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Agropedogenesis – Humankind As the Sixth Soil-Forming Factor and Attractors of Agricultural Soil Degradation

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Agropedogenesis – Humankind As the Sixth Soil-Forming Factor and Attractors of Agricultural Soil Degradation Biogeosciences, 16, 4783–4803, 2019 https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-4783-2019 © Author(s) 2019. This work is distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. Reviews and syntheses: Agropedogenesis – humankind as the sixth soil-forming factor and attractors of agricultural soil degradation Yakov Kuzyakov1,2 and Kazem Zamanian1 1Department of Soil Science of Temperate Ecosystems, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany 2Department of Agricultural Soil Science, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany Correspondence: Yakov Kuzyakov ([email protected]) and Kazem Zamanian ([email protected]) Received: 22 April 2019 – Discussion started: 8 May 2019 Revised: 1 October 2019 – Accepted: 24 October 2019 – Published: 17 December 2019 Abstract. Agricultural land covers 5:1 × 109 ha (ca. 50 % of of soil properties, agropedogenesis leads to their convergence potentially suitable land area), and agriculture has immense because of the efforts to optimize conditions for crop produc- effects on soil formation and degradation. Although we have tion. Agricultural practices lead soil development toward a an advanced mechanistic understanding of individual degra- quasi-steady state with a predefined range of measured prop- dation processes of soils under agricultural use, general con- erties – attractors (an attractor is a minimal or maximal value cepts of agropedogenesis are absent. A unifying theory of of a soil property toward which the property will develop via soil development under agricultural practices, of agropedo- long-term intensive agricultural use from any natural state). genesis, is urgently needed. We introduce a theory of an- Based on phase diagrams and expert knowledge, we define thropedogenesis – soil development under the main factor a set of “master properties” (bulk density and macroaggre- “humankind” – the sixth factor of soil formation, and deepen gates, soil organic matter content, C V N ratio, pH and elec- it to encompass agropedogenesis as the most important direc- trical conductivity – EC, microbial biomass and basal respi- tion of anthropedogenesis. The developed theory of agrope- ration) as well as soil depth (A and B horizons). These mas- dogenesis consists of (1) broadening the classical concept of ter properties are especially sensitive to land use and deter- factors ! processes ! properties ! functions along with mine the other properties during agropedogenesis. Phase di- their feedbacks to the processes, (2) a new concept of attrac- agrams of master soil properties help identify thresholds and tors of soil degradation, (3) selection and analysis of mas- stages of soil degradation, each of which is characterized by ter soil properties, (4) analysis of phase diagrams of master one dominating process. Combining individual attractors in soil properties to identify thresholds and stages of soil degra- a multidimensional attractor space enables predicting the tra- dation, and, finally, (5) a definition of the multidimensional jectory and the final state of agrogenic soil development and attractor space of agropedogenesis. The main feature of an- developing measures to combat soil degradation. In conclu- thropedogenesis is the narrowing of soil development to only sion, the suggested new theory of anthro- and agropedoge- one function (e.g. crop production for agropedogenesis), and nesis is a prerequisite for merging various degradation pro- this function is becoming the main soil-forming factor. The cesses into a general view and for understanding the func- focus on only one function and the disregard of other func- tions of humankind not only as the sixth soil-forming factor tions inevitably lead to soil degradation. We show that the but also as an ecosystem engineer optimizing its environment factor humankind dominates over the effects of the five nat- to fulfil a few desired functions. ural soil-forming factors and that agropedogenesis is there- fore much faster than natural soil formation. The direction of agropedogenesis is largely opposite to that of natural soil development and is thus usually associated with soil degrada- tion. In contrast to natural pedogenesis leading to divergence Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. 4784 Y. Kuzyakov and K. Zamanian: Reviews and syntheses: Agropedogenesis 1 Introduction yields-and-land-use-in-agriculture, last access: May 2019). Even though huge areas of land are occupied by agriculture, 1.1 Soil degradation by agricultural land use and humans have modified natural soils over the last 10– 12 thousand years, a theory of soil formation as affected by Soils (S) as natural bodies are formed via interactions of soil- humankind – anthropedogenesis and its subcategory agrope- forming factors, i.e. climate (cl), organisms (o), relief (r) and dogenesis – is absent. This paper therefore presents for the parent material (p) over time (t) (Dokuchaev, 1883; Glinka, first time a unifying theory of anthropedogenesis – soil de- 1927; Jenny, 1941; Zakharov, 1927): S D f .cl;o;r;p;t;:::/ velopment under the main factor humankind – the sixth fac- (see the copy–paste history of the equation in the Supple- tor of soil formation. Moreover, we expand it to encompass ment). agropedogenesis as a key aspect of general anthropedogene- The processes of additions, losses, transfers and transloca- sis. tion, and transformations of matter and energy over centuries and millennia produce a medium – soil (Simonson, 1959), 1.2 Humans as the main soil-forming factor which supports plant roots and fulfils many other ecosystem functions (Lal, 2008; Nannipieri et al., 2003; Paul, 2014). Humans began to modify natural soils at the onset of agricul- These functions commonly decrease due to human activities, ture ca. 10–12 thousand years ago (Diamond, 2002; Richter, in particular through agricultural practices because of accel- 2007), resulting in soil degradation. Examples of soil degra- erated soil erosion, nutrient loss (despite intensive fertiliza- dation leading to civilization collapses are well known, start- tion), aggregate destruction, compaction, acidification, alka- ing at least with Mesopotamia (18th to 6th centuries BCE; lization and salinization (Homburg and Sandor, 2011; Sandor Diamond, 2002; Weiss et al., 1993). Notwithstanding all the and Homburg, 2017). Accordingly, the factor humankind has negative impacts humans have on soils, the intention was al- nearly always been considered to be a soil-degrading entity ways to increase fertility to boost crop production (Richter et that, by converting natural forests and grasslands to arable al., 2011; Sandor and Homburg, 2017), reduce negative en- lands, changes the natural cycles of energy and matter. Ex- vironmental consequences and achieve more stable agroeco- cept in very rare cases that lead to the formation of fertile systems. To attain these aims, humans have (i) modified soil soils such as Terra Preta in the Amazon Basin (Glaser et al., physical and hydrological properties (for example, by remov- 2001), Plaggen in northern Europe (Pape, 1970) and Hor- ing stones and loosening soil by tillage, run-off irrigation, tisols (Burghardt et al., 2018), soil degradation is the most draining and terracing); (ii) altered soil chemical conditions common outcome of agricultural practices (DeLong et al., through fertilization, liming and desalinization; and (iii) con- 2015; Homburg and Sandor, 2011). Soil degradation begins trolled biodiversity by sowing domesticated plant species and immediately after conversion of natural soil and involves the applying biocides (Richter et al., 2015; Richter, 2007). Al- degradation in all physical, chemical and biological proper- though these manipulations commonly lead to soil degrada- ties (Table 1). The result is a decline in ecosystem functions. tion (Homburg and Sandor, 2011; Paz-González et al., 2000; Soil degradation gains importance with the rapid increase Sandor et al., 2008), they are aimed at decreasing the most in the human population (Carozza et al., 2007) and tech- limiting factors (nutrient contents, soil acidity, water scarcity, nological progress. Increasing food demand requires either etc.) for crop production regardless of the original environ- larger areas for croplands and/or intensification of crop pro- mental conditions in which the soil was formed (Guillaume duction per area of already-cultivated land. Because the land et al., 2016b; Liu et al., 2009). Thus, agricultural land use al- resources suitable for agriculture are limited, most increases ways focused on removing limiting factors and providing op- in food production depend on the second option: intensifica- timal growth conditions for a few selected crops: 15 species tion (Lal, 2005). While prohibiting or reducing degradation make up 90 % of the world’s food, and three of them – corn, is essential in achieving sustainable food production (Lal, wheat and rice – supply two-thirds of this amount (FAO, 2009), many studies have addressed individual mechanisms 2018). These crops (except rice) have similar water and nu- and specific drivers of soil degradation (Table 1). Nonethe- trient requirements in contrast to the plants growing under less, there is still no standard and comprehensive measure to natural conditions. Consequently, agricultural land use has determine soil degradation intensity and to differentiate be- always striven to narrow soil properties to uniform environ- tween degradation stages. mental conditions. Agricultural soils
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