women contribute 20% of the total fish catch (Schoeffel 1985) and 25-50% in in 25-50% and 1985) (Schoeffel catch fish total the of 20% contribute women

Samoan community came from women's efforts. In south Tarawa, Kiribati, Kiribati, Tarawa, south In efforts. women's from came community Samoan

generally reliable since they utilize a variety of reef species on the reef flats." Hill Hill flats." reef the on species reef of variety a utilize they since reliable generally

( 1977) found that approximately 32% of the total fish catch in an American American an in catch fish total the of 32% approximately that found ( 1977)

ewe mn n wmns ihn o Cuk sae, Wmns ehius ap­ techniques "Women's stated, Chuuk, on fishing women's and men between

pear to have traditionally provided the bulk of the total production and are are and production total the of bulk the provided traditionally have to pear

reef using handnets and baskets. Severance (1976:123), writing on the difference difference the on writing (1976:123), Severance baskets. and handnets using reef

reported that women throughout central Micronesia are known to fish on the the on fish to known are Micronesia central throughout women that reported

when fishing becomes a sport, as in spearing, do men participate." Alkire ( ( 1977) Alkire participate." men do spearing, in as sport, a becomes fishing when

buiag Island in Torres Strait. In the southern Lau islands of Fiji, Thompson Thompson Fiji, of islands Lau southern the In Strait. Torres in Island buiag

(1940) wrote that "women catch most of the daily supply of fish in nets. Only Only nets. in fish of supply daily the of most catch "women that wrote (1940)

that "women bring in the most fish and are the most consistent fishers" of Ma­ of fishers" consistent most the are and fish most the in bring "women that

These areas yield significant and dependable harvests. Nietschmann ( ( 1985) found Nietschmann harvests. dependable and significant yield areas These

role and importance offisherwomen. Women generally do not participate in "sea" "sea" in participate not do generally Women offisherwomen. importance and role

fishing, focusing instead on shallow reef flats, lagoons, or mangrove channels. channels. mangrove or lagoons, flats, reef shallow on instead focusing fishing,

lore and subsistence fishing practices of men with little or no attention to the the to attention no or little with men of practices fishing subsistence and lore

hannes 1978, 1981 ). Most research, however, has focused primarily on the fishing fishing the on primarily focused has however, 1981 research, 1978, Most ). hannes

tropical marine ecosystems (Alkire 1968, 1978, Nietschmann 1973, Nietschmann Nietschmann 1973, Nietschmann 1978, 1968, (Alkire ecosystems marine tropical

& &

Micronesica Micronesica

itcmn 18, 95 MCy 94 Ke 17, als-mt 17, Jo­ 1977, Bayliss-Smith 1976, Klee 1974, McCoy 1985, 1981, Nietschmann

A number of studies have addressed human interaction with and use of of use and with interaction human addressed have studies of number A

present forms of women's fishing practices on Kosrae and examines the the examines and Kosrae on practices fishing women's of forms present

social and technological changes in women's fishing over the last century. century. last the over fishing women's in changes technological and social

tivity that included specialized gear and techniques. Women's fishing fishing Women's techniques. and gear specialized included that tivity

remains an important activity on Kosrae although only a few individuals a few individuals only although Kosrae on activity important an remains

still practice traditional fishing methods. This paper reviews past and and past reviews paper This methods. fishing traditional practice still oe' nt ihn o Ksa ws hgl dvlpd n vre ac­ varied and developed highly a was Kosrae on fishing net women's

that do exist indicate that women's fishing provides a consistent and and consistent a provides fishing women's that indicate exist do that

stable form of protein for subsistence. subsistence. for protein of form stable

tems has been given scant attention in the literature. The few studies studies few The literature. the in attention scant given been has tems

Abstract-Women's Abstract-Women's

Women's Fishing on Kosrae: A Description of Past and Present Present and Past of Description A Kosrae: on Fishing Women's

25(1): 1-22, 1992 1992 1-22, 25(1):

ihn ad oe' kolde fmrn ecosys­ marine of knowledge women's and fishing

University of Hawai of University

Sea Grant Extension Service Service Extension Grant Sea

KIM KIM

Honolulu, Hawai'i Hawai'i Honolulu,

Methods Methods

DES DES

Introduction Introduction

ROCHERS ROCHERS

In In

'

i at Manoa Manoa at i the early part of this century, century, this of part early the

Kosrae Kosrae became a supply stop for

1992 1992

42 42 sq mi) surrounded by a narrow

( (

I), I),

2 2

km

Coquille, Coquille,

ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT

anchored anchored for 10 days in what is now called

Micronesica Micronesica 25(

SOCIAL SOCIAL

PHYSICAL PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Coquille Coquille

Kosraean Environment and Society Society and Environment Kosraean

The The first known European contact with Kosraeans occurred in 1824 when

Kosrae Kosrae (formerly Kusaie) is the easternmost island in the Caroline archi­

On On the island of Kosrae, historically fishing has been the domain of women;

1989). In In 1989). Kosrae 1978 joined Pohnpei, Chuuk and Yap to become the Federated

nearly nearly 7,000, half of which is under the age of (Federated 18 States of Micronesia

this this period, the population increased from a low of 200 to a current number of

three three different colonial powers: Germany, Japan, and the United States. During

traditional traditional culture. Between 1880 and 1976, Kosrae was under the influence of

200 200 individuals (Ritter & Ritter 1981). Concurrently, Kosrae was invaded by a

venereal venereal disease swept the island and the population plummeted from 6,000 to

wave wave of missionaries who managed to destroy nearly all that remained of the

Okat Okat Harbor. After the stay of the

whalers whalers and sailors. During this period 1830-1880) ( epidemics of influenza and

the the French scientific ship

Weather Weather Bureau 1963-1972, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1989).

and and relative humidity range from 25 to 30 C and 80 to 90% respectively (U.S.

rain rain per year, the most of any island n the Caroline archipelago. Temperatures

from from July to October. Kosrae receives between 4,670-6,470 mm (184-255 in) of

forests forests and sand beaches. Situated within the equatorial countercurrent, Kosrae

(Maxwell (Maxwell 1982). The coastal area is low-lying, consisting mainly of mangrove

experiences experiences northeast trade winds from December to April and southeast trades

incised incised valleys and gorges, is densely vegetated with native upland rainforest

fringing fringing reef (Fig. 2). The rugged interior, dominated by sharp peaks and deeply

pelago pelago ), (Fig. lying mid-way 1 between Pohnpei and the southern Marshall Is­

lands. lands. Kosrae is a high island of 109

century. century.

the the technological and social changes in Kosraean women's fishing over the last

fishing on on Kosrae fishing by describing past and present techniques fishing and examining

of of the inshore environment. This paper will discuss the evolution of women's

and and canoe building. In 1989, I spent two months (June and July) interviewing

Kosraean Kosraean men traditionally have been more involved in agricultural activities

and and with fishing Kosraean women studying their fishing practices and knowledge

Oceanian Oceanian women are in daily contact with the marine environment, they possess

been been conducted to document this knowledge.

considerable considerable knowledge of marine ecosystems; nonetheless, little research has

it it either difficult or dangerous for men to fish beyond the reef. Because many

supply supply of protein, which is especially important when inclement weather makes

women's women's differs fishing from men's in that it provides a household with a regular

some some areas of Papua New Guinea (Haines 1982). These studies indicate that 2 2 II) c.>... .. o • ,... -II) · {)Hawaii z Marlana I Islands T N I Marshall ...c:, ·· Islands "' I g.::i:, KOSRAE ... Federated States Micronesia Kiribati 1i! ~ Nauru. 0 0 ...3 -- Kiribati ::s. -~ "':n .. Ji .~ Solomon "'::,- Tokelau a s· ~ \) ~ ..._ . ••!ands 00 0 ··,.' \ ::, '<;::i..i,. Tuvalu ~ ' w. Samoa i>l"'... o. Vanuatu ti·.; ·Am. Samoa ~: . p ·· ··.·,.=: :· : FIJI ·('.) · : .·::._. . .. :·· .,·. , ,• .·. . Niue French Polynesia New~·­ Tonga II) Caledonia · Cook Islands c.> ------:1~8~0:------_J: - 0 1000km .... Figure I. Location of Kosrae in the central Pacific. 1000n. ml

/ /

.

UTWE UTWE

,,,.

Micronesica Micronesica I), 992 25( I

. .

Kosrae

N N

r r

Women's Women's Fishing on Kosrae-Past and Present

Map Map of

. .

2

boundry boundry

reef reef

t t

Figure Figure

road road

district district

li

The The primary sources of information about pre-contact practices fishing are

Although Although more Kosraeans are in jobs, wage-earning agriculture and fishing

The The an church presently plays important in role Kosraean and society, many

-

-

Figure Figure 2

EJ]coraJ EJ]coraJ

(Table (Table 1). It should be kept in mind that the focus of these accounts was the

botany, botany, and geology, material culture of Kosrae and not the subsistence fishing

the the written accounts of early explorers and naturalists who visited the island

spearfishing, spearfishing, which are men's fishing activities, all inshore fishing is done by

vides vides a dependable supply of protein. With the exception of throw-netting and

women. women.

------

such such as cooking and are fishing prohibited on the Sabbath.

continue continue to provide the primary means of subsistence. Fishing in particular pro­

of the the of moral rigid standards by set the missionary first to Kosrae still persist. On

-

Sundays, Sundays, most Kosraeans spend the better part of the day in church; activities

Tafunsak, Tafunsak, and Lelu, the government seat.

States of Micronesia. Micronesia. States of Kosrae State consists four of municipalities: Utwe, Malem, 4 4 Table I. Comparison of past and present fishing methods.

Observer Fishing Method Gear Used No. of People Where Used When Sarfert nek/ap nek musra 100 women reef day /high tide t:l su/ nek musra, large groups reef night/low tide n "' torch ;:ti matan eat nek musra g 2-3 reef night/low tide ::r women n ii! moko nek moko large groups reef night/low tide ~ taptap nek pukok large groups beach night/full moon 0 3 ta stone walls, nek large groups reef night/low tide n ::s. musra "' ::!1 Wilson "'::r 5· nek/ap nek musra 9-100 women reef day/falling tide QQ 0 taptap in nek/ap nek musra 9-100 women along shore day/peak high tide ::, ee/ael* nek musra 3-10 women reef night/until moonrise i-.: moko 0 nek moko 1-2 women reef night/low tide iil"' n patirtir* nek moko , op 1-2 women reef day /low tide punkunse• nek moko op 2-5 women reef day/neap tide meku* nek moko 1-5 women reef late afternoon/rising tide tu• nek moko 1-2 women mutun eka morning/high to low tide

VI

tide tide

moko moko

nek moko moko nek 1-3 women women 1-3 reef flat, seagrass seagrass flat, reef night/full moon, low low moon, night/full

edge edge

grass beds, reef reef beds, grass

hne, sea- channel,

kosr kosr

gillnet gillnet 2-3 women mangrove mangrove women 2-3 night/falling tide tide night/falling

edge edge

grass beds, reef reef beds, grass

(gill-netting) (gill-netting) hne, sea- channel,

koa koa

gillnet gillnet

3-5 women mangrove mangrove women 3-5 day/low tide tide day/low

Des Rochers Rochers Des

'° '°

N N

moko, op op moko, women women

channel channel :0 :0

-

op op nek musra, nek nek musra, nek

30 men men 30 & & mangrove, mangrove, day /low tide tide /low day

torches torches women women ..!:!: ..!:!:

kaluk* kaluk* nek kaluk, kaluk, nek N N 30 men men 30 & & ocean near Utwe night/March-August night/March-August Utwe near ocean

~- musra musra women women

kamile* kamile*

~ ~ kan op, nek nek op, kan

100 men, men, 100 "specific places" places" "specific

day /falling tide tide /falling day :, :,

0 0 .. ..

women women

tide tide

;;· ;;·

ka* ka*

::: ::: ka ka

3-5 men men 3-5 & & shallows shallows day/falling tide, rising rising tide, day/falling

land" land"

taptap* in pukok pukok in taptap* nek pukok pukok nek

24-60 women "side of the the of "side women 24-60 day/high tide tide day/high

women women

tide; high tide tide high tide;

pukok* pukok*

nek pukok pukok nek

24-60 men men 24-60 & & shallow areas areas shallow day /falling tide; rising rising tide; /falling day

weirs) weirs)

(stone fish fish (stone reef reef

ta ta nek musra, ta ta musra, nek

1-2 women shallow edge of of edge shallow women 1-2

night/falling tide tide night/falling

Wilson Wilson

Observer Fishing Method Method Fishing Observer

Gear Used Used Gear

No. of People Where Used Used Where People of No. When When

Table I. I. Table Continued. Continued. 0\ 0\ Table 1. Continued. Observer Fishing Method Gear Used No. of People Where Used When Des Rochers tuptup nek moko 1-3 women reef flat, seagrass day/low tide beds op Derris roots, 1-3 women mangrove day/low tide ..~ gillnet channel, reef ,a g edge, deep ::r areas in reef ?." op sra Callicarpa 1-2 women deep holes in reef day/low tide ~ candicans a0 aya (handlining) 15-20 ft. 1-2 women deep areas in day/low tide "==• monofilament & children reef, harbor, .. line reef edge :!1 ::r.. ti powa (crabbing) by hand 1-3 women mangroves day/high tide 5· fut papal by foot QQ 1-3 women mangrove day/low to mid tide 0 :, (clamming) channel near Utwe ..~ sru koet metal hook 1-2 women reef flat day /low tide ii! sul machete, 1-2 women reef flat night/new moon, low " flashlight, tide kerosene lamp reef gleaning by hand, basket 1-2 women reef flat day/low tide These methods are no longer practiced and were reported only by Wilson. For further details on these methods see Wilson ( 1968).

....

The The

a a salt-tolerant

Ritter Ritter 128). 1981:

noted noted the following:

& &

(Hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceous).

both both of which were used in

Senjavin, Senjavin,

nek nek moko,

fienkek fienkek (Premna obtusifolia),

NET NET FISHING

and and the

Micronesica Micronesica 2S(I), 1992

"the "the everyday handnet women," of approximately was six

nek nek musra

made made the observations following on Kosraean in fishing 1827:

nek nek musra,

Ritter Ritter 172). 1981:

& &

Senjavin, Senjavin,

Historically, Historically, traditional net fishing has been a highly developed and varied

The The German ethnographer Ernst Sarfert suggested that Kosraean women

According According to another account, " . . . deepsea fishing has apparently never

Friedrich Friedrich Kittlitz, senior naturalist aboard the

" " ... almost is reserved exclusively for at the saw, women; least, [fishing] we

shrub shrub commonly found near the shore. One piece was long and curved and the

nets nets were attached to two pieces of

feet feet long and traditionally made from hibiscus fiber

pairs. pairs. The

fishing technique, technique, marine fishing habitat mangrove reef flat, (i.e., channel, or outer reef), used used by women: the

tide tide (high or low), and number of individuals. Of these, two were specifically

fishing nets were reportedly in use (Sarfert 1919). Each was designed a designed for specific reportedly was Each were nets (Sarfert in use fishing 1919).

activity activity on Kosrae. During the early part of this century, nine different types of

1919:101). 1919:101).

and and reef accompanied gleaning by small children.

in in near-shore is fishing that it is easily combined with childcare responsibilities.

It is a common common women Oceania a in and in It net Kosrae is to elsewhere see sight fishing

and skill requirements. and requirements. skill more A reason likely women's for extensive involvement

were were able to participate extensively in the net because fishery of its simple gear

virtually virtually all the fishing methods commonly practiced in Oceania. In particular,

the the lucrative net fishery has developed in many and varied forms" (Sarfert

reef fishery, which which in was its heyday since time reef fishery, immemorial, and pursued is with

(Ritter (Ritter been of special significance ...... been significance special of the Kosraeans applied themselves all the more to

nets nets with arched frames. Only occasionally were the women, whose task it was

especially especially to catch the beautiful, non-social coral fish, accompanied by men"

in in large groups, engaged in it almost daily. They especially made use of hand

attended to the fishing with the ebb tide. We especially saw the females, sometimes sometimes the females, saw especially tide. We ebb the with attended fishing the to

position position ourselves to catch them and obtained them only from the natives, who

of of stone plants [corals]; but for want of tools and practice, we were not in the

"Numerous "Numerous fish of awe inspiring diversity were in motion around these stems

themselves themselves trapped and can thus easily be caught" (Ritter

the the enter fish when the tide is high and in which, when it goes down, they find

erected in several places, on the shallows, stone dikes which form form which reservoirs where dikes stone the shallows, on places, in several erected

never never go fishing out to sea; all their fishing is done inside the reef. They have

they they tightly attach to the end of a handle. They do not have lines because they

they they from the lift the fish water. They with pierce the fish little big wooden picks;

very similar to similar very spread two, ours, by sticks with with nets, and which four feet long they they also have for this a little instrument composed of three fish teeth, which

very few men men very in engaged few it. They have nets made from coconut cord, with floats

vessel vessel

practices practices the of islanders. Fyedor Lutke, commander of the Russian exploratory 8 8

existed. existed.

into the 1970s), this method of fishing was not observed by the author. author. the by observed not fishing was of method 1970s), this the into

ends and exit through the smaller ends where they were netted with the the with netted were they where ends smaller the through exit and ends

musra. musra. when the tide was either rising or falling the fish were forced to enter at these these at enter to forced were fish the falling or rising either was tide the when

up to form a series of "V"s whose wide ends were positioned in such a way that that way a such in positioned were ends wide whose "V"s of series a form to up Tuptup Tuptup

was intended for catching nocturnal species of fish. Rocks and coral were piled piled were coral and Rocks fish. of species nocturnal catching for intended was

lecting). lecting).

icse i frhr eal ne Mselnos ihn ad netbae Col­ Invertebrate and Fishing Miscellaneous under detail further in discussed

it is a different activity today from that which was first reported reported first was which that from today activity different a is it

them into the net." net." the into them

the fish by surprise as they sleep, surrounds them, then wakens them and drives drives and them wakens then them, surrounds sleep, they as surprise fish by the

erwomen. Sarfert described described Sarfert erwomen.

efcanl a ngt sn tc o rv te ihit te eso te fish­ other of nets the into fish the drive to stick a using night at channels reef

use of the the of use

mat an eot; eot; mat an

practice it. it. practice

edge of either the technique or the steps involved in making the nets in order to to order in nets the making in involved steps the or technique the either edge of

describe this method, taught to them by their mother or grandmother. Younger Younger grandmother. or mother their by them to taught method, this describe

fisherwomen generally have heard of of heard have generally fisherwomen

The fish caught by by caught fish The

high tide, many of the older womeh interviewed said the best time was mid-tide. was mid-tide. time best the said interviewed womeh older of the many high tide,

dination and cooperation. Although Although cooperation. and dination

leaves tied around her waist. waist. her around tied leaves

the center, closing it by breaking off into several smaller circles until the fish ran ran fish the until circles smaller several off into breaking by closing it center, the

into the nets. Each woman carried a fish fish basket a carried woman Each nets. the into

designated as "captain," led the others to a particular spot, directing them where where them directing spot, particular a to others the led "captain," as designated

to set their nets. The women would form a large circle and then move towards towards move then and circle large a form would women The nets. their set to

Neklap Neklap

undoubtedly the fishing activity that the crew aboard the the crew aboard the that fishing activity the undoubtedly

form form Neklap Neklap

Severance 1976, Alkire 1977, Falanruw 1987). 1987). 1977, Falanruw 1976, Alkire Severance and lay slack on the wooden frames, forming a pocket which held the fish the held which a pocket forming frames, lay wooden slack the and on

nets have been used throughout Micronesia and Polynesia (Thompson 1940, 1940, (Thompson Polynesia and Micronesia throughout used been have nets together with twisted lengths of hibiscus fiber. The net arched upwards slightly slightly upwards arched net The fiber. hibiscus of lengths twisted with together

other T-shaped with the edge of the net attached to it. The two pieces pieces two were The lashed it. to attached edge the net of with the T-shaped other

Two distinct forms of of forms distinct Two

Three other forms of net fishing-matan fishing-matan net of forms other Three

Today Today

Neklap Neklap

As many as 100 women participated in in 100 participated as women As many

Individual fisherwomen of fisherwomen used pairs Individual

of women's fishing. fishing. women's of

Although Although

Tuptup Tuptup

continued to be a popular form of net fishing up until the late 1960s. 1960s. late the until fishing up net of form popular a be to continued

Ta Ta

nek musra musra nek

Sarfert ( 1919) reported that two or three women would block off off the block would women three or two ( that Sarfert 1919) reported

neklap neklap

made use of stone fish weirs in conjunction with the the with conjunction in fish weirs stone of use made

eurd o ol ag ubr fwmn bt lomc coor­ much also but women, of number large a only not required

in the early 1900s made use of the the of use 1900s made early the in

ta ta

is no longer practiced, although many older women can can vividly older women many is although no longer practiced,

Sul Sul

neklap neklap

was commonly practiced as late as the 1960s (and possibly possibly 1960s (and the as late as practiced commonly was

n h erir at fti century this of part earlier the in

continues to be a popular method of night fishing of fishing night method although to be a popular continues

Des Rochers Des

Neklap Neklap

tuptup tuptup

include mullet, parrotfish, and surgeonfish. surgeonfish. and parrotfish, mullet, include

sul sul

as a kind of night fishing in which "One takes takes "One which in fishing night of kind a as

fishing fishing spelled (also

(named after the reef heron, heron, reef the after (named

: :

Women's Fishing on Kosrae Kosrae on Fishing Women's

neklap neklap

neklap neklap

nek musra musra nek

reportedly has been practiced during during practiced been has reportedly

neklap neklap

but do not possess sufficient sufficient possess knowl­ not do but

eot, sul, sul, eot,

(Joto (Joto patur) in

at any one time. One woman, woman, One time. one any at

pukok pukok

to practice to practice

taptap) taptap)

and ta-reportedly made made ta-reportedly and

. .

Senjavin Senjavin

Little is known about about known is Little

net ( ( used net commonly

are known to have have to known are

Egrata sacra) sacra) Egrata

made from palm palm from made

neklap, neklap,

nek musra musra nek

noted in 1827. 1827. in noted

(sul (sul

a a

. .

will be be will

popular popular

Similar Similar

and and

nek nek

was was 9 9

and and

Tuptup, Tuptup,

. .

(see (see below)

nek nek musra

likes likes to eat the

moko moko

refers refers to a type of

tail, tail,

tuptup tuptup

but but approximately half its size

is is practiced at tide low during a full

It It

nek nek musra

Micronesica 25( I), I), 1992 25( Micronesica

mo/co-traditional mo/co-traditional hand net made from hibiscus fiber.

was the the was other commonly used traditional women's hand net

Nek Nek

is is the primary method which for these nets are used and requires

in in the was practiced 1960s during the day with the

nek nek moko

Moko Moko

Figure Figure 3.

The The

Tuptup Tuptup

moon. moon. The nets are placed in a "V" around a loose coral head or rock which is

only one one only woman and a pair of handnets.

(Fig. 3). 3). (Fig.

and and of the same basic design as the

Moko Moko

and and only in differs that it is practiced during the day.

women's women's which fishing uses the same technique and gear as

was was reported to have involved only women. Today

the the beach is cleared stretch of fish by stretch."

leaping over the chain of people, and in so doing, fall into the nets. In this this In manner, into the nets. fall doing, and in so people, chain the of over leaping

swim swim or walk in a long, unbroken line to the shore. The try fish to escape by

numbers. numbers. and Men women then out, set and the holding pukok on nets the water,

spawn. spawn. For this reason the fish at this time come close to the beach in great

which which is half as long as an arm, and which has a yellow 10 10 olman, olman, the sand crabs of the ein variety swarm on the beach in order to spawn

at high tide; tide; this at for high reason, these fon nights called are also in The ein. keraf fish,

described described as follows by Sarfert: "On the two nights of full moon, lofsen and

which which means "to hold the net in such a way that the fish leap into it," was by men) and was practiced at night by a large number women number men and of large a by night at practiced and was men) by

on several other islands in Micronesia. Pesticides and other household chemicals chemicals household other and Pesticides Micronesia. in islands other several on

they are gathered by hand or with the aid of a net. Consuming fish poisoned by by fish poisoned Consuming net. a of aid the with or hand by gathered are they of explosives such as dynamite to kill fish has not occurred on Kosrae as it has has it as Kosrae on occurred not has fish kill to dynamite as such explosives of

either either

(the author never observed poison fishing with with fishing poison observed never author (the

interviewed were hesitant to discuss use). discuss its to As were with interviewed hesitant

banned in Kosrae State. The leaves of of leaves The State. Kosrae in banned

sra sra sand before being thrown into a channel or deep hole in the reef during low tide tide low reef during the in hole deep or channel a into thrown being before sand

small and large fish as well as other marine organisms and consequently has been been has consequently and organisms large fish marine and small well as other as

most potent form of naturally occurring fish poison on Kosrae. Kosrae. on fish poison occurring naturally of form potent most

by Sarfert but was not observed by Wilson in the 1960s nor by the author in in author the by nor 1960s the in Wilson by observed not was but Sarfert by

fishing and never more than three women at a time. time. a at women three than more never fishing and

women cooperated in poison fishing. The author observed only women poison poison women only observed author The fishing. poison in cooperated women

the fish by depriving oxygen exchange. Rotenone drugs most species of fish al­ fish of species most drugs Rotenone exchange. oxygen depriving by fish the

ingredient in the root of of root the in ingredient though many aquatic invertebrates appear to be unaffected by it. it. by unaffected be to appear invertebrates aquatic many though

being fanned underneath it. Perhaps women have since learned the serious effects effects serious the learned since have women Perhaps it. underneath being fanned

of fish) and are less liberal with its use. According to Eldredge ( Eldredge to 1987), active According use. the its with liberal less are fish) of and

.fienkek .fienkek

1989. 1989.

roots were actually placed under the rock and left for a period of time rather than than rather of time a left period for and rock the under were placed actually roots of poisoning with with poisoning of

repeat the same procedure at various locations along the beach. Formerly, the the Formerly, beach. the along locations various at procedure same the repeat

to the surface to be picked up by hand and placed into a basket. The women women The basket. a into placed and hand by up picked be to surface the to

The sap drugs the fish, which then are caught either with a gill net or which float float which or gill net a with either caught are then fish, which the drugs sap The

is pulverized to release a milky sap and then fanned near a rock or coral head. head. coral or rock a near fanned then and sap milky a release to pulverized is

forest, is gathered and placed in a small bundle, 18 to 24 inches long. The bundle bundle long. 18 The 24 inches to bundle, small a in placed and is forest, gathered

and the the and

groupers groupers

and mullet mullet and

gill net. This has the advantage of being stronger, more durable, and less visible visible less and durable, more stronger, being of advantage the has This gill net.

to fish than the traditional hibiscus net. Fish caught by this method include include method this by caught Fish net. hibiscus traditional the than fish to

take advantage of new technology and materials. The frames are still made from from made still are frames The materials. and technology new of advantage take

then turned over to scare the fish out from underneath and into the nets. Today Today nets. the into and underneath from fish out the scare to over turned then

several women still practice practice still women several

activity

in shallow reef waters. waters. reef shallow in

is made from the leaves of of leaves the from made is

1 1

The use of of use The

During the 1960s, it was reported that approximately 30 or more men and and men more or 30 approximately that reported was 1960s, it the During

Poison fishing fishing Poison with

op op

Op Op sra,

Op Op

. .

but the net has been replaced with a section of discarded monofilament monofilament discarded of section a with replaced been has net the but

nek moko. moko. nek

I assume I

or or

and and

(ka/srik), (ka/srik),

op sra sra op

(ac) (ac)

op sra sra op

a poison not noted by Sarfert, appears to have taken its place.• place.• its taken have to appears Sarfert, by noted not poison a

op bosbos bosbos op

, ,

(Table 2). 2). (Table

however, that they were primarily used by women because they were employed employed were they because women by used primarily were they that however,

op op

has no no has

are not distinguished by Sarfert as being either a men's or women's fishing fishing women's or men's a either being as Sarfert by distinguished not are

parrotfish parrotfish

The roots of of roots The

(which include the killing of larvae and untargeted species species untargeted and larvae of killing the include (which

op op

Des Rochers: Women's Fishing on Kosrae Kosrae Fishing Rochers: Des on Women's

ill ill

Derris Derris (made from the fruit of of fruit the from (made

was once practiced in conjunction with the the with conjunction in was practiced once

effects, and one cannot taste the difference. The use use difference. The the taste cannot one effects, and

moko moko

(mesrik), (mesrik),

Callicarpa candicans candicans Callicarpa

Derris Derris

POISON FISHING FISHING POISON

is rotenone, a respiratory inhibitor which kills kills which inhibitor respiratory a rotenone, is

but their nets have been modified in order to to order in modified been have nets their but

C. C.

sp., which grow mainly in areas of swamp of swamp areas in grow mainly which sp.,

surgeonfish surgeonfish

candicans candicans

op sra sra op

Barringtonia Barringtonia

(lasrfol), (lasrfol),

op, op,

are crushed and mixed with with mixed and crushed are

and is considered to be the the be to considered is and

and many of the women women the of many and

once the fish fish once the are drugged,

rabbitfish rabbitfish

sp.) was reported reported sp.) was

Op sra sra Op

nek musra musra nek

(mweosra) (mweosra)

kills both both kills

Op Op 11 11

spp. spp.

spp. spp.

spp. spp.

Turbo argyrostoma argyrostoma Turbo

Trochus niloticus niloticus Trochus

Tridacna gigas gigas Tridacna

Strombus gibberulus gibberulus Strombus

Nerita Nerita

Anodontia edentu/a edentu/a Anodontia

Cnidaria Cnidaria

Cardisoma Cardisoma

Echinoidea Echinoidea

Asaphis vio/escens vio/escens Asaphis Cephalopoda Cephalopoda

Stichopus variegatus variegatus Stichopus

Cephalopoda Cephalopoda

Birgus /atro /atro Birgus

Echidna nebulosa nebulosa Echidna

Scylla serrata serrata Scylla

Lutjanidae Lutjanidae

Carangidae Carangidae

Cypse/urus Cypse/urus

Mullidae Mullidae

Mullidae Mullidae

Chanos chanos chanos Chanos

Mugilidae Mugilidae

Kyphosidae Kyphosidae

Lethrinidae Lethrinidae

Labridae Labridae

Scaridae Scaridae

Balistidae Balistidae

Holodentridae Holodentridae

Chaetodontidae Chaetodontidae

Apogonidae Apogonidae

Siganidae Siganidae

Zebrasoma flavescens flavescens Zebrasoma

Serranidae Serranidae

Acanthuridae Acanthuridae

Scientific Scientific Name

A. A. lineatus

Acanthurus triostegus triostegus Acanthurus

1992 1992

I), I),

25( 25(

Micronesica Micronesica

mangrove mangrove clam

nerite nerite

cat cat eye

trochus trochus

giant giant clam

land land crab

sea sea urchin

sea sea cucumber

anemone anemone mangrove mangrove crab

coconut coconut crab

salt salt water eel

octopus octopus

snapper snapper

jellyfish jellyfish

flying fish fish flying

milkfish milkfish

mullet mullet

goatfish goatfish (adult)

rudderfish rudderfish

jack jack

goatfish goatfish (juvenile)

parrotfish parrotfish

emperorfish emperorfish

triggerfish triggerfish

wrasse wrasse

squirrelfish squirrelfish

butterflyfish butterflyfish

cardinalfish cardinalfish

rabbit fish fish rabbit

yellow tang tang yellow

lined-surgeonfish lined-surgeonfish

groupers groupers

English English Name

surgeonfish surgeonfish (general)

convict convict tang

Table Table 2. Fish and other marine organisms collected by Kosraean fisherwomen.

wal wal

kawang kawang

kufal kufal

netu/a netu/a

punak punak

popol popol takasungai takasungai

kuku kuku

wurur wurur

fut fut

el el

aieng aieng

koet koet

aie aie

/a/ot /a/ot

ku ku

srapsrap srapsrap mokol mokol

semis semis ik sok sok ik

powa powa

srihnac srihnac

won won

ape/ ape/

kuraf kuraf

ac ac mwesrik mwesrik

srinkap srinkap

alsru alsru

ariaf ariaf

polyah polyah nuesron nuesron

mulap mulap

ol/ol ol/ol

srol srol

kalsrik kalsrik 12 12

kaput kaput

kwi kwi futfut futfut

/asrfol /asrfol

pa/pal rangrang rangrang pa/pal Kosraean Kosraean Name foul foul

developed since the advent of the gill net. In In gill net. the of advent the since developed

to four hours, resetting the net in a slightly different location after each catch. catch. each after location different slightly a in net the resetting hours, four to

geonfish geonfish

rudderfish rudderfish

net driving the fish by kicking and slapping the water. Fish caught on the reef reef the on caught Fish water. the slapping and kicking by fish the driving net

it across a reef flat, channel, or embayment. A third woman walks towards the the towards walks woman third A embayment. or channel, flat, reef a across it flat and in the mangrove channels by this method include parrotfish parrotfish include method this by channels mangrove the in and flat

individuals (Figure 4). Two women take hold of opposite ends of the net and set set and net of the ends opposite of hold take women 4). Two (Figure individuals

size of one to two inches. inches. two to one of size

filament gill nets average 100 feet in length, three feet in depth, and have a mesh mesh a have and depth, in feet three 100 length, feet in average gill nets filament

today. Introduced during the 1960s, gillnetting is presently the second-most pro­ second-most the 1960s, presently is gillnetting the during Introduced today. of the total catch (Kosrae State Marine Resources Division 1987). Most mono­ 1987). Most Division Resources Marine State (Kosrae catch total the of

ductive fishing method in Kosrae State, accounting for over twenty-four percent percent twenty-four over for accounting State, Kosrae in fishing method ductive

is occasionally used in certain areas of the island. island. the of areas certain in used occasionally is

are not commonly used although a few people interviewed mentioned that bleach bleach that mentioned a few although people interviewed used commonly not are

Kosr Kosr

Gillnetting, which is generally practiced at high tide, requires two to three three to two requires tide, high at practiced generally is which Gillnetting,

Gillnetting Gillnetting

Figure 4. Kosraean fisherwomen gillnetting near Utwe. Utwe. near gillnetting fisherwomen Kosraean 4. Figure

(kwi, /asrfol, /asrfol, pa/pal), (kwi,

was not reported by Sarfert or Wilson but appears to to be a new technique appears by Sarfert but Wilson or was reported not

(won), (won),

(koa) (koa)

goatfish goatfish

is the most common type of net fishing technique used used technique fishing net of type common most the is

Des Rochers: Women's Fishing on Kosrae Kosrae Fishing on Women's Rochers: Des

(futfut), (futfut),

Present-Day Net Fishing Fishing Net Present-Day

and mullet mullet and

groupers groupers

KOSR KOSR

(ac, ape/). ape/). (ac,

(kalsrik), (kalsrik),

kosr, kosr,

the gill net is laid just before before laid just is net gill the

Most women gillnet for two two for gillnet women Most

emperors emperors

(srinkap), (srinkap),

(mwesrik), (mwesrik),

sur­ 13 13

of of

"part "part

in in Yap

requires requires

Kosr Kosr

(MRMD) (MRMD)

suggested that suggested the

Acanthuras Acanthuras triostegus

their their catch to local stores.

MRMD MRMD

of of

10% 10%

inches) inches) be discouraged in order to allow

thereby changing the social structure structure the thereby changing women's social of

1-2½" 1-2½"

Micronesica Micronesica 25(1), 1992

GILLNET GILLNET EFFICIENCY

neklap, neklap,

which which was more labor intensive and time consuming.

ta, ta,

catch, catch, it appears that women's is changing from an fishing activity that was

No No study to date has examined the cultural and impacts ecological of the

On Kosrae, the introduction On introduction the Kosrae, net has dramatically improved gill the of fishing

The The quantity of fish caught by any method depends on the tide, the phase

mature, mature, the women stated that particularly the fish, smaller

as as small as three inches long. When asked why the not were fish thrown back to

use use of small mesh sizes (i.e.

one one to two inches. On many occasions the author witnessed the capture of fish

mature mature and young stages of development. The Yap

situation situation exists on Kosrae, where most women use gill nets with mesh of sizes

itoring and regulation, new fishing technologies such such the as net and monofilament technologies itoring gill fishing new regulation,

(Price (Price the 1988), greatest proportion of fish caught by gill nets were in the im­

conducted conducted by the Marine Resources Management Division

will will result in increased pressure on marine resources. According to a survey

once once purely subsistence-oriented to one of wage-earning.

gill net net gill on Kosrae's fishery. It reef is obvious, however, that without strict mon­

their their

earned earned US $0.65 per pound of Although fish). not all fisherwomen sell

is is to supplement the earnings of others within their household (in women 1989,

A A very small number of women report that the primary purpose of their fishing

juvenile juvenile fish to reach maturity and thus spawn before their capture. A parallel

their their harvest estimate they sell approximately

to to household according to their cash needs. The women who sell a portion of

catch varies varies woman from catch to woman or, perhaps from more household accurately,

fishing. Traditionally, Traditionally, fishing. groups of women cooperated in the capture of Now, fish.

fishing activities activities as such fishing

family, tend family, to together. fish In addition, women in Kosrae have recently begun

nets. The The introduction nets. to net a complete has led the abandonment of gill group of

however, however, only three to five women, often from a single household or extended

in considerably less time time in considerably less than previously was possible the using traditional hand

to to sell a portion of their catch to local markets. The proportion sold from each

Marine Resources Office reports an average of 1.6 kg of fish are caught per caught are person fish of reports kg of an average 1.6 Office Resources Marine

per per trip, a within well figure what was observed by the author.

multiplied multiplied by four hours and converted to pounds gives pounds 14 per person

efficiency. Small groups groups of Small women are able now to catch efficiency. a greater number fish of

hour hour a using (Kosrae gillnet State Marine Resources Division This figure, 1987).

typical catch catch typical a using gill net ranged from to 10 30 pounds while others claimed

14 14 of of the moon, and with whom one talks. Many of the women interviewed said a

to to be able to catch up to 100 pounds in the same period of time. The Kosrae

net net is often left in one spot overnight and retrieved the next day at low tide

technique technique of

only two women and a gill net net and superceded women the two gill and has aforementioned a only traditional

making it possible to net nocturnal species of fish (e.g., squirrelfish). squirrelfish). (e.g., to it net possible making nocturnal fish of species the the tide falls so that the become fish trapped as they swim to deeper water. The

mangrove crab, crab, mangrove

increased consumption of canned fish and meats. The author's observations in in observations author's The meats. and fish canned of consumption increased

also become an important source of supplementary income for many households. households. many for income supplementary of source important an become also

goatfish and eel eel and goatfish food on Kosrae and were being consumed in decreasing quantities due to the the to due quantities decreasing in consumed being were and Kosrae on food

The fish and crabs are killed by a swift and well aimed blow of the machete. machete. the of blow aimed well and swift a by killed are crabs and fish The

on the reef flats are overturned in order to scare out small surgeonfish, squirrelfish, squirrelfish, surgeonfish, small out scare to order in overturned flats reef are the on

torch was used as a light). During low tide, small rocks or loose coral boulders boulders coral loose or rocks small tide, low During light). a as used was torch

using a machete and a flashlight or kerosene lamp (traditionally, a coconut frond frond coconut a (traditionally, lamp kerosene or flashlight a and machete a using 1989, however, suggest that crabs now are a highly prized food item that have have that item food prized highly a are now crabs that suggest however, 1989,

night during a new moon by both men and women (generally only one or two) two) or one only (generally women and men both by moon new a during night

a type of men's fishing. As observed by the author, however, however, author, the by observed As fishing. men's of type a

and required the use of the the of use the required and

marily engaged in by women and children. children. and women by in engaged marily

type of fishing is increasing in popularity except inside the reef." In contrast, in in contrast, In reef." the inside except popularity in increasing is fishing of type

r t h fot deo h re. diinly hnlnn i o a atvt pri­ activity an now is handlining Additionally, reef. the of edge front the at or

activity in which "only the largest Kusaien canoes or whaleboats are used. This This used. are whaleboats or canoes Kusaien largest the "only which in activity

deeper water, often in reef reef in often water, deeper

where most herbivorous fish are found feeding on algae; handlining is done in in done is handlining algae; on feeding found are fish herbivorous most where

squirrelfish) tend to be found. found. be to tend squirrelfish)

is to be expected: expected: be to is

whereas herbivorous fish are caught primarily with the the with primarily caught fish are herbivorous whereas

holes accessible from the causeway. Women handline for both fish and crabs. crabs. and fish both for handline Women causeway. the from accessible holes

Several women stated that carnivorous fish are generally caught by handlining, handlining, by caught generally are fish carnivorous that stated women Several

1989 the only place the author observed this fishing technique was inside the reef reef the inside was technique fishing this observed author the place only 1989 the beverage can or plastic bleach bottle. The intestines of the sea sea cucumber, of the intestines The bottle. bleach plastic or can beverage

In Lelu, nearly all handlining takes place in the harbor and in several of the reef reef the of several in and harbor the in place takes handlining all nearly Lelu, In

monofilament line. The line is secured to and wrapped around an aluminum aluminum an around wrapped and to secured is line The line. monofilament

variegatus, variegatus,

adverse impacts on future fish yields. yields. fish future on impacts adverse

however, that the capture of fish before they reach maturity will have serious serious have will maturity reach they before fish of capture the that however,

and and

The area in and around Utwe (Figure 2) is an important habitat for the the for habitat important an is 2) (Figure Utwe around and in area The

Peoples (1970) reported that mangrove crabs were not a particularly valued valued particularly a not were crabs mangrove that reported (1970) Peoples

Sarfert wrote that that wrote Sarfert

Mulloidichthys Mulloidichthys

During the early 1960s, Wilson (1968) described described (1968) Wilson 1960s, early the During

Handlining is practiced using a small steel hook attached to 15 to 20 feet of of feet 20 15 to to attached hook steel small a using practiced is Handlining

are generally used for bait although pieces of cut up fish are also used. used. also are fish up cut of pieces although bait for used generally are

Miscellaneous Fishing and Invertebrate Collecting Collecting Invertebrate and Fishing Miscellaneous

(semis). (semis).

Scylla serrata. serrata. Scylla

musra musra

spp., were considered a delicacy among Kosraeans. It is clear, clear, is It Kosraeans. among delicacy a considered were spp.,

su/, su/,

MANGROVE CRABBING, CRABBING, MANGROVE

Mangrove crabs crabs Mangrove

Des Rochers: Women's Fishing on Kosrae Kosrae on Fishing Women's Rochers: Des

nets are used predominantly on the shallow reef flats flats reef shallow the on predominantly used are nets

a type of night fishing, was practiced during a low tide tide low a during practiced was fishing, night of type a

nek musra. musra. nek

holes holes

Crabs are caught by by caught are Crabs

HANDLINING, HANDLINING,

where where

SUL SUL

Wilson ( 1968) later reported that that reported ( 1968) later Wilson

(powa) (powa)

the larger carnivorous fish (e.g. jacks, jacks, (e.g. fish carnivorous larger the

AYA AYA

Tl POWA POWA Tl

are also caught by this method. method. this by caught also are

su/, su/,

nek musra musra nek

handlining, or by hand hand by or handlining,

aya aya

as a men's fishing fishing men's a as

su/ su/

or gillnet. This This gillnet. or

is practiced at at practiced is

Stichopus Stichopus

su/ su/

was was 15 15

Experienced Experienced fish­

koet. koet.

are are found in the brackish

uses uses a dried narrow length

POPOL POPOL

FUT FUT

is is when breadfruit to begins ripen.

SRU SRU KOET

Sru Sru semis

SRU SRU SEMIS

clam may be a slightly different spelling spelling different clam a slightly may be

popol popol

for for

is is used for bait.

popol popol

holes holes by the pile small of stones and sand built

the the

koet koet

Micronesica Micronesica I), 25( 1992

EEL EEL FISHING,

koet koet

"season" "season"

women women search the black mangrove mud with their feet

OCTOPUS OCTOPUS FISHING,

popo/ popo/ (Anodontia edentula),

(discussed (discussed above).

po pool; pool; po

MANGROVE MANGROVE CLAMMING,

sul sul

fut fut popol

frond or frond hook) with attached a nail to ( one end it. of of A piece fish

is is during the months of May, June, and July. This same woman

The The clams, which have taste are a egglike slightly eaten raw with lime

traditionally, traditionally, the

originated originated when there were only a few of species breadfruit found on the

The The author observed a second technique for catching eel in addition to the

Jabbing a hooked piece of metal or wire into small holes, women women into occasionally holes, small wire metal or of hooked piece Jabbing a

Mangrove Mangrove clams, or

sru sru koet

Pandanus Pandanus

popool. popool.

popol; popol;

person, person, causing illness and eventually death (Sarfert 1919).

erly, erly, it was believed that if one killed an eel it would come and sleep with the

fairly common common fairly food in Kosrae, considered once it was tabu and not eaten. Form­

flat. flat. The frond is anchored with a rock so that the baited end floats As the free.

is is placed on the nail and the frond is set in several inches of water on the reef

eel eel approaches the bait it is killed with a machete. Although eel is presently a

of of

primary primary method of

addition addition to being a food item

mangrove mangrove tree was used. A Lelu woman, who claims her Pohnpeian mother

introduced introduced octopus fishing to Kosrae in the 920s, reported I that the best time

catches catches up to 20 octopus in one day, often part selling of her catch for $1/lb. In

for for

up up in front them. of Once caught, the octopus biting by killed is the area between

the the eyes. Before metal hooks came into use, the hanging hypocotyl from the

erwomen erwomen are able to detect

comb comb the flats reef during low tide in search of octopus,

Kosraeans, one is called called Kosraeans, one is

of of

island. island. Wilson (1968) noted that of the 15 types of breadfruit recognized by

year. It It year. that is possible the correlation between ripe breadfruit and the season for

There There are over species 15 of breadfruit on Kosrae, however, and not all species

of of

time time of the month phase (i.e. the of moon) made on no difference the harvesting

bear bear fruit at the same time, so that breadfruit can be found at any time of the

in in their time they could collect hundreds of them. Several women felt that the

popo/ popo/

Utwe Utwe In village.

water areas associated with associated areas water mangroves between and Lulu Nefalil Lulu Utwe, near

that that they up can collect to clams 50 in one hour several while elders claimed that

16 16

while standing standing while in water that up is to their shoulders or neck. women Some stated

juice. juice.

the the months of April and July, the period in which they spawn. during during periods of low tide and full moon. They are particularly sought between

from becoming snagged on the bottom. The speed with which the tide rises is is rises tide the which with speed The bottom. the on snagged becoming from

mangrove channels and requires a mid or high tide, tide, high or mid a requires and channels mangrove

example, invertebrate collecting (reef gleaning) occurs on the shallow reef flats flats reef shallow the on occurs gleaning) (reef collecting invertebrate example,

during periods of low low tide of periods during

of the tide determines the type of fishing technique which can be used. As an an As used. be can which technique fishing of type the determines tide the of

ities is the lunar tides, tides, lunar the is ities

gillnetting. gillnetting.

the method of fishing they first learned, while younger women stated it was was it stated women younger while learned, first they fishing of method the

eight and thirteen and learned techniques and appropriate times from their their from times appropriate and techniques learned and thirteen and eight

mother or grandmother. Women who were over 45 years of age said said age of years 45 over were who Women grandmother. or mother

get away from the more mundane household chores and to chat with friends. friends. with chat to and chores household mundane more the from away get

poses, it is apparent that fishing is an enjoyable activity which enables them to to them enables which activity enjoyable an is fishing that apparent is it poses,

or the number of fish caught. Although women fish mainly for subsistence pur­ subsistence for mainly fish women Although fish caught. of number the or

catch and therefore found there was no difference in either the time spent fishing fishing spent time the either difference in was no there found therefore and catch

that they knew of good fishing spots where they were always guaranteed a good good a always guaranteed were they where spots fishing good of knew they that

more hours during each trip. Several of the more successful fisherwomen stated stated fisherwomen successful more the of Several trip. each during hours more hours spent per fishing trip. Several women remarked that in order to catch the the catch to order in that remarked women Several fishing trip. per spent hours

same number of fish today as they did 10 to 20 years ago, they had to fish for for fish to had they ago, years 20 10 to did they as today fish of number same of days in a week as they did in the past; what had changed was the number of of number the was changed had what past; the in did they as week a in days of

when they first began fishing. Most women felt they fished for the same number number same the for fished they felt women fishing. Most began first they when

inquired whether they fished more, less, or with the same frequency as they did did they as frequency same the with or less, more, fished they whether inquired

six times a week (fishing was forbidden on Sundays as it is today). The author author The today). is it as Sundays on forbidden (fishing was week a times six tide." According to the author's observations, three to four times a week is av­ is week a times four to three observations, author's the to According tide."

erage, although the older women claim that when they were younger they fished fished they younger were they when that claim women older the erage, although

during certain certain during

Division. Division.

The collection of the shellfish trochus trochus shellfish the of collection The

(Asaphis violescens) violescens) (Asaphis

( (

are generally not sought after specifically, except for the small money cowry cowry money small the for except specifically, after sought not generally are

and a variety of shells such as cowry cowry as shells of such variety a and

include sea urchin urchin sea include

invertebrates are also collected on the reef flats by women and children. These These children. and women by flats reef the on collected also are invertebrates

Cypraea moneta) moneta) Cypraea

The most important environmental factor affecting women's fishing activ­ fishing affecting women's factor environmental important most The

Nearly all women interviewed stated that they began fishing between ages ages between fishing began they that stated interviewed women all Nearly

If If

In addition to finfish, crabs, octopus and eel, a variety of shellfish and other other shellfish and of variety eel, a and finfish, octopus crabs, to addition In

asked how often they fish, most fisherwomen will say, "it depends on the the on depends "it say, will fisherwomen most fish, they often how asked

Environmental Factors Which Affect Women's Fishing Fishing Women's Affect Which Factors Environmental

.. ..

MISCELLANEOUS SHELLFISH AND INVERTEBRATES INVERTEBRATES AND SHELLFISH MISCELLANEOUS

seasons" seasons"

which is used in the making of handicrafts. In the past, past, the In handicrafts. of making the in used is which

(el), (el),

shell was used as a scraper and as a weight for fishing nets. nets. fishing for weight a as and scraper a as used was shell

ahlong ahlong

sea anemone anemone sea

Des Rochers: Women's Fishing on Kosrae Kosrae on Fishing Women's Rochers: Des

which which

(mwes). (mwes).

Frequency of Fishing Fishing of Frequency

(Kosrae experiences semi-diurnal tides); the level level the tides); semi-diurnal experiences (Kosrae

are designated by the Kosrae Marine Resources Resources Marine Kosrae the by designated are

Gillnetting is commonly practiced within the the within practiced commonly is Gillnetting

TIDES TIDES

(kawak) (kawak)

(fut), (fut),

(Trochus (Trochus

sea cucumber cucumber sea

and nerite nerite and

niloticus) niloticus)

ahlong, ahlong,

(kufal). (kufal).

(wuror), (wuror),

is forbidden except except forbidden is

to prevent the net net the prevent to

These organisms organisms These

clams clams

nek/ap nek/ap

(punak), (punak),

punak punak

was was 17 17

is is known as

ma/em) ma/em)

and and a particularly low tide

mwesi, mwesi,

WEATHER WEATHER

Conclusion Conclusion

Micronesica Micronesica 25(1), 1992

an an exceptionally high tide, also occurs during a new

which which corresponds to the months of March through

are are associated with strong easterly winds, high waves, and

Muis, Muis,

enganen, enganen,

4) Modem Kosraean fisherwomen no longer possess the intricate the intricate and detailed Modem possess 4) Kosraean no longer fisherwomen

3) Group fishing activities activities Group have been 3) fishing abandoned which in gillnetting favor of

1) The The 1) many techniques and specialized gear of traditional net have fishing

2) 2) Fishing is changing from a strictly subsistence-oriented activity to one

Women's Women's fishing on Kosrae is not a static occupation that has remained

The The weather is the second-most important environmental consideration in

In In former times, the names for each night of the lunar month were known.

marine marine environmental characteristic their which in was grandmothers' knowledge

certain certain species of fish, etc.

habitats of fish and and habitats other fish organisms, of the importance conserving and of preserving

tunity tunity for the exchange of information regarding good times fishing and places,

is is less time consuming and less labor intensive. As a result, there is less oppor­

tea, tea, and even imported fish and meat may be purchased.

1970s, 1970s, over different 10 net fishing techniques were in use on Kosrae. Twenty

trip trip is still divided among the participants but a portion of the catch is to likely

be be sold to for cash a local retail store so that imported goods such as flour, sugar,

important important for both subsistence and wage-earning. The fish catch from a single

resources. resources. Evidence Evidence indicates, however, that the increased of the net efficiency gill in com­

bination bination with a rapidly expanding population endanger will Kosrae's reef fragile

years later, only a handful of women are still practicing traditional traditional practicing methods handful women still are a of only fishing later, years

and and even these women predominantly use the newer and more gill net. efficient

all all but been replaced by the monofilament gill net. In the late and 1960s early

have have occurred can be summarized as follows:

nological, nological, and social changes within Kosraean society. The major changes that

unchanged unchanged for centuries. Instead, it has evolved in response to cultural, tech­

less less frequent rain.

fishing. Kosrae has two seasons during the year. The months months The year. through the September during two seasons of has Kosrae fishing.

August, August, is a period of little wind and wave action but more frequent rainfall.

February, February,

life cycles life cycles of marine organisms.

one one example of the intimate knowledge Kosraeans once had of the habits and

the the lunar fishing calendar, Table 3). The various nights of the moon represent

included included a description of the activities which were best suited for that day (see

The The Kosraean fishing calendar assigned a name specific to each lunar date and

or or full moon.

18 18 mwes mwes Ahlongluhlap, luhlap.

(which (which would typically occur during a new or full moon,

nique nique may be used. A falling tide is called also also of importance, as it determines the length of time a particular tech­ fishing

29

30. 30. 28. 28.

27. 27.

26. 26.

25. 25. 24. 24.

23. 23.

22. 22.

21. 21.

20. 20.

19. 19. 17. 17.

18. 18.

16

15

14

13 12

11. 11.

10

Kosraean Name Description Description Name Kosraean

9

. .

8. 8.

6. 6.

4. 4.

7. 7.

2. 2.

5. 5. 3. 3.

I. I.

. .

. .

. .

. . . .

. .

. .

srupup srupup

lungani lungani

lungalum lungalum

ii ii

sroanpur sroanpur

eirpi eirpi

sunak sunak

kusaf kusaf

sopasr sopasr

oslun oslun

fwakfong fwakfong

apnuk apnuk sopasr sopasr

kawula 2 2 kawula

kawula 1 1 kawula lu/ti lu/ti

ell ell

mesr mesr

a/wen a/wen

/afsan /afsan sukanpur sukanpur

arfoko arfoko sriafong sriafong

lat/ato lat/ato

matail matail

musaoa/ musaoa/

museit museit

musaan musaan

masulum masulum

maspang maspang

fang in losr 2 2 losr in fang

fang in /osr 1 1 /osr in fang

srupup srupup

pal in u fwasr in som sis/a bia bia sis/a som in u fwasr in pal

ilia nu meoa meoa nu ilia

iku fwasr wukwuk sroan saku saku sroan wukwuk fwasr iku

safla forfor fun iku iku fun safla forfor

iku sunakin in tiya /ieyuk ku ku /ieyuk tiya in sunakin iku

fang in ngunin /osr se meet meet /osr se ngunin in fang

sesses/a bien iku iku bien sesses/a

iku osun osun iku

apun rauni inkofu suk iku in in iku suk inkofu rauni apun

fang in aeing ak /uo (2) oapana oapana (2) /uo ak aeing in fang fang in aeing se meet mwo ke ke mwo meet se aeing in fang

ik u mutawauk in bia (aka/a nu nu (aka/a bia in mutawauk u ik

siepa /en in yak sra san an a a an san sra yak in /en siepa

mwo ke patur patur ke mwo

Jen in yak (san) a kapak mwo mwo kapak a (san) yak in Jen

mwo ke kain patur nu kewa kewa nu patur kain ke mwo

fang in af af in fang

fang in af af in fang

fang in af af in fang

pal fun ngoe ngoe fun pal

arenl ik in kais sie foko mweoa mweoa sie foko kais in ik arenl

mwo ke pakpuk sukan /om u u /om sukan pakpuk ke mwo

koluk ke patur u (srensrenfong in in (srensrenfong u patur ke koluk

sikyak mwo mwo sikyak

koluk ke patur u a oal/a oal/a a u patur ke koluk

sruo sruo

insia/os an an insia/os

toeni in (srupup) (srupup) in toeni

fang se meet an an meet se fang

kesrupup) kesrupup)

(mwo ke patur) patur) ke (mwo

el/alalik na e infok an an infok e na el/alalik

patur (koa a neksisi) neksisi) a (koa patur

mesrmesr na fako an an na fako mesrmesr

kofu) kofu)

Des Rochers: Des Rochers: Fishing Kosrae Women's on

ke ke

Table 3. Lunar fishing fishing calendar. Lunar 3. Table

patur patur

regrouping of fish species species fish of regrouping

fish return to the sea or deeper water water deeper or sea the to return fish time for fish to release their eggs eggs their release to fish for time

fish hiding underneath branches hanging hanging branches underneath hiding fish

fish are trying to hide from people people from hide to trying fish are

no more fish roaming about searching for for searching about roaming fish more no all the various species of fish have have fish of species various the all

eggs are really full inside of fish fish of inside full really eggs are

each species of fish looking for their their for looking fish of species each

good day for fishing fishing for day good

fish have eggs and begin to make one one make to begin eggs and have fish

good day for fishing fishing for day good

good day to begin planting crops crops planting begin to day good

good day for any kind of fishing fishing of kind any for day good

first night to catch crab, also good for for good also crab, catch to night first good day for gathering wood for house house for wood gathering for day good

good day for catching turtle turtle catching for day good

fish begin gathering according to species species to according gathering fish begin

not a good night for fishing. fishing. for night good a not

good day and night for fishing fishing for night and day good

not a good day for fishing fishing for day good a not

new moon moon new

new moon moon new

new moon moon new

English Equivalent Equivalent English

over the water's edge edge water's the over catching them them catching

their specific specific group their grouped in their respective groups groups respective their in grouped

individual school school individual

school of one species species one of school

fishing fishing construction construction

(phosphorescence in water) water) in (phosphorescence 19 19

De­

uti­

Lon­

man­

man­

com­

A/A-1) A/A-1)

B. Salvat Salvat (ed.) B. Human

In In

92-15. 92-15.

NOAA NOAA Office of Sea Grant,

from from

References References

Acknowledgements Acknowledgements

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