fires onthetracks andtrainderailments—andev- daytherewere thesystem,andevery maintenance of little thesystem—attimetherewas very fear of clining dramaticallybecauseofacombination day.every However, thosenumbershadbeende- York million peoplerodetheNew subway system At thetime,the transitsystem. threeandahalf really wanted todomuch about. evasion, fare nobody anissuethat with theissueof policeofficers,thinking bywas manyterrific todeal great withKelling'ssystem, guidanceandalotof way. What we didintheNewYork Citysubway impact ofthatspreadandinfacttipittheother spreads,as anepidemic justasquicklydiminishthe Kelling andWilson. thebroken windowsrespects supports theoriesof ping Point ultimatelybecamethebasisfor that article his Subway didn'twant todeal policemanagement How did we subway knowThe that? system systematthetimewas havingahardtime The from service Back thiswas then, a$1.15theftof Gladwell endorsestheideathatyoucan,asfast book, an extraordinary book that inmany bookthat book,anextraordinary Tip- MANHATTAN INSTITUTE 5 Now, thirteen crime in the subway years later, Now, one It is a system also that has approximately Broken windows works. Not by itself, but as itself, Not by works. windows Broken The ailments that afflict a cities seem to have Once our program was underway, officers discovered that one out Once our program was underway, of every seven people we were arresting for fare evasion wanted was on a warrant. a felon coming into the system to commit a rob- to commit a into the system a felon coming not goingyou're to ride the sub- $1.15 to pay bery, Criminals are very if cost-efficient that way; way. are on stealing through intent you theft or violence, that prac- Given to the MTA. contribute won't you provid- on fare down evasion cracking tical reality, as well. for other crimes ed a significant disincentive what almost 90 percent it was from system is down no longerin 1990. The counts fare evaders. MTA There that so few are is not economically it now sensible counters every to put out month to keep oftrack has five system now them, and the MTA and one-half million riders. half Be- in 1990. Why? had back the police that we to do now. for them cause there's not all that much so-called the windows, went after the broken We signs of that contributed to the re- in a way crime, duction of serious crime. part of a master set ofcities in No two strategies. are alike. in the world cities no two this country, de- WhatThis we're is not cookie-cutter approach. signing in Los Angeles is in many respects very in New employed different than the strategies we going to hear from the panel- and as you're York, what very different in many respects from ists, in Boston. worked look at it quite but when you certain commonality, the illnesses that affect it's like any individ- closely, ual. While there might be certain common elements it impacts your particularto disease, how body might same disease would be very that different from how in Similarly, impact the person sitting beside you. the policing of good cities you need to be at mak- policing windows but broken ing broad diagnoses, is an essential treatment that has to be molded to new circumstances and different environments. We developed a number of a number developed We strategies to increase find?And what did we Thanks to a very cost- officers dis- Once our program underway, was crime began And, perhaps most importantly, the number ofthe number arrests while still reducing arrest- designed "bust busses", so that We time. processing instead of to down taking prisoners twenty miles brought an arrest we the central booking facility, arrest people be- would We bus right to the scene. ground,low get and process the bus them up into outstanding Those that didn't have them there. warrants could be quickly processed and then re- leased. Those be held. that had warrants would raised the system actually arrest procedure, effective making ar- like cops In a nutshell, police morale. to they But want don't That's what they do. rests. any impact. They arrests don't make that don't have arrests to make that to a want keep them chained They to be want prisoner for twenty-four hours. part of something that a they feel is going to have demonstrable impact. that one out ofcovered were people we every seven on a warrant. wanted arresting was fare evasion for be for very seri- would these warrants Often times, and so on. One out of rapes, ous crimes: murders, was at least initially, every fare-evaders, twenty-one carrying some type of a from weapon—ranging straightedge guns. razor on up to Uzi submachine police because they this process excited Eventually had a good of chance catching significant offend- effort.ers without exorbitant began evasion Why? to go Fare to go down. down. visible were using the police in a very public, We going were after mi- We to control behavior. way nor types of a also having were and yet we crime, Ifsignificant impact on morecrimes. serious you're at that time would take approximately twelve to twelve approximately take would at that time hours oftwenty-four time— police administrative to process a $1.15 in other words, an entire day, theft of service. losing an officerThis meant from significant periods of system for the subway time, had about 700 officers on the and since they only time, ifsystem at any given a lot making they were of arrests be nobody left to police the there would rest of the system. 6 agencies. othercivic from need help needhelp.The police, Theycannotdothisalone. however, CIVIC BULLETIN Atlantic Monthly opment by citingthe“Broken Windows” in article andmy contributiontothatdevel- erously George straight years. Healsowentontopraisequitegen- Yorkcrime inNew Cityhasdeclinedforthirteen ing its “root causes”.Peopleing its“root causes spokeaboutroot was crimewithoutaddress- thatyou couldn'treduce theday in crimerates. conventional The wisdomof police oreven theprisonswould make adifference anyone itwas thathardly thoughtthatthe clear gan manydecades,ing inthisareafor andwhenwe be- make arealdifference. andIhadbeenwork- George thepolicecould that on thecommonperception inologists inthecountry, was theywere that based with many crim- commonality didn'tsitcomfortably mendous reductionincrime. quality oflifepolicing,helpedbringaboutatre- theseprograms, along with commit crimes. Each of reduce thetemptationpeoplefacetouseguns to thestreetinorder usedtotakeBratton gunsoff could alsonotethestreetcrimeunitthatChief needsmorepoliceofficers. desperately Angeles I officers topatrol thecity—and,Iwould add,Los tool,ful crimereduction aswashaving morepolice you failed todoso, power-was alsoavery moted if crimes intheirareaonpenaltyofnotbeingpro- individualtrict commanders—accountable for inLosAngeles,hold precinct dis- commanders—or to theeffort was onlyone. program, Compstat The crimes life which todealwithqualityof patrolling went down inNewYork Cityfor manyreasons, of can beadapted. ithow understand itworks andhow it truly who hourorsothatyou'llthe next hearfromthepeople needs tobebetterunderstood,andIhopethatin a philosophy. Itisareality. Butitisarealitythat still aphilosophy isnolonger that I'm apractitionerof What allthesefactorshadincommon,and this What But Iwant crime toclarifyattheoutsetthat JAMES Q.WILSON: itcomestobroken windowsWhen policing, magazine. ChiefBrattonsaidthat gangs. Inothercasesitmeanstearing down orfix- orrowdy corners tutes hangingoutonstreet teenage fiti. Inotherplacesitmeans dealingwithprosti- graf- the city. ridof Insomecasesitmeansgetting ontheconditionsin tactic. tacticdepends gle The notasin- all, windows policingisnot.Itis, of first dividual neighborhoods. toin- toidentifywhatisimportant to acttogether need theseagencies maintenance, andthelike. All of schools, street buildingmaintenanceprograms, run who most. AndhereImeanthesupervisors needitthe atthelocallevel citizens where together andaccountability tobringefficiency nated effort on localneighborhoods. hastobeacoordi- There really talkaboutbroken windows government. windows thanpolicing. policingismore We should collapse. Truly, broken of ed anditisontheverge thestreethasn'tbeeninspect- buildingacross The inthestreet. isgarbage lightisout. There traffic This donotseemtobepolicebusinessatall. glance neighborhoods,complaints from which atfirst thepoliceareresponsivepolicing meansisthat to lifeinneighborhoods. foundly affectsthequalityof havior, they oftendon'tseeitthisway, while pro- whosebe- agencies need helpfromallgovernment thecourts. needhelpfrom They They department. signs. inspection needhelpfromthebuilding They cies. needhelptomaintainstreets, They tofixstop needhelpfromothercivicdo thisalone. agen- They we canmakeourcommunities safer. tohelpthemchange, programs building government causestochange,waiting root andwhilewe for are can make societyis asignificantdifference.While tinue toshare, thecriminaljusticesystem isthat done onlyover several generations. couldbedoneatall, they that,if changes culture, thedesiretojoingangs— oreliminating society, alteringour of changing theclassstructure outtheyweren't quitesure.Itmightmean turned were, they whenpressedit theyknewwhat but as if Let metellyou whatbroken alittlebitabout istosay,That focus makingcitygovernment thethingsthatbroken windows And oneof police, however,The needhelp. cannot They andIhave had,andcon- viewthatGeorge The MANHATTAN INSTITUTE 7 The average person on a typical day is not the The on a typical day person average George windows, and I, in our article on broken ifBut even if wrong, we were even the crime the traditional police of- wanted to revive We The police, beginning in the middle of the 20th Eliminate the disorder and the intimidation and moreEliminate the disorder and the intimidation decent people use the streets. it did have an effect on was how willing people willing how effect an on was it did have to use the street, to feel comfortablewere in the safe in the street. Public satis- street, and to feel offaction with the condition up, went their lives This though the crime rate did not change. even seem strange,may but it is not. victim of person walking to average The a crime. the supermarket or going or pass- to the bus stop teenagersing rowdy howev- on the street corner is, of the subject er, potential disorder or intimidation. and Eliminate the disorder and the intimidation more decent people use the streets. offered the speculation that if public order im- offered the speculation that if public a there's might gorates crime Now down. proved, debate among social scientists as to whether lively gone as a result of down the crime rates have this, all arguments ofand like this sort it is difficult, if an absolutely non-contro- to make not impossible, argument right, but George that were we versial will some reasons foroffer you could thinking that we be right. very well minor of- address does not decline when you rate and public happiness undoubtedly goesfenses, up, a responsibil- have agencies, all civic the police, like ity to attend to public happiness. In the 19th and ficer's concern for public order. early parts of public order was the 20th century, the focus of They the watch- were police activity. shout when Theymen on the street corners. would when a hullabaloo set up They would a fire. they saw They people there they saw a violent offense. were and to those who would to the community to convey pref- that the community's disturb the community erences came first. and by crime fighters, became exclusively century, waited satcrime fighters in patrol cars, I mean they Secondly, broken windows policing is not zero windows broken Secondly, This Indeed everyone. doesn't mean harassing policing is not in- windows broken And, finally, are that you policing means windows Broken an instituted on foot patrol was Consequently, found that foot patrols find?What We did we tolerance, though that phrasetolerance, though on it, has been hung as if having no the police could eliminate by crime in Even small. tolerance for any infraction however patrol on you officers City with 38,000 New York What you tolerance policing. cannot practice zero to address those aspects of can do is use the police that if left unattended will seemingly minor crimes ofcause the conditions public order in neighbor- hoods to deteriorate. It means it doesn't really mean harassing anyone. dealing with those small signs of disorder that you ifbelieve, left unattended, will create a problem. Indeed it is partdifferent to community concerns. of If policing. community-oriented to peo- talk you in any serious ple in crime-ridden neighborhoods They their want the same thing. they all say way, neighborhood repaired. is a broad agree-And there ment as to what repair that entails. are their responding, I think, to what people say policing began windows Broken major concerns. with an experiment New done in Newark, Jersey, when George Foundation the Police by orchestrated The Foundation director. its research was Kelling to see if be an interesting idea thought it would make a difference in neighbor- foot patrols would Thishood crime. experiment was carried over out the objections of which most police officers, no have officers would thought that foot patrol by effect on the crime rate. experimental basis in certain selected neighbor- of and the behavior hoods, people and offenders compared with simi- in those neighborhoods was lar neighborhoods where not in- foot patrol was stituted. of much did not have on crime rates, an effect But what it had told us. just as the police chiefs What public confidence. an effect on was did have ing up abandoned buildings or eliminating seedy buildings ing up abandoned centers for the drug become motels that have trade. 8 was. outwhat onceyou theproblem figured that culture in thesubway was lawlessness, anditdidn'ttake muchtoend inthesubwayThe problem wasnothomelessness. Theproblem CIVIC BULLETIN ness. Anything went inthesubways. As aresult, lawless- of therewas just aculture but really there, coursethere were somehomelesspeopledown Of idea thathomelessnesswas driving itwas ludicrous. into thesubway the andstudiedthe crimethere, homelessness. to theTransportation Authority, theproblem was you talked lice, theproblemwas homelessness. If you talkedtothepo- caused by homelessness. If would have believed thatcrimeinthesubways was you readthe Dante'sInferno. Butif was like something outof York Cityinthe1980s?Thatwas anexperience. It happeningAngeles.the thingsthatare inLos relevantcause Ithinkitisrelevant, very tosomeof Bratton mentionedearlierbe- Chief way program whywe thinkso. Kelling willtellyou IhopeGeorge in hisremarks fighters. crime?WeWill thisreduce thinkso. And ing theircommitmenttobecomingseriouscrime more traditionalfunctionwithoutatallabandon- maintenance restoresthepolicetotheirolderand glary, robbery, orhomicide. rape Restoring order amajorbur- often unsuccessfully, of perpetrators call,andthenwentfor aradio outandtriedtofind, man out in a room full of eloquentleaders. man outinaroomfullof Clearly,social activistsinAmerica. Iamtheodd themosteloquent preachers and ers, who isoneof time. Iwillthenbefollowedcurrent by GeneRiv- eminent socialthinker the intheUnitedStatesat eminent politicalscientist,butisprobablythemost Wilson, apoliticalscientistwhoisnotjustmost the20thand21stcenturies—andJamesbridged Q. who asthepolicechief down inhistory will go who Bratton—thepolice chief speaking afterChief GEORGE KELLING: And yet, as Chief Bratton recounts, if you went Brattonrecounts, if asChief And yet, you thesubway rode inNew How manyof Even so,York totheNew Iwant toreturn sub- New York Times Ihave theunenviable taskof inthe1980s,you ture of lawlessness there, and if you would justgo lawlessnessthere, andif of ture acul- There's issimplyuntrue. there.problem That thatthereisahomeless culturalperception, general in SkidRow isdriven by homelessness. isthe That inthe articles City subways seemlikeapicnic by comparison. as everyone knows, SkidRow makesYork theNew Park—Skidwith violenceinMacArthur Row. Now, les, andhegave easyones. me afew out Istarted problems hereinLosAnge- him ahandwithfew I'dgive Bratton askedmeif last November, Chief my trips toLos early Angeles cause duringoneof be alie. orevenculture apoliceculture, hasbeenshown to a tochange andyears you neededyears months. ideathat The of withinamatter changed tookover, Bratton theculturewas but onceChief leadershipwhowould idea, and toget pursuethat fifteen monthstosellthatidea,defend addendum towhatChiefBrattonsaid.Ittookus theproblemwas.figured outwhat Ishouldaddan and itdidn'ttake much onceyou toendthat culture ness. probleminthesubway The was lawlessness, youproblem arefacing. youproblem, exactlywhich hadbetterunderstand ton hasmade, tofixasocial isthat before you try some oftheothercontributionsthatChiefBrat- hinted aboutthisinhisremarksonCompstatand place thanitwas inthe1980s. Itisadifferent ture. feeltoit. Ithasadifferent York subways now, it'sacompletelydifferentcul- you rideintheNew matter.that minoroffenses If about. You simply hadtotakeseriouslytheidea was Jimtalked dosomepolicingalongthelinesthat do was have someleadership, andallyou hadtodo wasview notallthatcomplicated.Allyouhadto control. outof was absolutely stiles withimpunity. Itwas asocialenvironment that subway turnstiles, andcouldjumpover theturn- people,criminals couldintimidate couldblock the When I began toresearch SkidRow, Ibegan When I read many Now thereasonwhy Iemphasizethisisbe- probleminthesubwayThe was not homeless- theequation,andIthink Jim of A criticalpart Solving thisproblemfromapolicepointof Los AngelesTimes claimingthatcrime MANHATTAN INSTITUTE 9 In other words, serious criminals are busy do- In other words, The policing criticism against windows broken Well that's an interesting argument, and it's es- that's an interesting argument, Well As a matter of Wes by Professor fact, research started first meeting with focus When we The problem is a culture has developed there that tolerates any- thing and everything. Not all fare beaters are serious criminals, but a lot but beatersNot all fare are serious criminals, of criminals are fare serious beaters. ing a lot of and they're bad stuff, busy at it quite respect for no any laws they have often, and because up to the kind ofat all they themselves open inter- aboutChief and that talked that Jim has ventions Bratton has implemented. Jim and I are order fanat- goes this. like something for a place mentality, a housekeeper's have We ics. everything and everything and what we in its place, is to impose White to do Protes- want Anglo Saxon that in and communities, on minority tant values are cultural imperialists who are systemati- fact we cally trying to force our views of order and culture onto poor people and minorities. pecially interesting when I talk about broken win- broken pecially interesting when I talk about policing in African American communities. dows regard- parent, think that any seriously Does anyone less oftheir daughters prop- race wants or culture, Is that a to school? ositioned for sex on the way to preservecultural tradition that we want and pass to future generations?down If think about it, you people minorities and poor the idea that somehow in conditions that encouragerevel social disorder It's an and crime is simply an insult to the poor. insult to minorities that assumes that they some- neighborhoods. in broken living enjoy how Skogan at Northwestern demonstrated University that if dis- you across cultures, go you races, across what social dis- know that people intuitively cover something done aboutThey it, and want is. order something done about it verythey want badly. get, for example, would we groups in the subway different cultural groupsincluding together, Afri- they and ask them what can American women, thought of they were Surprisingly, our proposals. after the New- Atlantic Monthly Now we have to figure out what to do. In many to do. to figure out what have we Now me ifWhen Jim first asked to co- I wanted But no sooner had the article come out than respects the Los Angeles Police Department the Los respects Angeles Police knows the police are also sure that However, what to do. to will have We their efforts. they will be sued for But the evi- constantly doing. justify what we're re- and can restore order, dence is there that you It is not storing order is not harassment. it's the poor who In reality, criminalizing the poor. and crime and suffer the most from social disorder the problems of Skid Row. author the article in quick footark published, he was patrol study was real be in for some to point out to me that I would profession. also said that I And he criticism in my And all goingwas a racist, to be called and worse. of an obliga- that did in fact happen. have But we the truthtion to publish because there is a desper- ate need for order in the poorest neighborhoods in minority commu- especially and communities, they They property, can't protect their own nities. and as a in the streets, play can't let their children result a culture of terror that diminishes develops to the point where many of those communities them are virtually unlivable. the police readily accepted first it was the idea. At too many calls for have but we you're right, "yes, serious crime that we service, too much have we But the police knew on", to concentrate etc. have disorder is in poor neigh- social devastating how put quality ofborhoods and once we life in polic- ing into an idiom that police officers could this real "Eureka!"understand there moment was This feeling mush- among the rank and file officers. that one in discovered it was roomed when one day ten fare beaters carrying either was an illegal weap- on a warrant for a serious crime. on or was wanted and stand on a corner, or walk around on a corner, and stand the neigh- order will see that there is no social borhood, you The is not homeless- problem in that community. people be sure there are some homeless To ness. but that's not the problem. Thethere, is a problem that tolerates there culture anything has developed and everything. 10 that park? yougoingtogetthecommunityretake ownershipof Howare CIVIC BULLETIN ronment entirely under control. Rightnow undercontrol. itre- ronment entirely 4,000 assignedsubway policeanditwas anenvi- subway policeinNew York, were there to close itself.the community for reclaimsparksandstreets all, becauserealsocialorderisonlysustainablewhen ownership bythecommunity. firstof istrue, This policingwithoutappropriate sustain thatlevel of after that. haveprobably again todoitagain—and monthsfromnowthey wouldindefinitely andfour policing level can't maintainthat of area. Butthey quickly by simply assigning enoughpolicetothe controlover very inandget thatpark ment cango Police andtheLosAngeles Bratton Depart- Chief tain community ownership over time?Iknow that andmain- toprotect that park?How you are going thecommunity toretakeing toget ownership of think aboutwhoowns How you thatpark. are go- Park, tohaveArthur you're forexample, going to voted topositive socialchange. tions, de- andwithothercommunity organizations with othercityagencies, withfaith-based organiza- tial, buttheyhave tode they're essen- alone.problems important, They're come apparenttoyou thatpolicecan'tsolve the theproblemsyou itwillsoonbe- accurately face, andidentify problem analysis todogood you start analysis.or SkidRow, problem If istheissueof tion to,whether we talkingaboutthesubways are claimtorepresent. communities whomthey touchwiththe academicswho areoutof child of disorder,tolerate andcrimeisthebrain- prostitution, us thattheideapoorpeopleandminorities ing. Ourinteractionwiththecommunity convinced polic- order really wanted much moreintheway of somuch sothatthey begging, sults andaggressive in- repeated andwereconstant fear thevictimsof lived They farenough. we in think that were going disappointed inourproposalsbecausetheydidn't By the way, when Chief Bratton tookover Bratton By theway, the when Chief Police quickly needtorealizevery thatyou can't you want todealsystematicallywithMac- If Another area thatIwouldAnother area like todraw atten- velop partnership strategies velop partnership looking at the relationship between aggressive traf- therelationshipbetweenlooking at aggressive minor offensesalongtheway. habitual offendersarealsocommittingalotof searchers arediscovering andmoreisthat more havoc. Butwhatre- amountof ate anenormous people cre- serious offenses. Asmallnumber of offenders commitover 50percentof percent of criminology. Five well withawell-known axiomof very that italsofit out asweputthisideatogether ering thecommunity tocontrolitself. Itturned restoring community order, i.e. ultimately empow- it,was aroundtheideaof initially framed focused for moreseriousoffenses. Broken windows, asI lifecrimesarealsoindicators qualityof certain Jack Bratton, Maple, andothersthat by Chief ery high-powered guns.people whowere carrying three bicycle ridingthepolicearrested regarding trians. Thefirst day thetrafficlaws theyenforced over andintimidatingpedes- running bicyclists of surprisingly, have driving they records. terrible inhandicappedparkingplaces.ple parkillegally Not peo- ogist inEnglandchecked toseewhatkindof policing. life For instance,acriminol- on qualityof research thatneedstobedone there isalotmore crimereduction. for egy ty. thisisnotasuccessfulstrat- Over thelongterm, respond tospikes inneighborhoodcriminalactivi- stantly forcedtoshiftresourcesaroundthecity has 9,000policeofficers, andasaresultitiscon- cityanditonly isthenation'ssecondlargest geles has between 13and 14,000policeofficers. LosAn- city. isthenation'sthirdlargest Chicago Chicago itis. howtrue think manypeoplereallyappreciate butIdon't ously under-policed cityisentirelytrue, cheap, atleastfirst. far lesspoliceeventually, butyoucan'tdoitonthe you order, keep youneed you restore order, if if levels. you make thecommitment, Inotherwords, if only 1,600policeofficers—lessthan50%ofpeak mains anenvironment undercontrolwith entirely Jim didastudyinthe1970swith BarbaraBoland we onthediscov- needtocapitalize In short, thecityhasdecidedthatitistired In Newark, finalpointthatIwouldThe like tomake isthat isanotori- Angeles thatLos Jim's statement MANHATTAN INSTITUTE 11 As a direct result of the foundations that Chief As a direct result of This is a very significant fact, especially in This is no less true in the context of Los An- There are a couple of things that I think are When George mentioned the academic critique promoted racial divisions, but did not necessarily racialpromoted divisions, in this context that Chief and it was reduce crime, Bratton recognized the importance of community strategicpolicing and building partnerships with the community. strategic partnershipsBratton laid through between and the institutions community enforcement the law of a 1990s, the early over society there was, civil crime in the city of Boston, 75% drop in violent and gang-relatedespecially in youth violence. light of in Cincinnati, Ohio. the developments The unfortunate death of and Nathaniel Jones subsequent- followed the political theatrics which ly suggests that kinds of the discussion that we're are absolutely essential here this evening having local com- to promoting understanding between police. and munities Aggressivetactic alienated the communi- policing as an isolated supposed to protect.ties it was geles, which, as you know, has a violent crime epi- know, as you which, geles, demic of but has also exported a culture its own, of violence to the rest of the country through Los Angeles This gangs. based if means that are to we must we U.S., address violent crime in the effectively deal with the challenge presented in Los Angeles and particularly gang violence. very interesting in light of the larger issues I just windows call this "broken mentioned, and I would to plus", and here I mean engaging the community the nature ofaddress in an honest way prob- the lem it faces. of reminded of I was policing, windows broken a mother, it, but my She didn't know mother. my in North a bro- Philadelphia, was Pentecostal black under- theorist because she intuitively windows ken stood that the slightest indication of disorder was something that had to be corrected immediately, because she understood that once disorder takes Jim made a very important Chief together been working Bratton and I have epidemicDuring the crack in the late 1980s a Aggressive policing as an isolated tactic alien- Now that realization is shaping how we've is shaping that realization how Now point during his articulation of windows broken cookie cut- policing when he said that there is no to quality ofter approach life policing and that ofthere are a number significant factors that have in reduce crime for it to effectively to be in play inner city neighborhoods. I met Chiefsince the early 1990s. when he Bratton the police commissioner in Boston, Bos- and was ton, as many of was a racially polarized know, you city as a result of busing during the mid-1970s and epidemicthen the crack late 1980s and during the early 1990s. whole series of new racial tensions emerged that very aggressive policing tactics very, by driven were on the part of Chief When Bratton's predecessor. Chief leadership of took over Bratton the Boston Department a new during the earlyPolice 1990s, set of because it had evolved strategic conversations become clear that the use of nec- force alone was reduceessary crime. but insufficient to effectively supposed to protect. it was It the communities ated EUGENE RIVERS: been thinking about violence in Skid Row. We violence in Skid Row. been thinking about number of small that there is a relatively know knows everyone very serious criminals out there, but community the police and the who they are, cooperating for a long enough pe- not been have and focus riod of time to identify these people our efforts on gettingof them out the commu- are and we now, I think that that is changing nity. dedicated to making a difference. fic enforcement and levels of and levels fic enforcement lot more a Now crime. but they found that people to be done, needs work on the road are badly people the same whodrive whoillegally park parking spaces, in handicapped and who are rude fares on the subway, who evade These you pass them in the street. when peo- to you ofple create all kinds from the minor social havoc, Theto the significant. good news is that they're a them. about can do something and we small number 12 in theinnercity. thinkabout crime howwe thatweneedtorethink I alsobelieve CIVIC BULLETIN would force a re-definition of terms because the terms would of force are-definition day? every that happens inourcities theterrorism resources toaddressing lars aweek,why canwe notdevote atleast limited abilliondol- ism acrosstheworld atthecostof we terror- canaddress should.If I thinkthatthey evenmedia coverage though rarely usesthatterm, been subjectedtoforover twenty years. However, theviolencethatpeoplehave of breadth anddepth that adequatelydescribesthe no otherterm Terrorism istherightword tousebecausethereis by crime. terrorized sion thatareaisliterally violence inthatareacouldnotescapetheimpres- the theanecdotalstoriesregarding hears anyof and used tocalledSouthCentral, goes anyone who towhatwenowAngeles, callSouthLos what goes think aboutcrimeintheinnercity. Anyone that windows policing. broken blacklize churches of towork insupport to provide leadershipforanewinitiative tomobi- theWestfrom Church,andhehasagreed Angeles ton andIhave Blake approached BishopCharles Brat- this philosophy backAngeles. toLos Chief bottles intosomeone'sfrontyard. others tolitter, onawall, orurinate orthrow beer order would createdisincentives for of appearance blockhood andaclean were saferplaces, andthe was,ory sheunderstoodthat neighbor- but aclean neighborhood. We whatthethe- yet hadn'tlearned their sonsanddeploy inthe ustomaintainorder suffer. wouldted decayinourneighborhood,everyone we permit- block, becausesheunderstoodthatif sidewalks,sweeping notjustoursbuttheentire Iwaswas where assignedto raisedinacontext acommunityitisalldownhill there. from hold of Now, part of the challenge politicallyisthat that thechallenge Now, of part I alsobelieve thatwe how needtorethink we And soChiefBrattonandIarehelpingtobring wouldShe andotherneighborhoodparents take was intuitivelyThis obvious toher, andsoI new conversation between America'sdifferent com- we andextendedsothat canbegina ed, deepened any politicaldiscourseaboutcrimereduction. measurable outcomes, must of betheendgame withthepolice, alongwith partnerships strategic rorizes ourcommunities. We have toemphasizethat howcrimeter- of sion andareconceptualization isthatweBratton, mustnow beginanewdiscus- divided. being notoriouslyracially of history hada thisinacitythat And we accomplishedallof civilian complaints. ing decreaseinthenumber of ing crimeby 75%andbringingabout acorrespond- as law enforcement. thecommunityaswell of countability onthepart cardasamechanismtoavoid therace ac- use of Weenforcement. thatwe the realized hadtoreject law ister tohighriskyouth withtheassistanceof our faithcommunities tomentor, monitor, andmin- theissueandinacollaborativecialize way mobilize munity's relationshiptolaw anddera- enforcement say we theblack publiclythat com- hadtoredefine and toorganize began theblackviolence that clergy drug of thescourge of because itwas inthecontext my intomybedroom. sonranterrified thatIwas wrongas 1991Ilearned bers. InJuly of men would becomeresponsiblecommunity mem- recreationalactivity theseyoung or somekindof wanted andwithmaybe todotherightthing, ajob were allwell-intentioned young theyprobably men, withthelawtrouble hadjustlosttheirway. They theseyoung in brothers my viewwas allof that year-old son'sbedroom. intomy thenthree- threebulletsgoing with thefirst emptieda9mmGlockand.45into myThey house, looking foranotherhoodlumshotintomy house. someyoung 1991, men was shotinto. InJuly of the innercity. InBostonintheearly 1990s,my house violencein levels of aredisproportionate that there obfuscating theissueanddodgingempiricalfact bedeployed asawayrace cardcouldnolonger of The broken windowsThe model must be expand- My thinking,aswe've beenworking withChief We revolutionized policing inBoston,decreas- pointinBoston'shistory, wasaturning That me. was pointfor theturning That Priorto1991 MANHATTAN INSTITUTE 13 Lee and I thought a lot about that and decided Lee and I thought a lot about that and it for a couple of did We point at which years, We spent many, many years working with wel- years many working spent many, We of with a number talked As a result, we crimi- What and supplement the civic institutions must complement work of the police department? that we were goingthat we to try and build a program and very were fortunate a contract to have did. We we to under the Giuliani administration for welfare in ex-of- us to take but it allowed recipients, work to Giuliani and other went and we fenders as well, said, do you and we people in the administration, because it's going to generate us to do this, want quite a lot of in large intend to take We exposure. ofnumbers going and we're paroled offenders, to They enthusi- find them employment. responded astically and so we made this a part of our mission. the Manhattan Institute financed Columbia Univer- Department, of School sity's SIPA and International the question of to study Public Affairs, whether or I caution you Now, reduced recidivism. not work chances ofchances and in expanding Amer- children, their capital. ica's base of human that we were but also aware we were fare recipients, Most people who men. with many not working because they're know would as you are on welfare, single heads of There are women. are households, About women. but the majority were men, a few three and a half ago years into Lee and I looked had to do more to reach said that we this and we out to men. and perhapsnal justice experts, important the most who DiIulio, John by said to us was thing that was head ofwas at the White Initiative the Faith-Based but he is also an expertHouse, initi- on faith-based with John, talked We in prisons with offenders. atives like "remember what it was said to us, and John focusing on by startedwhen you America Works in the hardlyThere anyone was to work? welfare is now. field." He said that is where prison to work And he said that if do something about could we impact a major have would we reducing recidivism, on crime. Statistics show that over Statistics show I'm going a bit about to talk to you

The reason that myself and many other com- First of that a statistic you all let me just give Our company, America Works, has been in America Works, Our company, PETER COVE: munity leaders to Los Angeles are coming munity to work with Chief the future see that of Bratton is that we the country and other cities depends in large mea- here. violent crime issues are addressed sure on how What kinds of resources putting at are the dis- we posal of What community? enforcement the law complement and supplement institutions must civic ofthe work the police department? These are all with Chief will work critical questions and we Brat- them all. ton to solve munities. The challenge ofmunities. gangin Los violence Angeles is absolutely crucialdiscussion be- in this cause as Los Angeles so goes goes, the country. the follow and Philadelphia all Detroit, Chicago, criminal patterns generated in Los Angeles. recidivism and the issue ofrecidivism impacts how recidivism might be able and what we crime and communities, to do about that. caught the attention of who is the Lee Bowes, Dr. CEO of and I wife, and also my America Works about three years ago. 600,000 people are paroled every year just from state paroled every year just from 600,000 people are and within three penitentiaries in the United States, years almost 70 percent of them are going to be reincarcerated. out of That's seven That ten. num- ber is staggering the impact of consider you when and the cost to society crime on our communities, of maintaining thousands of jails across the coun- Iftry. you just think about what that really means, in terms of it is a very and lost resources, lost lives troubling picture. were the first for-profit We business about 22 years. We program in this country. welfare-to-work with single and mothers found, through working were on welfare, with other people who working that if into work them very quickly moved you and then supportedenviroments them while they a tremen- could really make you on the job, were in terms ofdous difference in their lives freeing dependence,them from welfare in raising the life- 14 you couldmakeivism, amajorimpactonthestatetaxburden. recid- prisonsbyreducing thecostof youtoreduce couldstart If CIVIC BULLETIN ilgi es faccomplishment. asenseof will gain havethey tomeetstandards, andasaresultthey have them.They resocializes toshowupatwork, munities. Work and gives themthatengagement intheircom- ple andhelpthembecomere-engaged then youlosethem.We thesepeo- have toengage you don'tdoit prison,becauseif coming outof to have withparoleesrightasthey're anintervention have todo, isyou have important, andthisisvery seen it.I've watchedyou itwork hand. first What revolutionary. York in New thatimpactwould andelsewhere, be Bratton hasdone today, and,basedonwhatChief lifeissuesthatwe've beentalkingabout the qualityof crime.You have couldreally asignificantimpacton Youtax burden. couldmake amajorimpacton vism, you couldmakeamajorimpactonthestate prisons byreducingrecidi- thecostof to reduce you couldstart in prisonsover thelasttenyears. If unlike York, New increase thestatehashadahuge 40 percent. Take, where, forinstance,California, oreven 30percent, vism by 20percent, 10percent, whatwe couldaccomplishbyreducingrecidi- of areenormous. Just think up—the potentialgains ourinitialsuccessholds and—if ing ourservices the prisonsystem. forpeopleemerging from work asanintervention able tohave asignificantimpactoncrimeby using becauseitshowed thatyou suggestive very maybe that you would itwas buildanationalpolicyon,but project that thiswas asmall study, notthekindof I truly believe thatwork doesreducecrime.I truly I've We talkingwithother citiesaboutexpand- are ing citizens. to helpthesepeoplebecomeproductive, law-abid- cidivism, we topass uptheopportunity can'tafford work we're rightthat re- doesreduce really omy. If econ- thesepeopleintothe mainstream integrating of isdeminimisinterms inthiscountry grams pro- year, andthenumber jailevery of ing outof pointgiven fiscal climate. starting thecurrent work programs, andwe thinkthatthisisaterrific building prison-to- training. way Itisasignificant of cess asmuch individual moneyasyouneedfor job you all, canac- Food StampTraining. bestof And, called forwhat's government ing fromthefederal someone onFood Stamps,you canthendraw fund- you enroll theFoodthrough Stampentitlement.If likefederal fundingavailable this forprograms Itisnotwell known, butthereis important. very but Ithinkthatitisvery, It's atechnicalobservation, more offices, andI want tosay this. somethingabout aboutopening thecountry citiesaround number of significanteffect withthisprogram. very we feelthat canhaveple andasaresultwereally a somepoint.Workat peo- doesdothat.Itsocializes somefamilyreunificationsorevenabout marriages men intheirchildren's lives. We may beable tobring involvement somefamily to bringabout by these bythat giving thesemenself-esteemwe may beable welfare. but Ithink isananecdotalobservation, This entered thepenalsystem—women thenenter who have leftbehindwomen andchildren whenthey thesemen thepuzzle,becausemany of of ond half fare-to-work recipients. We addressingthesec- are doingaswell they're orbetterthanourwel- In fact, that companieswere morethanwillingtohire them. There are, as I said, over are,asIsaid, There 600,000peoplecom- As Imentionedearlier,we arenow talkingtoa was encouraging-touswasWhat surprising-and MANHATTAN INSTITUTE 15 OTES N For additional information, contact the Manhattan Institute, 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 New York, Avenue, For additional information, contact the Manhattan Institute, 52 Vanderbilt • www.manhattan-institute.org 212.599.7000 • Fax 212.599.3494 • E-mail [email protected] Telephone Would you prefer to receive this publication via e-mail? If so please supply us with your e-mail address by contacting us at [email protected] or 212-599-7000. Previous publications are also available.

Civic Reports

41 PRIVATE COMPETITION FOR PUBLIC SERVICES: E. J. MCMAHON, ADRIAN MOORE, AND UNFINISHED AGENDA IN NEW YORK STATE GEOFFREY F. SEGAL

40 DEFUSING THE PENSION BOMB: E. J. MCMAHON AND PETER FERRARA HOW TO CURB PUBLIC RETIREMENT COSTS IN NEW YORK STATE

39 WHY IS MANHATTAN SO EXPENSIVE? EDWARD GLAESER AND JOSEPH GYOURKO

38 VOUCHERS FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENTS: JAY P. GREENE AND GREG FORSTER AN EVALUATION OF FLORIDA’S MCKAY SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAM

37 WHAT PARENTS THINK OF NEW YORK’S CHARTER SCHOOLS DUNCAN MCCULLY AND PATRICIA J. MALIN

36 RENT CONTROL AND HOUSING INVESTMENT: HENRY O. POLLAKOWSKI EVIDENCE FROM DEREGULATION IN CAMBRIDGE, Civic Bulletins

35 THIS WORKS: EXPANDING URBAN HOUSING MICHAEL H. SCHILL, JERRY J. SALAMA AND RICHARD T. ROBERTS

34 THIS WORKS: IMPROVING URBAN EDUCATION JAY P. GREENE

33 THIS WORKS: ENCOURAGING ECONOMIC GROWTH ALEN AMIRKHANIAN

32 THIS WORKS: PREVENTING AND REDUCING CRIME GEORGE L. KELLING AND RONALD CORBETT

31 THIS WORKS: MANAGING CITY FINANCES WILLIAM D. EGGERS AND STEPHEN GOLDSMITH

Non-Profit Organization MI US Postage MANHATTAN INSTITUTE FOR POLICY RESEARCH PAID Permit 04001 52 Vanderbilt Avenue • New York, NY 10017 www.manhattan-institute.org New York, NY