Message from the journal staff

AIU’s Student Journal of the International Liberal Arts has come together once again with the efforts of AIU students and faculty to assemble exemplary pieces of writing to showcase AIU’s identity and qualities in the liberal arts. The student journal is a student-led editorial board with active student involvement every step of the way, so it is our pride to continue to present the works and the research of AIU students.

In this issue of the student journal, we have increased our efforts in encouraging submissions by rewarding outstanding pieces in both academic essays and creative writing. Every piece published in the journal has been deemed outstanding and exemplary by the editorial team, and we hope to encourage more students to write such pieces or submit their work by reward- ing excellence. After much discussion, the editorial team selected “Single-Mother Families and the Acceptance of Family Diversity” by Mai Sato as deserving of praise for its relevant and poignant subject matter. Social change and progress are after all very close to what the liberal arts can achieve, and the frst place to start is in how we see the world and think about issues in both our societies and in the global community. “The Sino Dash to Africa—An Em- pirical Analysis” by Emmanuel Marvin Maseruka and “The Infuence of Discounts, Reviews, and Ratings in Hotel Booking” by Rin Saito were chosen as runners up.

For the frst time in a while, we have worked towards including creative pieces of writing by AIU. The creative writing editors for this issue chose Ellie Olstad’s poem “Anemoi” as winner for the Editor’s Choice Award and K. Kohno’s story “Rock Throne and Snowdust” as runner-up. About “Anemoi,” the editors especially enjoyed Olstad’s style of distinguishing the characters of the four deities with different tones and word choices for each. Illustrating these deities with magnifcent images gives readers an original vision of mythology. In memory of Dr. Paul Iida, AIU Professor, Editor-in-Chief We wish to thank our designers, Ayaka Kasai and Anh Nguyen, both recent graduates of of Akita International University Global Review, and Faculty AIU, for their continued help with this important aspect of the journal. As the Student Jour- Advisor of the Student Journal of International Liberal Arts nal grows and improves, we wish to have your continued support with your submissions or with your interest in joining the editorial team as an editor or as a designer. We hope you take some of your time to look at the pieces and enjoy this collection of excellent writings.

Thank you for reading!

Lead Editors: Luis Daruiz and Judy Wu Designers: Ayaka Kasai and Anh Nguyen Editorial Team: Anh Nguyen, Ayuna Yukihira, Sae Tomiyama, Manami Yaoita, Shohei Tsuchiya, Kakeru Oikawa, Kazuki Fujii, Rin Saito, Kei Torio Faculty Advisors: Lee Friederich and Joel Friederich Cover photo by: Rino Miyamoto Table of Contents

Academic Writing Creative Writing

Japanese Bilingual Education: Why not Reform Plan 2020 and Other Foreign Languages? Anemoi (Poem) Melissa Modi ...... 7 Ellie Olstad ...... 133

Single-Mother Families and the Acceptance of Family Diversity Rock Throne and Snow Dust (Story) Mai Sato ...... 13 K. Kohno ...... 135 Judicial Review on Same-Sex Civil Marriage - Is the restriction of same-sex civil Knock Knock (Story) marriage constitutional or unconstitutional? Ellie Olstad ...... 137 Isana Tsuchiya ...... 22 How to make Donald Trump the appealing alternative Kitchen (Poem) Sakura Kina ...... 32 Kazuki Fujii ...... 140

Mass Shootings: Weak Gun Control and Preventions in the U.S. Blood (Poem) Kakeru Oikawa ...... 37 Ayuna Yukihira ...... 141 Social responsibility for crimes with psychopathic juvenile offenders Shade in Peace (Story) Leona Yanagi ...... 47 Kazuki Fujii ...... 142 The Sino Dash to Africa—An Empirical Analysis Emmanuel Maseruka ...... 54 Alone Together (Story) Kei Torio ...... 147 Possibility of Female Migration Stimulated by Education for Socio-Economic Development in Zimbabwe My Milk Mug (Poem) Hana Tomioka ...... 68 Anh Nguyen ...... 149 Regarding Mothers as Individuals, not as Tools: Issues of Surrogacy It’s a Monochrome World (Story) Miwa Nakada ...... 86 Anh Nguyen ...... 150 Elective Cesarean Section: Safe and Painless? Kana Himeno ...... 91 Unspoken Tale (Poem) Ayuna Yukihira ...... 155 Religion and Children Miyu Ota ...... 98 Winter Tree (Poem) Textile Waste Management: Cradle-to-cradle Design K. Kohno ...... 158 Satoshi Nakao ...... 104 Dear Friend (Poem) Meet and Eat new Meat: Insects Sae Tomiyama ...... 115 Ellie Olstad ...... 160 The Infuence of Discounts, Reviews, and Ratings in Online Hotel Booking Rin Saito ...... 122 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021

Emerge of the Reform Plan 2020 to build Japanese students’ speaking and Japanese Bilingual Education: - Lack of Speaking Skills listening skills (Yamaoka, 2010). Commu- The current English education in Ja- nication skills increasingly began to get at- pan practices a grammar-translation method tention as time passed; by 2010, English Why not Reform Plan 2020 and for teaching (Yamaoka, 2010). This gram- teachers were trained in extra sessions for mar-translation method is the most “de- improving class content, and a listening test 3 Other Foreign Languages? motivating” method, while being the most was introduced in the National Center Test mainstream one simultaneously (Osterman, (Yamaoka, 2010). Due to such progressive Melissa Modi 2014). Ultimately, students come to dis- transformation and globalization, voices to prioritize speaking and listening skills Melissa Modi is in the Global Business program. Her essay “Japanese Bilin- like the language itself; according to Ben- have been raised for a couple of decades. gual Education: Why not Reform Plan 2020 and Other Foreign Languages?” was esse (2009), 57% of students responded that Taking this into consideration, experts written for her ENG 330 “Global Communication” course under Professor Naoko Araki’s su- they dislike English in general, especially evaluate that the government’s reforms do pervision at AIU. Melissa’s interest has been in bilingualism and the cognitive minds of bi- lin- grammar. As a result, students become un- have a positive infuence; the past reforms guals since she entered AIU, where she has met various bilinguals with diverse backgrounds. willing to communicate in English (Yama- oka, 2010). Interestingly, these are the ex- have proved to transform English educa- act opposite sort of students from what the tion positively, in various aspects (Yamao- Introduction 2014). It was set to prepare Japanese citizens Japanese government aspires to produce. ka, 2010). However, the reform plan 2020 Once again, Japan has beat its worst re- for the Tokyo Olympics in 2020; hence, the According to Yamaoka (2010), the gram- is majorly criticized by the media that it is cord with the EF Standard English Test — plan is referred to as the Reform Plan 2020 mar-translation method derives from the tra- not and will not be suffcient. Assistant Lan- an internationally recognized test conducted (MEXT, 2014). Probably, the most debated ditional attitude of Japanese dealing with guage Teachers (ALTs) and some researchers for non-English speakers— conducted this plan within the reform plan 2020 is advanc- foreign languages. Ever since the Meiji res- show a positive attitude towards the new re- year; out of the 100 non-English speaking ing the year to begin learning English; it was toration, it was a common understanding form plan, believing that it could alter Japa- countries and regions, Japan came in as 55th brought two years forward (MEXT, 2014). that foreign culture can be effciently learned nese citizens’ English abilities (Japan Times, place. This result places Japan in the “low” Nevertheless, this paper’s focus is through reading books. Hence, the govern- 2019). Nevertheless, most of the opinions band in its English prtofciency, despite its on secondary school education, which is ment and schools required students to gain seem to be quite pessimistic and doubtful of reasonably equipped educational environ- also required to have a drastic transforma- such comprehension and translation abili- the reform plan 2020. These critical com- ment (EF Education, 2020). Surprisingly, tion. Before implementing such radical re- ties to learn the foreign culture, resulting in ments are mainly based on two aspects: uni- this result is not rare for Japan; the country forms, there are countless issues and mat- setting up entrance exams requiring such versity entrance exams are not changing, has been struggling for years in English ed- ters to consider. Students are not trained “passive skills” (Yamaoka, 2010). Even the and that the reform is relatively ineffective. ucation (Margolis, 2020). In response to with their speaking skills, and the reform government believed that speaking and lis- Through some investigation of the reform such negative evaluation Japan is receiving, plan 2020 is said to be unrealistic. With the tening skills were “neither sophisticated nor plan 2020 and the current education situa- the Japanese government is fnding necessi- discussion of the reform plan 2020, this pa- necessary” at the time, in the 1970s. As in- tion, the next section analyzes the reason and ty in rearing “globally-minded individuals” per looks into the general issue in Japa- ternational exchanges became frequent in backgrounds of the two arguments raised. nese bilingual education as well: the pres- with “intercultural perspectives” and “high the 1990s, the Japanese government realized Two Criticisms to the Reform Plan 2020 communication skills in English” (MEXT, tige in English is too high. Through these how crucial speaking and listening skills Upper secondary schools’ aims to- 2019). In 2014, the government had pro- two topics, which are the reform plan are. They started reviewing the nation’s ed- wards English education is heavily based posed an English education reform plan for 2020 and the language power-balance, ucation system; the JET (Japan Exchange on “whether the students pass the univer- development in the education feld (MEXT, the paper strives to fnd Japan’s require- and Teaching) program was launched, and sity exams or not.” Hence, with the uni- ments to enhance in the globalized society. textbooks were refned to increase dialogues

7 8 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 versity exams not adjusting their exams to and technology (MEXT), the reform plan In an educational reform conducted in 2003, more than monolinguals (Baker, 2011). more speaking and listening skill gradings, 2020 includes “conducting classes in En- the Japanese government emphasized the Nevertheless, the crucial point is that the there is no point in learning all four skills glish in principle” from secondary school importance of communication skills; they “bilinguals with additional languages” do (Miller, 2014). Researchers argue that the (MEXT, 2014). Nevertheless, Sawa (2020) stated that the Japanese education system so, not merely English-speaking bilinguals. additional time spent for learning speak- mentions that it is meaningless to prac- will be altered to raise citizens with high It could be said that the Japanese govern- ing and listening skills would deprive the tice communicative English without the communication skills (Jones, 2019). Simul- ment holds an “English-only” attitude when hours to study other subjects (Miller, 2014). base of English reading and writing skills. taneously, the government attempted to co- it comes to foreign-language acquirement. The reason for such a claim comes from Moreover, a professor at Meikai Univer- ordinate English education to the commu- Margolis (2020) states that this “national the past experiences in the education feld. sity, Yukio Otsu (2013), notes that the nicative concept. MEXT (2002) mentions obsession” towards English derives from In the 1970s, when speaking skills were re- mother tongue, Japanese, needs to be com- the children should acquire communication experiencing success after learning from marked as “not sophisticated,” teachers who pleted to an appropriate level before com- skills “in English” because it is the “com- Western countries. In other words, the histo- were motivated to adopt speaking did ex- municating in a foreign language. Without mon international language.” This is where ry of getting accustomed to Western nations ist. Nevertheless, they mentioned how they the strong base comprehension of the moth- the emphasis on English had begun in the and obtaining successful new skills have could not alter the conventional education er tongue, English education in Japan may- education feld. Although MEXT’s policy built a bias in Japanese citizens’ minds. Oth- style styles, due to the “pressure of entrance be not what the government aimed it to be. statements and guidelines use the term “for- er foreign languages are rarely an option for exams” (Yamaoka, 2010). This hesitance Baker (2011) raises the “three essen- eign language,” the reality is that the foreign Japanese children to learn throughout their towards transforming the education style tial components” for bilingual education in language taught in public schools is English lives; however, according to Baker (2011), is observed in the current education feld as his textbook, which are “second language (Jones, 2019). Mizuta (2009) analyzes that English’s mindset of being the best language well. Teachers blame the unchanging edu- instruction for non-native speakers, con- this is due to the government considering the to learn is somewhat “outdated” in Western cation style on the university entrance ex- tent-area instruction in the home language, U.S. economy as a vital asset. To improve Ja- countries. Baker (2011) also mentions that aminations’ content (Margolis, 2020). With and primary language support.” This state- pan’s position in the global economy where high English profciency does not lead people the university exams focused on reading and ment indicates how bilingual education can the United States is dominating, it is inevi- to equal amounts of jobs and employment. writing, the teachers are forced to lead the be most effective with both languages present table for Japanese people to acquire English. Considering this aspect, some researchers students to learn grammar (Margolis, 2020). in the classroom. Hence, although the addi- The Japanese government promotes and state that English should not be pressuring Hence, it is inevitable for the teachers to tional language, in this case, English, could has the students learn English to be “contrib- upon the students, especially if it is merely use this method unless the entrance exams be the medium for teaching, there must be utors” in the global society (MEXT, 2014). making them dislike the language and de- change their form. Thus, without any en- support to the students in Japanese in the con- In a way, this attitude may be considered as priving their mother tongue (Kameda, 2013). forcement or movement in the university En- tent aspect. Baker (2011) also mentions how a promotion of the concept of “language as Nonetheless, according to Mizuta (2009), glish examinations, it is quite challenging for bilingual education focuses on the cognitive a resource” (Baker, 2011). With the mind- the recent economic rise of non-Western teachers to widen their focus on speaking and development as well as linguistic develop- set of English being a resource, the govern- countries such as China and Korea are grad- listening skills. Lowe (2020) believes that ment for the students to become “contribu- ment conducts bilingual education in Japan. ually altering the Japanese conventional such a change in the university exams cannot tors to the economy.” Thus, solely advancing Being bilingual is undoubtedly an “asset,” mindset. People who wish to learn Chinese be prospected for now – it is too complicated the students’ speaking abilities may not be states Baker (2011), indicating that they ac- and Korean are increasing, and the market for the universities to adjust their private ex- the appropriate solution; a balance between company economic, cultural, and communi- share is expanding as well (Mizuta, 2009). aminations accordingly, in such short-term. the two languages’ learning must be present. cative resources. In the textbook, languages With such a change in the trend, Japan’s Next, the reform plan of 2020 is crit- are also regarded as tools to “bridge” various conception may change little by little. There Language prestige in English icized for being inappropriate, and needs social groups. Additionally, balanced bilin- may be a day with options in the language reconsideration. According to the Minis- The second concern of Japanese English guals are proved to be benefcial in the la- we acquire at schools; all we need is time. try of education, culture, sports, science, education is the strong emphasis on English. bor markets and are likely to be employed

9 10 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021

Conclusion does not mean the education feld needs References In conclusion, this paper criticizes bi- to wait; nothing is likely to change with- Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Multilingual Matters. lingual education in Japan through two dif- out any movement. With some refnement EF Education. (2020). EF EPI 2020 - EF English Profciency Index. https://www.ef.com/ in the university examination systems and ferent aspects: the reform plan 2020 and the wwen/epi/. overview of foreign-language education in curriculums, Japan will defnitely be able Japan Times. (2019, February 9). Don't freeze English education reform. The Japan Times. Japan. The reform plan 2020 exposed the to strengthen its citizens’ additional-lan- https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2019/11/08/editorials/dont-freeze-english- guage’s profciency. Simultaneously, there necessity of change in the university exams education-reform/. and some readjustment to reconsider the ex- could be some reconsideration on the pow- Jones, B. A. (2019). The Role of English Education in Japan. Memoirs of Learning cessive focus on speaking skills. Then, the er-balance in foreign languages Japan cur- Utility Center for Konan University Students, 21–31. https://doi.org/http://doi. rently has; this could gradually lead Japan paper shows how English may be overrated org/10.14990/00003355 with its prestige in Japan, from the overview to a more open-minded and global coun- Kameda, M. (2013, December 31). English to get 2020 push but teachers not on same page. of Japanese bilingual education. Neverthe- try. In short, university exams’ reconstruc- The Japan Times. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/12/31/national/english-to- tion and perception evolution towards for- less, this power-balance in foreign languages get-2020-push-but-teachers-not-on-same-page/. may be relieved in the near future, with the eign languages are required. Hence, there Lowe, J. (2020, February 5). Reforms for university admissions tests. Garnet Education. economic rise of the non-Western countries. are several major transformations needed in https://www.garneteducation.com/changes-in-japanese-english-tests/. The content of the reform plan 2020 is the Japanese bilingual education. With this debatable; however, it is not that the reform change, Japanese society should develop Margolis, E. (2020, May 26). Japan Doesn't Want to Become Another Casualty of English. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/05/26/japan-doesnt-want-to-become- plan 2020 is “meaningless.” There are re- into a frm and diverse one. The advanced another-casualty-of-english/. adjustments needed considering the cur- speaking skills and availability to various rent English education environment, espe- foreign language could rear the students into cially considering the time needed for such individuals, especially ones with “global- drastic transformations. Nevertheless, this ly-minds” and high communication skills.

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mental development. Despite what appears employment status. According to a survey by to be a logical claim, they seem to spotlight the Japanese Institute of Labour and Train- Single-Mother Families and the the downsides of single mothers’ families too ing (2019), 51.4 percent of single mothers’ much and fail to appreciate them fairly. In household income was below the pover- Acceptance of Family Diversity fact, single motherhood is not always harm- ty line, less than the median household in- ful to children. Neutral understanding of sin- come, and 43.8 percent of single mothers Mai Sato gle-mother households will be particularly work as temporary workers (the Ministry signifcant for college-aged people brought of Health, Labour and Welfare, 2017). Yu- Author’s Note up by two biological parents in blood ties asa, a professor at the University of Tokyo Mai Sato is a sophomore student who will major in Global Business. Her es- since they are prone to be infuenced by neg- and the executive of a nonproft organiza- say “Single-Mother Families and the Acceptance of Family Diversity” was submit- ative stereotypes against single-mother fami- tion for children, analyzes the cause of the ted in Professor Joel Friederich’s Composition 1 class. Sato has had a special inter- lies. As they would form families in the near plight of Japanese single mothers in the ar- est in gender issues, especially in gender issues related to the conventional views of future, the change of their perspective will be ticle, “The Two-Tier Wage Structure Hold- gender roles in Japan. She learned that in addition to cultural issues, the unfair fnan- the crucial step not only to elevate the social ing Single-Parent Families Back” (2019). cial distribution to Japanese women in the workplace also became a hindrance to the el- status of single mothers but also to build up He underlines that Japanese single mothers evation of the status of women in Japan. Based on this perspective, she would like to ac- societies that accept diverse family forms. are suffering from “a double disparity,” the cumulate knowledge of the fnancial system of Japan and try to fnd the solution so that Therefore, frst of all, this essay discusses the wage gaps between female and male work- every individual can enjoy the same fnancial opportunities regardless of their gender. poverty of single-mother families and possi- ers and between regular and nonregular ble solutions, then argues that the deleterious workers. He revealed that temporary single “Major cause of the problems of the cit- the idea that a single mother is “just another effects of domestic violence on children’s mother workers earn only two-ffths of the ies is the dissolution of the family,” (p. 88) lifestyle,” as described by Murphy Brown, development can be more severe than fami- salary of permanent male workers per hour stated Dan Quayle, the vice president of the the imaginary character of an American TV ly separation, and fnally highlights that the even if both of them do the same amount United States in 1992, according to Webber drama at that time who was portrayed as a quality of association between parents and of work (Mochida, 2019). In this way, sin- (2009). At that time, American society was highly educated single mother (ibid). Even children is crucial for children’s psycholog- gle mothers in Japan tend to be in poor cir- disturbed by the Los Angeles riot, one of though this debate caught fre nearly 30 years ical well-being regardless of family forms. cumstances because of the double disparity. the worst series of domestic riots through- ago in America, it is still continued beyond Most people who consider that a single As a result, most single mothers cannot out American history. Quayle attributed this America, as the single-mother family seems mother is undesirable for children would afford to invest much money into higher ed- disturbance to the transition of the family to be a typical current family style in Japan. argue that a single mother is more like- ucation for their children. The Cabinet Of- structure. He especially stigmatized the in- Today, the reason for becoming a sin- ly to make their children poor since sin- fce (2016) cited by Chin (2018) showed that creasing number of single-parent families, gle mother varies from person to person, in- gle mothers are the only income-earners although 73.2 percent of Japanese children explaining it hampered economic and social cluding divorce, unintended pregnancy, and among their family members. Taking Japan move on to college in total, the ratio of sin- success. His remark intensifed the debate adoption. However, many people, including as one of the examples, the following three gle-parent children who go to college drops over family values between conservative and sociologists and psychologists, particularly factors would underlie the issue of pover- to 41.6 percent. Concerning this data, Grun- liberal parties in the U.S. Conservative peo- point out that being a single mother by di- ty of single mothers: low income, the lack piza et al. (2013), the members of the Eu- ple advocated Quayle’s vision based on the vorcing has negative effects on children for of higher education, and the lack of child rostat of the European Commission, discuss traditional family values, saying the fami- scientifc reasons aside from the stereotype support attributed to the faws with the Jap- the inheritance of poverty. They highlight lies comprising biological two parents and that single mothers are a stigma in society. anese divorce law in terms of custody. that “the education level is one of the most their children are “ideal” (Hong, 2003, p. They argue that single parents are liable to The wage of Japanese single mothers important individual factors for adults in re- 7). Meanwhile, many liberal people support fall into poverty, and they hamper children’s tends to be low due to their gender and their ducing the risk of poverty and being able to

13 14 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 secure acceptable living conditions for them- pay child support until children are fnan- have the possibility to give opportunities to they prove the side effects of family separa- selves and their families” (p. 2). Their state- cially independent (Wolf, 2020). Lee et al. receive higher education for their children tion on psychological or even brain devel- ment seems to be rooted in the idea that if (2020), the professors of human development as well as children in two-parent families. opment of children. Regarding their stud- children do not receive enough education, and family studies, argue that “child sup- Another main concern that people think ies, single mother parenting can hamper the single mothers will fail not only to support port payments are a vital income source for parents should not divorce for their children healthy mental development of children. the children’s education but also to teach the these children and their custodial parents” is that single parenting negatively affects While the qualitative data by Schmuck importance of education to them, which can (p. 1), revealing that it accounts for 26.7 per- children’s mental development. In Ameri- and Bidakowska et al. are reliable, both sides lead to a vicious circle of poverty. Along cent of a total low-income family income. ca, people have traditionally interpreted a seem to overlook the serious impacts of do- with Grunpiza et al., the president of Asian Although Japan also implements child sup- description of “the best interest of the child” mestic violence on children. Many people Institute of Technology, Nukulchai (2018), port systems, about 56.5 percent of single as maintaining a good relationship between might think that domestic violence would stresses the importance of higher education, mothers have never received child support parents for children (Findlaw, 2018). Many occur only in particular families, and the ma- stating that “[lifelong learning] is a must in (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, parents likewise seem to believe that family jority of families are indifferent to it. Unfor- today’s context since the wisdom which a 2016). This high rate can be attributed to the separation is morally wrong, and it undesir- tunately, domestic violence is familiar with person has today will become obsolete pret- characteristics of Japanese divorce law. Ac- ably affects the behavior of their children. a larger number of families than they would ty fast due to rapid changes in technology” cording to Japan’s Justice Ministry, Japan is Their ideas are supported not only by their expect. According to Kunen (2013) and the (para. 12). He predicts that human jobs that in the minority of countries where only one presumptions but also by scientifc exper- World Health Organization (2017), about require basic education might be replaced parent who mainly takes charge of child-rear- iments. Schmuck (2013), a professor of one-third of women have experienced phys- by technologies within a few decades. If that ing can take custody after the divorce, while Brigham Young University, delineates that ical or sexual domestic violence in Ameri- happens, less cultivated people might have most countries, including Canada, China, the experience of “traumatizing events” (p. ca, which was the almost same results as the more diffculties getting a job than ever be- and Russia, allow both parents to be given 120), including divorce in early child life, are global trend, and half of the husbands who fore. Both Grunpiza et al. and Nukulchai joint custody even after divorce (Jiji, 2020). liable to trigger behavioral problems such as frequently abuse their wives also exercise stress how crucial education is to overcome This Japanese divorce law would decrease depression, anxiety, and withdrawal. While violence to their children. The signifcant poverty from different perspectives. Ponder- the responsibility as a father of former hus- the reports the overall undesirable infuenc- difference of possible damage brought by ing the deep association between poverty and bands, who do not take care of children, es of family separation on children’s mental domestic violence from family separation is education, children raised by single mothers or the incentive to fnancially cooperate to health, Bidakowska et al. (2020), a mem- that not only can it undermine both the phys- might be pitiable in that they may inherit pov- raise children between parents after divorce, ber of PEDAL Research Centre and faculty ical and mental health of children, but also erty to the next generations as well as they which can be the factor of the scarcity of of the University of Cambridge, shed light is there a high possibility that their children may suffer from poverty throughout their life. child support. Under these circumstances, on the importance of the role of a father on also become abusers when they become While resolving the poverty of low in- if the Japanese divorce law forces dual par- children’s development with specifc experi- adults. To illustrate, the boys who witness come and the lack of higher education for ents to be in custody after the divorce, these ments. They revealed that fathers are usually their mothers as victims of abuse by their fa- single-mother households in Japan might husbands will retain their responsibility as a more engaged in physical play such as tick- ther are ten times more likely to assault their not appear to be feasible, one amendment of father after divorce. This amendment would ling or bouncing with children than mothers, future wives, in addition to showing health the Japanese divorce law could make a con- also motivate two separated parents to eco- contributing to “children’s social, emotional issues such as depression, anxiety, heart dis- siderable difference. Many other regions nomically support each other to provide a and cognitive outcomes” (p. 14 & 15). This ease, and poor self-esteem (U.S. Department outside Japan tackle this issue by enforcing suffcient living for their children. As a re- study indicates that children nurtured by sin- of Health and Human Services, 2019). This non-custodial husbands to pay child support sult, single mothers would be able to invest gle mothers can show lower development in data implies that the decision of not divorc- for their children. America is one of the ex- more money into the education of their chil- social, emotional, and cognitive skills than ing does not always beneft children. Brown amples, and the guidelines of more than half dren. Therefore, by both parents having re- children in dual-parents families. Schmuck (2001), a member of the law frm of Harris, of the states give birth fathers obligations to sponsibilities to rear children, single mothers and Bidakowska et al. have in common that points out that people should take domes-

15 16 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 tic violence into account in terms of the de- sense of equality, closeness, and interdepen- their mother. Nixon et al. reported that since psychological well-being in children and ad- scription of the best interest of a child in the dence” (Nixon et al., 2012, p. 144). Other these children understand the physical and olescents” (p. 131) based on their study tar- U.S. family law, emphasizing that “domestic studies also observed that children of single emotional burden of single mothers, the chil- geting 1,034 adolescents from 11 countries violence cases are contrary to the best inter- mothers relate to their mother closely, and dren voluntarily assist her by helping with and making them assess their satisfaction of est of the child standard” (p. 306). His state- they can play a role as a confdante for their housework or making a cup of coffee for her their life and parental relationships. Com- ment can be interpreted that parents should mother (ibid.). These results can be inter- more frequently than children in conven- bined with the defnition of well-being, it can prioritize protecting their children from vio- preted as a possibility to develop high-qual- tional family forms (ibid.). The active coop- be inferred that closer association between lence because pretending to have a good re- ity parent-child relationships even in sin- eration with children and their single moth- children and parents is the key element to en- lationship between the mother and the abu- gle-mother families. Although some people ers will strengthen their frm relationship, rich a children’s life. Applying the study by sive father has an adverse effect on children. might criticize that these results are inter- which can be a privilege for single-mother Suldo et al. to the research by Nixon et al., Similar to the gist of the fndings shown fered with by the third person’s perspective, households, whose members have experi- I deduce that children who grow up in sin- by Brown, Gager et al. (2016), professors of the testimonies of children in single-moth- enced fnancial or emotional hardships to- gle-mother homes can maintain a high level Family Science and Human Development of er households would be the conclusive ev- gether. In this regard, the bonds between of well-being as they are frmly connected Montclair State University also indicate that idence showing the strong bonds of a single single mothers and their children seem to be with their mothers. A similar deduction is divorce would be a healthy decision for chil- mother’s household. According to Nixon unique and steady. Although the negative as- also retrieved from other studies. Olivia et al. dren in particular situations, describing that et al. (2012), psychologists, in an interview pects of single mothers’ families often tend (2018), school psychologists of the National family dissolution is a strategy to reduce the to assess the relationship between mothers to be highlighted, appreciating these posi- Association, illustrated that when children severe effects of long-term family confict. In and children, a 16-year-old girl living with tive sides would be helpful, especially for perceive the strong association with their par- this way, given the extreme outcome of do- her mother and her brother explained, “I people aged around 20 years old who would ents, children of singles mother experience mestic violence, young generations, especial- just feel a lot closer to her because it’s only have their own family in the near future. “robust psychological well-being” (p. 101) ly college-aged generations in dual-parents her” (p. 147 & 148). She added that she In addition, the solid parent-child rela- compared to children in two-parent house- families, who are supposed to have a family was the sole intimate partner for her moth- tionship of single-mother households is like- holds and grandparents’ households. They in the near future, may believe that marriag- er and this reality enabled them to develop ly to contribute to the high level of children’s take the frm position that children can lead es should always remain intact, no matter a strong relationship. Another 15-year-old psychological well-being, which will def- a satisfactory life even in a single mother’s what the cost. However, they might need to boy in a single-mother family analyzed the nitely be the positive sides of single-mother family, corroborating the studies of Nixon keep in mind that a mother’s breaking up relationship with his mother as well, saying: families. The defnition of well-being is di- et al., Suldo et al. In other words, how par- with a husband can be in the best interest of She’s been like both my parents all my life, so, verse, but this essay focuses on psycholog- ents and children interact with each other in the physical and mental health of children. like, some people wouldn’t talk to their mum ical well-being to shed light on children’s daily life can outweigh the superfcial fami- College-aged people who grew up in about something, they wouldn’t talk to their satisfaction with their life. Ryff, a profes- ly forms for children’s well-being. In this the typical family would also need to un- dad about somethings, but she’s both so I talk sor at the University of Wisconsin-Madi- sense, it would be unreasonable to determine derstand that even though children in a sin- about all things with her. So then she pretty son, defned psychological well-being as “a that single mother parenting is harmful to gle-mother family cannot interact with the much knows everything about me (p. 148). process of self-realization, consisting of six children without considering the high qual- two parents, these children can build up a The statements of those two children dimensions: autonomy, environmental mas- ity of parent-child relationships, which im- more solid relationship with their moth- suggested that children who grow up in a tery, personal growth, positive relations with proves children’s psychological well-being. er than two parented children. Upon doing single-mother family seem to show a strong others, purpose in life and self-acceptance. In conclusion, single-mother families interviews with 58 young adults who were connection with their mothers as single moth- There is some discussion on the six-factor need to be neutrally appreciated without be- raised by divorced mothers, Arditti, the pro- ers are only recipients for their children. The structure” (Weiss et al., 2016, p. 2). Suldo ing tethered by the ideological family struc- fessor of Human Development, emphasized solid sense of closeness can be the incentive et al. (2015), Ph.D., demonstrated that “par- ture, which will contribute to raising the that children and their mother share “the for the children to be more supportive of ent-child relationships co-occur with optimal tolerance of family diversity as well as lift-

17 18 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 ing the social status of single mothers. Even chological well-being more than two-par- Chin, K. (n.d.). Singuru mazaa no hinnkonn to kodomo no hattatu ni kannsuru kousatu though this essay criticizes people who con- ented children. This study will be dominant [Exploring Japanese literature for Japanese language letters: A study of single mother sider being single mothers by divorce neg- evidence to confrm single mothers do not and children’s development]. Retrieved fromfle:///C:/Users/b2001/Downloads/03- %E9%99%B3_%E5%AD%90%E3%81%A9%E3%82%82%E5%AD%A6%E7%A0 atively affects children, it does not mean always undesirably affect children. Current %94%E7%A9%B6%E8%AB%96%E9%9B%8610.pdf that being single mothers by divorce always college-aged generations who are nurtured beneft children. Given that numerous re- by two biological parents especially need to Focusing on the “Best Interests” of the Child. (2018, November 26). Findlaw. Retrieved from https://family.fndlaw.com/child-custody/focusing-on-the-best-interests-of-the-child. ports have proved that single mothers’ fam- understand both of these negative and posi- html#:~:text=In%20the%20context%20of%20child,emotional%20development%20 ilies are likely to face fnancial diffculties tive aspects of single mothers’ households. into%20young%20adulthood and divorce, and the absence of fathers can They might evaluate family based on the Gager, C. T., Yabiku, S. T., & Miriam, R. L. (2015). Confict or Divorce? Does Parental inhibit the healthy mental development of traditional structure, but increasing their ca- Confict and/or Divorce Increase the Likelihood of Adult Children'sCohabiting and children, it might be valid to think children pacity to admit family diversity will directly Marital Dissolution? Marriage & Family Review, 52, 243-261. Retrieved fromhttps:// born in a single-mother family have disad- lead to building up a society where various www.researchgate.net/publication/284546377_Confict_or_Divorce_Does_Parental_ vantages. However, many individuals, in- family structures are accepted. “[Perhaps] it’s Confict_andor_Divorce_Increase_the_Likelihood_of_Adult_Children's_Cohabiting_ cluding experts, seem to be short-sighted time ... to recognize that, whether by choice and_Marital_Dissolution to conclude that single mother-parenting is or circumstance, families come in all shapes Grundiza, S. & Vilaplama, C. L. (2013). Is the likelihood of poverty inherited? Eurostat. deleterious to children without deliberating and sizes. And, ultimately, what really de- Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/pdfscache/30312.pdf their positive sides. In fact, there is room to fnes a family is caring and love” (Kohler, Hong, K. E. (2003). Parens Patriarchy: Adoption, Eugenics, and Same-Sex Couples. abate the poverty of single-mother homes 2018), suggested Murphy Brown, the Amer- California Western Law Review, 40, 1. Retrieved from https://advance.lexis.com/api/ by strengthening child support systems, and ican TV drama character. Although this dra- document?collection=analytical-materials&id=urn:contentItem:4BRP-S9M0-00CV- divorce can be the optimum option for chil- ma was broadcasted about 30 years ago, G067-00000-00&context=1516831 dren considering the disastrous impact of her remarks will entail crucial lessons for Jiji. (2020, April 10). Justice Ministry survey fnds many countries allow joint child custody domestic violence on children. Moreover, present college students who have grown in after divorce. The Japan Times. Retrieved from https://www.japantimes.co.jp/ single mothers and their children are usually the conventional family and have their own news/2020/04/10/national/crime-legal/joint-custody-justice-ministry/ united by exceptionally robust family bonds families soon, in this equity-oriented age. Kohler, J. (2018, February 5). All in the non-traditional family; How will the Murphy which contribute to gaining children’s psy- Brown reboot treat single-motherhood? The Star Phoenix (Saskatoon, Saskatchewan). Retrieved from https://advance.lexis.com/api/document?collection=news&id=urn:con References tentItem:5RK2-YK41-JBKR-83P5-00000-00&context=1516831.

Bidakowska, A. A., Lavery, C. & Ramchandani, P. G. (2020). Father-child play: A Kunen, A. (2013). Divorce and domestic violence in the United States: A focus on New York systematic review of its frequency, characteristics and potential impact on children’s State’s adoption of no-fault legislation and its impact on the incidence of domestic development. Developmental Review, 57. Retrieved fromhttps://www.sciencedirect. violence. Cardozo Public Law, Policy & Ethics Journal, 11, 353. Retrieved from com/science/article/pii/S0273229720300307 https://advance.lexis.com/api/document?collection=analytical-materials&id=urn:cont entItem:58VX-GN00-02C9-B0DJ-00000-00&context=1516831. Brown, M. A. (2001). CHILD CUSTODY IN CASES INVOLVING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: IS IT REALLY IN THE "BEST INTERESTS" OF CHILDREN TO Lee, D., Weems, C., Rouse, L. H., Melby, J. N., Zhao, F., Bartel, M., & Goudy, K. (2020). HAVE UNRESTRICTED CONTACT WITH THEIR MOTHER'S ABUSERS? Targeted child support enforcement and its association with child support payments: Evidence Journal of the Missouri Bar, 57, 302. Retrieved from https://advance.lexis.com/docu from a program evaluation. Children and Youth Services Review, 118. Retrieved from ment/?pdmfd=1516831&crid=54597c26-695d-4106-83e7-defaaac0c291&pddocful https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190740920307891 lpath=%2Fshared%2Fdocument%2Fanalytical-materials%2Furn%3AcontentItem%- 3A44RR-1450-00BT-403R-00000-00&pdcontentcomponentid=158168&pdteaserke Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.mhlw.go.jp/ y=sr1&pditab=allpods&ecomp=fzx2k&earg=sr1&prid=42117c98-7da8-440c-9609- fle/04-Houdouhappyou-11923000-Kodomokateikyoku-Kateifukishika/0000190325. f313e749cf84 pdf

19 20 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021

Mochida, J. (2019, December 20). The Two-Tier Wage Structure Holding Single-Parent Families Back. Nippon. Retrieved from https://www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/d00522/ the-two-tier-wage-structure-holding-single-parent-families-back.html Judicial Review on Same-Sex Civil Nixon, E., Greene, S., & Hogan, D. (2012). Negotiating Relationships in Single-Mother Households: Perspectives of Children and Mothers. Family Relations, 61(1), 142-156. Marriage —Is the Restriction Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4140364 Nukulchai, W. K. (2018, August 27). Challenge of learning is how to transform information of Same-Sex Civil Marriage to wisdom. Daily Financial Times. Retrieved from https://advance.lexis.com/docume nt/?pdmfd=1516831&crid=8a4125c6-5ffc-45a4-8c15-2afdc905b080&pddocfullpath =%2Fshared%2Fdocument%2Fnews%2Furn%3AcontentItem%3A5T4D-4H21-JCH9- Constitutional or Unconstitutional? -G31G-00000-00&pdcontentcomponentid=416461&pdteaserkey=sr3&pditab=allpods Isana Tsuchiya &ecomp=fzx2k&earg=sr3&prid=b8adaac1-4824-49c8-899d-b2175978827b Olivia, H., Xu, L., & Edwards, O. W. (2018). Family Structures, Family Relationship, Isana Tsuchiya is a senior student majoring in Global Studies. His essay “Judi- and Children's Perceptions of Life Satisfaction. School Psychology Forum, cial Review on Same-Sex Civil Marriage: Is the Restriction of Same-Sex Civil Mar- Research in Practice, 12(3), 91-104. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/ riage Constitutional or Unconstitutional?” was written under the supervision of Profes- scholarly-journals/family-structures-relationship-childrens/docview/2127213849/se- sor Tetsuya Toyoda. Tsuchiya has had a keen interest in Japanese and international law, 2?accountid=45916 especially the Japanese constitution. After taking the course the Japanese Constitution Schmuck, D. (2013). Single parenting: fewer negative effects of children’s behaviors than and Laws, he became interested in the Japanese marriage system, which was under tri- claimed. Modern psychological studies, 18 (2). Retrieved from https://scholar.utc.edu/ al in Hokkaido District Court. He would like to analyze the constitutional judgment on cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1329&context=mps the restriction of the surname system for married couples by the Supreme Court (2021). Suldo, S, M. & Fefer, S. (2015). Parent-Child Relationships and Well-Being. Research, Applications, and Interventions for Children and Adolescents: A Positive Psychology Perspective (8). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281732349_ Introduction the state. It uses the international trend Parent-Child_Relationships_and_Well-Being If people submit a marriage notifca- which other states start to make same- The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.jil. tion to local public entities, they are legal- sex marriage legal as one of the reasons. go.jp/press/documents/20191017.pdf ly recognized as married, but how about On the other hand, Tokyo High Court The U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2019) Effect of domestic violence to sexual minorities? In Japan, local pub- gave a decision concerning sexualities and children. Retrieved from https://www.womenshealth.gov/relationships-and-safety/ lic entities do not accept same-sex cou- marriage in Case (wa) No.30 (2020). It clar- domestic-violence/effects-domestic-violence-children ples’ marriage notifcations. Marriage For ifed that same-sex marriage can be recog- Weber, J. M. (2009). James Danforth Quayle, III, “Murphy Brown Speech” (19 May 1992). All Japan, an organization that aims to nized as a common-law marriage but not Voices of Democracy 4 (2009), 83-96. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.hollins. make Japan legally accept same-sex mar- civil marriage, even though local public edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=commfac riage, has been against the marriage system. entities do not accept their marriage noti- Weiss, L. A., Westerhof, G. J., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2016). Can We Increase Psychological Marriage For All Japan presented peti- fcations. Common-law marriage is that a Well-Being? The Effects of Interventions on Psychological Well-Being: A Mta- tions to Sapporo, Nagoya, Osaka, and To- couple who does not submit a marriage no- Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Plos One, 11(6), e015892. Retrieved from kyo District Court in 2019. It claims what tifcation but is recognized as being mar- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4915721/ same-sex couples are not accepted their ried based on social customs. Conversely, a Wolf, J. (2020, May, 15). U.S. Child Support Statistics. Verywell family. Retrieved from marriage notifcations is an unreason- couple who submit a marriage notifcation https://www.verywellfamily.com/us-child-support-statistics-2997994 able restriction of their freedom of mar- and local public entities accept it is a civ- World Health Organization. (2017, November). Violence against women. Retrieved from riage. In Article 24, paragraph (1) of the il marriage. The judgment also shows that https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women Constitution, so it institutes a suit against the international trend of accepting same-

21 22 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 sex marriages is a mixture of accepting the cretionary power to enact a legal system of pose of the legal system [Article 750 of the such change would make it diffcult to main- civil marriage and common-law marriage. marriage based on the request of Article 24. Civil Code] and the infuence that may be tain the person’s credit, reputation, fame, Thus, these two cases have the difference In Case (o) No.1023 by the Supreme derived from adopting the legal system, and etc. as an individual, which have been es- at a point of an international trend, wheth- Court (2015), it is discussed whether Arti- by considering whether or not the provision tablished through the use of his/her pre-mar- er accepting same-sex marriage as civil cle 750 of the Civil Code, which requires in question should inevitably be deemed riage surname] can be eased to some degree marriage or common-law marriage. First- married couples to adopt the same surname, to be unreasonable in light of the require- as such use of the pre-marriage surname as ly, how will a case submitted by Marriage is unconstitutional. Article 750 of the Civil ment of individual dignity and the essen- the by-name after marriage becomes popular. for All Japan be judged based on Case (wa) Code states “a husband and wife shall adopt tial equality of the sexes and be beyond the The adaptation of surnames has disadvan- No.30 by Tokyo High Court (2020)? For the surname of the husband or wife in ac- scope of the Diet’s legislative discretion. tages mainly for women because they tend this research question, this research consid- cordance with that which is decided at the It means that freedom of marriage in Arti- to adopt their husbands’ surnames recent- ers two perspectives, the international trend time of marriage.” In other words, a mar- cle 24 is an abstract human right, so the Diet ly; however, using pre-marriage surnames and the restriction for same-sex marriage. riage certifcation without choosing the sur- has to make the right actualize by establish- even after their marriage can lessen the dis- Secondly, how does the judgment by Tokyo name is not legally accepted. The reason ing laws. The time that the Court can judge advantages. Thus, the restriction by Article High Court affect future cases concerning why it is considered unconstitutional is that as unconstitutional is only when the laws pro- 750 of the Civil Code does not discriminate freedom of marriage for same-sex couples? women, who often adopt husband’s sur- hibit freedom of marriage without reasonable or violate their freedom of marriage, which The purpose of this research is to reconsid- name, have damages coming from Article ground. Thus, requirements that are neces- means that it has reasonable ground and is er the future of same-sex marriage in Japan 750 of the Civil Code, which violates their sary for civil-marriage, such as submission of under the Diet’s legislative discretion. In from the judgment by Tokyo High Court. freedom of marriage. Thus, it is claimed marriage certifcates and sexuality, are decid- the same way, the existence of reasonable that Article 750 of the Civil Code restricts ed by-laws made by the Diet. The judicial re- ground in restrictions of freedom of mar- Discussions of Each Case women’s freedom of marriage without rea- view is limited only when laws restrict free- riage can be judged from whether disadvan- Adopting the same surname. sonable grounds, and exceeds the Diet’s dom of marriage without reasonable ground. tages due to the restrictions are eased or not. Article 24, paragraph (1) of the Consti- legislative discretion permitted under Ar- The judgment also shows how the ex- To sum up, Case (o) No.1023 (2015) tution says “marriage shall be based only on ticle 24 of the Constitution. The Supreme istence of reasonable ground is checked. provides three dimensions concerning judi- the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall Court judged as constitutional, Article 750 The petitioners argue that Article 750 of cial review on Article 24 of the Constitution. be maintained through mutual cooperation of the Civil Code does not violate freedom the Civil Code violates Article 24 of the The frst dimension is that freedom of mar- with the equal rights of husband and wife of marriage unreasonably, and is under the Constitution since a wife often adopts riage in Article 24, paragraph (1) is actual- as a basis.” Article 24, paragraph (2) of the Diet’s legislative discretion of Article 24 of her husband’s surname in reality even ized by-laws that regulate the system of civil Constitution shows “with regard to choice of the Constitution. The judgment has three di- though Article 24, paragraph (1) states marriage including marriage certifcates and spouse, property rights, inheritance, choice mensions. The frst dimension is how Article the mutual consent of both sexes and hav- sexuality from the request of Article 24, para- of domicile, divorce and other matters per- 24 is interpreted. The second dimension is ing equal rights. The judgment states: graph (2). The second dimension is that the taining to marriage and the family, laws shall the limitation of judicial review for Article The same surname system does not pro- Courts can do a judicial review of the laws be enacted from the standpoint of individual 24. The third dimension is the examination hibit people from using their pre-marriage only when they have no reasonable ground dignity and the essential equality of the sex- of the existence of the reasonable ground. surname even as their by-name after mar- and exceed the Diet’s legislative discretion. es.” Marriage is freely based on individu- According to the judgment of Case (o) riage. Recently, it has become popular The third dimension is that the existence of al autonomy, which is freedom of marriage. No.1023 by the Supreme Court (2015): de- among members of the public to use their a reasonable ground for restriction of free- Laws have to be established for freedom of termination as to whether or not said pro- pre-marriage surname as their by-name af- dom of marriage can be judged from easing marriage. In Case (o) No.1023 (2015), the vision can also be accepted as being also in ter marriage. The abovementioned disadvan- disadvantages coming from the restriction. Supreme Court clarifes how Article 24 of compliance with Article 24 of the Constitu- tages [a loss of identity due to the change of the Constitution is treated. The Diet has dis- tion should be made by examining the pur- the surname or suffer disadvantages in that

23 24 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021

Same-sex common-law marriage. tional trend is generally accepted in Japan. tion of marriage in Article 24, paragraph (1) tion to the United States, European countries Although a couple does not submit a mar- The judgment mentions how Article 24, has been changing based on social trends and start to accept the same-sex civil marriage, riage certifcate to local public entities for paragraph (1) of the Constitution is enacted. same-sex marriage can be included. The third for example, France, and the United King- reasons, such as denial to adopt husband’s At the time when the Constitution is estab- dimension related to the second dimension dom. Thus, the international trend of same- or wife’s surnames, they can be recognized lished, same-sex marriage is not just antici- is that the restriction of same-sex marriage sex marriage is accepting the civil marriage. as married, which is common-law marriage. pated as one of the forms of marriage. As the comes from laws rather than the Constitution To sum up, Marriage for All Japan, Regulations related to the Employees’ Pen- international and domestic trends show, mar- so that the restriction can be judged as uncon- who is the petitioner arguing same-sex civ- sion Insurance Act show requirements for riage has been changing depending on trans- stitutional when disconnected to the defni- il marriage, considers accepting same-sex common-law marriage. The frst require- formations of values and lifestyles. Thus, tion of marriage in Article 24, paragraph (1). civil marriage as an international trend. ment is that a couple has mutual consent from social changes and the international Argument by Marriage for All Japan. In other words, from the second dimen- and domestic trends, Article 24, paragraph sion of the judgment of Case (wa) No.30 to establish the relationship recognized as Although Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo (1) does not mean that same-sex marriage is by Tokyo High Court (2020), the view marriage based on social customs. The sec- High Court (2020) judges that same-sex mar- prohibited and can provide same-sex couples of the international trend indicates that a ond requirement is that a couple notices the riage can be accepted as a common-law mar- legal protections as a common-law marriage. defnition of marriage in Article 24, para- relationship in the frst requirement. Case riage, same-sex marriage is not accepted as Acknowledging that a defnition of mar- graph (1) of the Constitution has already (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High Court (2020) clar- civil marriage now. Marriage for All Japan riage in Article 24, paragraph (1) can be changed into accepting same-sex civil ifes same-sex couples can be recognized as (2020) argues that the restriction of same-sex changed based on social trends, a restriction marriage based on the international trend. a common-law marriage, as the same as an marriage is unconstitutional for Article 24, of freedom of marriage due to sexualities is opposite-sex common-law marriage. The paragraph (1), since the restriction, which Comparison of The Cases established by the Diet’s legislative discre- judgment of this case has three dimensions. local public entities do not accept same-sex A fundamental difference between Case tion, not originated from Article 24, para- The frst dimension is how the internation- couple’s marriage certifcate, has no reason- (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High Court (2020) graph (1) itself. In other words, the origin of al trend concerning same-sex marriage is able ground. As the reason, it uses the inter- and the argument the petitioner Marriage the restriction for same-sex marriage is from acknowledged. The second dimension is national trend that other countries start to for All Japan provide is how they see same- laws established by the Diet, such as Arti- the relationship between Article 24, para- accept same-sex marriage as civil marriage. sex marriage. Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo cle 739 and 750 of the Civil Code. Thus, the graph (1) of the Constitution and same-sex Marriage for All Japan uses the judgment High Court (2020) sees that same-sex mar- judgment indicates that the laws which re- marriage. The third dimension is the ori- of Obergefell v. Hodges (2015). The judg- riage should be recognized as a common-law strict freedom of marriage can be judged as gin of the restriction of same-sex marriage. ment declares that State laws that prohibit marriage. On the other hand, the argument unconstitutional for Article 24, paragraph The judgment states the internation- same-sex civil marriage are unconstitution- the petitioner Marriage for All Japan pro- (1) of the Constitution in a case when they al trend concerning same-sex marriage. al for Fourteenth Amendment to the United vides sees that same-sex marriage should do not follow social trends of the defnition The international trend is not only accept- States Constitution. It states the right to mar- be recognized as civil marriage. The reason of marriage, in addition to the evaluation ing same-sex marriage as civil marriage ry is a fundamental human right that belongs why the difference appears is that they have criteria Case (o) No.1023 (2015) provides. but also as a common-law marriage. Addi- to individual autonomy, and marriage is an a different understanding of internation- To conclude, Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo tionally, in Japan, local public entities start essence of social order. Besides, as a result al trends. Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High High Court (2020) provides three dimen- to establish same-sex partnership systems, of legally accepting same-sex civil marriage, Court (2020) thinks the international trend sions concerning the legal nature of same- and the international and domestic trend children among same-sex couples can be is the mixture of civil and common-law sex marriage. The frst dimension is that the concerning same-sex marriage is a judi- protected. Thus, same-sex couples have the same-sex marriage, but the argument international and domestic trends of same- cial cognizance. Thus, the judgment de- same right to civil marriage as opposite-sex considers only civil same-sex marriage. sex marriage are accepting not only as civil fnes the international trend of same-sex couples, and State laws prohibiting same-sex In addition to the difference of recog- marriage but also as a common-law mar- marriage as the mixture of civil marriage civil marriage are unconstitutional. In addi- nition of the international trend, they also and common-law marriage, and the interna- riage. The second dimension is that a defni-

25 26 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 have differences concerning an unjust in- sex common-law marriage accepted in Case Reasonable Restriction life insurance companies, such as Nippon fringement for freedom of marriage in Ar- (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High Court (2020). The restriction of freedom of marriage Life Insurance Company (2015) and Dai- ticle 24, paragraph (1). Case (wa) No.30 Additionally, according to Kazuki (2016), in Article 24, paragraph (1) of the Constitu- ichi Life Insurance Company (2015), can by Tokyo High Court (2020) shows that same-sex couples are neither accepted as tion for same-sex couples is not an unjust in- set their partners as receivers of death insur- only not accepting same-sex common-law common-law marriage in China. Kogawa fringement, based on the logic of Case (wa) ance. Thus, by accepting the same-sex com- marriage is an unjust infringement. In oth- (2020, March 4) states that the draft of the No.30 by Tokyo High Court (2020) and Case mon-law marriage and the establishment er words, whether accepting the same- Amendment of the Constitution includes the (o) No.1023 by the Supreme Court (2015). of same-sex partnership systems, the dif- sex civil marriage or not is under the Di- negation of same-sex marriage. Thus, the in- The reason is that disadvantages due to not ferences of legal protections, social credi- et’s legislative discretion. On the other ternational trend is the mixture of accepting accepted same-sex civil marriage is eased bility, and approval between opposite-sex hand, the argument of Marriage for All Ja- civil and common-law same-sex marriage, by recognized as a common-law marriage. civil marriage and same-sex marriage are pan states the restriction of same-sex civ- rather than only accepting same-sex civil Marriage for All Japan claims that the re- diminished, which means that the disad- il marriage is an unjust infringement that marriage as Marriage For All Japan claims. striction of same-sex civil marriage produces vantages due to not accepting same-sex civ- exceeds the Diet’s legislative discretion. In addition to the international trend, disadvantages, an unjust infringement since il marriage for same-sex couples are eased. Therefore, their fundamental difference, the domestic trend of same-sex marriage it thinks that the international and domestic To sum up, the restriction not accept- legal treatment for same-sex marriage, aris- follows the international trend. According trend is accepting the same-sex civil marriage ing same-sex civil marriage is not an unjust es from two dimensions. The frst dimen- to NHK (2020, November 5), more than 60 and the defnition of marriage of Article 24, infringement for freedom of marriage for sion is the recognition of the international local public entities have established the paragraph (1) includes same-sex civil mar- same-sex couples in Article 24, paragraph trend. The second dimension is the range same-sex partnership system. The judgment riage. On the other hand, the establishment of (1), since the disadvantages due to the restric- of the Diet’s legislative discretion. How of Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High Court same-sex couples partnership systems by lo- tion are eased by almost the same legal pro- these two dimensions of the cases are inter- (2020) states about the establishment by lo- cal public entities and the judgment of Case tections, and social credibility and approval. preted, combined with the logic of Case (o) cal public entities as the judicial cognizance. (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High Court (2020) In other words, not accepting same-sex civ- No.1023 by the Supreme Court (2015), re- Thus, the domestic trend, the establishment accepting same-sex common-law marriage il marriage is a reasonable restriction that is veals how the argument by Marriage for of same-sex couples partnership system ease the disadvantages. According to Maeno constitutional for Article 24, paragraph (1). All Japan is judged in Tokyo High Court. by local public entities, and the judgment (2016, May 24), common-law marriage can What Effect Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High The International Trend of Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High Court receive legal protections almost the same as Court Has (2020) correspond to the international trend. The international trend of same-sex mar- civil marriage, except for some rights such Through the discussions of the inter- To conclude, the international trend riage is judged as accepting civil and com- as exemptions for dependents. Thus, legal national trend and reasonable restriction is defned as the mixture of same-sex civ- mon-law marriage based on Case (wa) No.30 protections are provided to same-sex mar- of same-sex marriage, the effect which the il and common-law marriage, since le- by Tokyo High Court (2020). The reasons riage, accepted as common-law marriage judgment of Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High gal treatments defer from each state. Ja- come from how other states and local pub- in the judgment of Case (wa) No.30 by To- Court (2020) is that making a possible judg- pan follows the international trend since lic entities in Japan treat same-sex marriage. kyo High Court (2020), and are almost the ment which states the restriction of same-sex the judgment of Case (wa) No.30 by To- According to the Equal Marriage same as civil marriage. Additionally, as a civil marriage as unconstitutional can take kyo High Court (2020) accepts same-sex Alliance (2020), European states, such as result of the establishment of same-sex cou- much time. The effect comes from the def- marriage as a common-law marriage and France, Germany, and the U.K., and Tai- ples partnership systems, same-sex couples nition of marriage in Article 24 which does the establishment of same-sex couple part- wan accept the same-sex civil marriage. On can get social credibility and approval as the not include same-sex civil marriage defned nership systems by local public entities. the other hand, other states, such as Italy, same as opposite-sex civil marriage. For ex- by the judgment, and almost the same legal and Switzerland establish a same-sex part- ample, if a same-sex couple receives part- protections, social credibility, and approv- nership system, which is similar to same- nership certifcation of same-sex couples al same-sex common-law marriage have partnership systems by local public entities,

27 28 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 to compare to opposite-sex civil marriage. now they can get legal protections, and so- the judgment comes from defning that a same-sex couples, sexual minorities, in- The judgment of Case (wa) No.30 by To- cial credibility and approval, which are al- social transformation that changes the def- cluding same-sex couples, suffer from dis- kyo High Court (2020) shows that the defni- most the same as opposite-sex civil and nition of marriage in Article 24 has not hap- criminations, according to the Ministry tion of marriage in Article 24, paragraph (1) common-law marriage. Thus, even not ac- pened yet, and legal protections, social cred- of Justice (2016). Additionally, the judg- of the Constitution as accepting opposite-sex cepted civil marriage for same-sex couples, ibility, and approval for same-sex couples ment of Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High civil and common-law marriage, and same- they receive fewer disadvantages than be- by accepting common-law marriage which Court (2020) also infers that declaring as sex common-law marriage based on the inter- fore the judgment of Case (wa) No.30 by eases disadvantages due to the restriction. same-sex couples is one of the require- national and domestic trend, and be decided Tokyo High Court (2020), which avoids a Even though the acceptance of same- ments of same-sex common-law marriage. by-laws under the Diet’s legislative discre- possible judgment of unconstitutionality on sex common-law marriage by the judg- We should focus on how opinions on same- tion. The Diet decides the defnition by not the restriction on same-sex civil marriage. ment of Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High sex marriage change to reconsider how accepting same-sex marriage certifcation un- To conclude, as an effect of the judg- Court (2020) reduces the disadvantages for same-sex couples should be legally treated. der its legislative discretion. In other words, ment of Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High the judgment clarifes that a social transfor- Court (2020), the judgment can avoid a pos- References mation of accepting same-sex marriage as sible judgment of unconstitutionality on the Courts in Japan. (2015, December 16). Case (o) No.1023. Retrieved from https://www.courts. one of the forms of civil marriage has not restriction of same-sex civil marriage. See- go.jp/app/hanrei_en/detail?id=1435 happened all in the international and domes- ing that a social transformation that chang- tic communities yet, through setting the def- es the defnition of marriage in Article 24 Courts in Japan. (2020, September 18). Case (wa) No.30. Retrieved from https://www.courts. go.jp/app/fles/hanrei_jp/944/088944_hanrei.pdf nition of marriage. As a result, the restriction of the Constitution, and giving legal pro- of same-sex civil marriage does not exceed tections, social credibility, and approval Dai-ichi Life Insurance Company. (2015, November 5). About efforts to become an the Diet’s legislative discretion until the def- for same-sex couples as almost the same as LGBT-friendly company. Retrieved from https://www.dai-ichi-life.co.jp/dsr/employ- ee/diversity/lgbt.html nition of marriage changes depending on the opposite-sex common-law and civil mar- social transformation. Thus, to judge the re- riage by the judgment, the effect of avoid- Equal Marriage Alliance. (2020). Same-sex marriage in the world. Retrieved from http://ema- striction of same-sex civil marriage as uncon- ance of the possible judgment is produced. japan.org/promssm/world stitutional for Article 24, can take much time Japanese Law Translation. (1896, April 27). Civil Code. Retrieved from http://www.japanese- Conclusion due to waiting for the social transformation lawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?id=2057&vm=&re This research reveals that the restriction which changes the defnition of marriage. Kazuki, A. (2016). People's awareness of same-sex marriages in China: indications that pro- of same-sex civil marriage can be judged as Accepting same-sex common-law mar- gressive thinking has emerged. Thinking about Human Rights, 19, 49-67. riage by the judgment of Case (wa) No.30 constitutional from the international trend and easing the disadvantages which same- Ministry of Health, Labour and Wealth. (2011, March 23). Standards for certifcation of by Tokyo High Court (2020) reduces the dis- relationship of maintenance of livelihood and handing of certifcation. [seikeiijikan- sex couples receive, based on the judgment advantages which same-sex couples have, keito-no ninteikijun oyobi nintei-no toriatsukai-ni tsuite]. Retrieved from https://www. which leads to a possible judgment of con- of Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High Court mhlw.go.jp/web/t_doc?dataId=00tc1068&dataType=1&pageNo=4 (2020) in response to the argument which stitutionality of the restriction of same-sex Maeno, A. (2016, May 24). Choosing marriage: what is the difference between civil mar- the petitioners Marriage for All Japan have. civil marriage. At the time when same-sex riage and civil marriage? Retrieved from https://style.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO- couples were not accepted the common-law From the possible judgment on the restric- 02215490S6A510C1000000/ tion of same-sex civil marriage, the judg- marriage, they could not receive legal pro- Marriage For All Japan. (2019). Complaint fled with Tokyo District Court. Retrieved from ment of Case (wa) No.30 by Tokyo High tections, social credibility, and approval, https://www.call4.jp/fle/pdf/202005/8a1cc4230986769b3bb7fa10161213fe.pdf because they were not considered as cou- Court (2020) can avoid the Courts to judge as unconstitutional for the restriction on Ar- Marriage For All Japan. (2021). About us. Retrieved from https://www.marriageforall.jp/en/ ples or offcially and socially marred; how- aboutus/ ever, by accepting them as common-law, ticle 24 of the Constitution. The effect of

29 30 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021

Ministry of Justice. (n.d.). Think about diversity of sexuality: sexual orientation and gender identity. Retrieved from http://www.moj.go.jp/JINKEN/LGBT/index.html Nippon Life Insurance Company (2015, November 25). Regarding the designation of same- How to make Donald Trump the sex partner as a receiver of death insurance. Retrieved from https://www.nissay.co.jp/ news/ appealing alternative 2015/pdf/20151125b.pdf Sakura Kina Nihon keizai shinbun. (2020, March 4). Russia’s constitutional reform proposal is revealed in full: conservatives take over, preparing “house rule”. Retrieved from https://www. Sakura Kina is a sophomore student. The essay “How to Make Donald Trump nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO56360800U0A300C2000000 the Appearing Alternative” was submitted in the Composition I course un- NHK. (2020, November 5). Five years after the partnership system began, spread to more der the supervision of Professor Yuki Togawa. She has been mindful of the sys- than 60 local public entities nationwide. Retrieved from https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/ tems and effects of mass communication. Amid of the U.S. presidential election html/20201105/k10012696381000.html 2020, advertisements for the two candidates, which refected contrasting views and Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet. (1947, May 3). The Constitution of Japan. Re- positions toward the chaotic circumstance due to the pandemic, drew her strong interest. trieved from https://japan.kantei.go.jp/constitution_and_government_of_japan/consti- tution_e.html As the 2020 U.S. presidential election advertisement. On the contrary, it perfectly Supreme Court of The United States. (2014, October). Obergefell v. Hodges. Retrieved from day gets closer, the race between the two can- succeeds in making use of logical fallacies https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/14-556 didates: Donald J. Trump and Joe Biden, is and agitating the voters’ mind strategically. heating up more and more. The measures for The campaign video, “cards” (Donald COVID-19 and economic recovery are the J Trump, 2020), which calls for a vote for main issues of the election amid the crisis. As Trump, begins with a scene of a woman sit- Hockmuth expresses as a “magnetic person” ting on a bed. From beginning to end, she (personal communication, October 28, 2020), does not speak a word as if to embody a si- the Republican candidate and also the current lent majority of the U.S. She fips cue cards, U.S. president, Donald Trump strongly fas- which the woman’s inner feelings are writ- cinates enthusiastic supporters. On the other ten on, like in the famous scene of Love hand, other American citizens beg for him not Actually ( Graves, 2020 ). Instead of a con- to be elected again. Some people may con- fession of love, the cards convey her con- sider Trump as an aggressive, illogical, and cerns about Biden’s administration. She is impulsive person who claims America First a woman of color who appears to have four Policy. In the advertising video, “Laughed children and make her living on a tight bud- At” ( Joe Biden, 2019), launched by the Dem- get, like an American citizen of the middle ocratic nominee Joe Biden, Trump makes class . The dimly-lit room and doomy back- himself the laughing stock with his erratic ground music raise the specter of the des- behavior in an international public place. Yet, perate future. Altogether, the advertisement he intentionally manipulates the audience aims to criticize and give a negative impres- with various logical fallacies. Notwithstand- sion toward the opponent candidates’ policy. ing its collapsed logics, the campaign video, To begin with, the advertisement attacks named “card,” does not lose a function as an the opponent’s character instead of arguing

31 32 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 over political matters of substance. In the ty, Biden has been described as “moderate” communicates that American citizens, es- undesirable future. As Brader (2005) proves short video, the woman shows the 2nd note compared to other democratic candidates. pecially those who now have fnancial dif- in his study, elements of advertisement other card: “Joe Biden worries me. He’s weak” Considering his political ideology from his fculties, like her, a mother of four, would than its content, such as music, images, color, (0:03). As Smith, a former director of Trump votes recorded by DW-Nominate, he ranked suffer further burden if Biden were to be can work to control the audience’s emotions. White House message strategy, admits, as the 31st liberalist and the 50th conserva- elected. However, this prediction is inac- His experiments demonstrate no evidence if healthiness is one of Trump’s selling points, tionist among the members of the Senate curate because Biden’s tax plan will not im- negative approaches in advertisements cap- and he often shows off his physical strength from 2009 to 2011 (Biden, Joseph Robinette, pose an additional tax on the working-class ture more attention or not, but confrm that likewise he faunted a rapid recovery after Jr. (1942-), n.d. ). He can be classifed as the citizens, who annually earn below 400,000 “fear ads are dramatically more effective at contracting COVID-19 (Poole, 2020). Con- middle, or slightly liberal in the Democrats. dollars, but on affuent companies or house- persuading viewers” (Brader, 2005, p.399). versely, he often criticizes the opponent as “He has historically positioned himself in holds (The Committee for a Responsible While a negative advertisement is as much frail. During the 2016 campaign, Republican the center of the Democratic Party, between Federal Budget, 2020). Despite the fact that arousing as a positive one, the former is more candidate Trump assailed his counterpart, the party’s most liberal and most conserva- the tax policy that targets the high-income memorable albeit misunderstandable some- Hillary Clinton, as one who was not suited tive members” (Bacon, 2020, para.4). It may class should have less impact on those mid- times (Bradley et al., 2007). On the other for the presidency due to the lack of energy, also be true to say, however, that Joe Biden dle-income earners, the video suggests an hand, as for the counterpart, Biden, there is a unlike him, from time to time (Vitali, 2016). will lean to the left. That is because the po- incorrect outcome by cutting one part of campaign ad named “Kimberly” (Joe Biden, Although the claim has no evidence to prove sition of the Democratic Party is currently the information. Although the card gives 2020) which is starring a woman of color that Biden is weak, it incites doubt about his likely to shift towards liberal ideas than be- a reason the opponent is not preferable, of the middle class as the “cards” (Donald J reliability among the audience. Macagno fore due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Bacon, the assertion is based on misinformation. Trump, 2020) does. Although she shares how (2013) discusses that “even though unreason- 2020). As a consequence, Joe Biden, who has Ultimately, The campaign video con- she has struggled to cope with the pandemic, able, ad hominem attacks can be extremely always fexibly refected the party’s policies, cludes that if Biden is elected for the 2020 and complains about the current administra- powerful because they may not simply con- would support pro-liberal policies; he might U.S. President, this inauspicious future will tion (0:00-0:50), the campaign video keeps sist of one argument” (p.339). In this case, by launch measures that are more left-wing, come true, but, this dramatic and tragic antic- holding a positive atmosphere all the way. simply criticizing the opponent’s character as whereas the expression, “far-left,” is too ex- ipation can be considered as a slippery slope The advertisement for Biden does not con- “weak,” the advertisement raises questions cessive to describe his ideology. Further- fallacy. The advertisement claims that the tain any personal attack nor misinformation. whether Biden is powerful enough to be the more, the depiction of Biden, who seems to future of the U.S. is hopeless due to Biden’s Overall, it applies a positive approach and leader of the U.S. As a complex structure of blindly obey the Democrats and the left-wing weak personality and wrong measures. How- is more logical than the other. To sum up, ad hominem that Macagno points out, at the party, reinforces the image of his power- ever, the logic of anticipation which is sup- the campaign video for Trump which ma- latter part, the video exaggerates and distorts less character. The argument against Biden’s ported by personal attack, exaggeration, and nipulates viewers’ emotions well succeeds facts to fortify the frst strategy: ad hominem. political position would be evaluated as an false information, does not work because of as a political advertisement than the other The video has the ad hominem, followed overstatement for the facile critique, at the fallacies in the evidence itself as discussed for Biden which is more logically advanced. by an exaggerated argument over the oppo- same time, it also functions as a component above. Throughout the entire advertisement, To conclude, Donald Trump’s presiden- nent’s political position, which bolsters up of ad hominem in spite of its factual twist. the campaign ad for Trump also coherently tial campaign ad is full of logical fallacies; the previous strategy. The claim regarding Next, the woman discloses her concern exhibits alarming factors about the future in yet, his strategies successfully manipulate Biden’s political ideology is merely setting about the tax raise plan by the other candi- the U.S. It appears to make the audience feel the audience’s emotions. It displays why up a straw man to beat; the message exag- dates (0:09), then indirectly provides false more insecure amid the COVID-19 crisis by Trump is a superior candidate to the oth- geratedly describes his position and makes it information. The woman briefy states that fear appeals. In addition to the messages on er through ad hominem, straw man fallacy, easier to attack him. The frst argument over Biden will implement a tax-raising mea- cards, the room where the woman shows up and misinformation. Most importantly, for the Democrats nominee is “Biden embraced sure, and misleadingly expresses her disgust is sunless, and the background music played Trump, who utilizes logical fallacies with- the policies of the far left” (0:06). In reali- at it (0:09). Her facial expression implicitly there is ominous as if they were a sign of an out concerns about information credibility,

33 34 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 it can be said that a negative approach is the As a result, regarding the 2020 U.S. pres- The Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget. (2020, August27). Would Joe Biden sig- best method for his campaign. Both candi- idential election that is taking place amid nifcantly raise taxes on middle class americans? https://www.crfb.org/blogs/would- dates criticize their counterparts without a this COVID-19 crisis, voters can be be ma- joe-biden-signifcantly-raise-taxes-middle-class-americans clear statement about their own measures nipulated easily. The current U.S. president Vitali, A. (2016, August 27). Light on his own specifcs, Trump has attacked opponents on and try to appeal to the signifcant segments Trump can be evaluated as a strategic poli- their health. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2016-election/light-his- in contrasting manners. Simple and threat- tician who makes maximum use of the cha- own-specifcs-trump-has-attacked-opponents-their-health-n638621 ening claims straightforwardly stir up anx- otic situation which he himself had made. Zuo, N. (Director). (2020, October 16). US election: Are white women voters wavering on iety over the opponent candidate’s policies. Trump? [video]. BBC News.

References Bacon, P. J. (2020, May 21). The pandemic has pushed Biden to the left. How far will he go? FiveThirtyEight. https://fvethirtyeight.com/features/the-pandemic-has-pushed-biden- to-the-left-how-far-w ill-he-go/ Biden, Joseph Robinette, Jr. (1942-). (n.d.). Votes Database. [Dataset]. https://voteview.com/ person/14101/joseph-robinette-biden-jr Brader, T. (2005). Striking a responsive chord: How political ads motivate and persuade vot- ers by appealing to emotions. American Journal of Political Science, 49( 2), 388-405. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3647684 Bradley, S. D., Angelini, J. R., & Lee, S. (2007). Psychophysiological and memory effects of negative political ads: Aversive, arousing, and well remembered. Journal of Advertis- ing, 36 (4), 115-127. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20460818 Donald J Trump. (2020, August 3). Cards . [video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FucY0Tm6XO0 Graves, W. (2020, August 4). New Trump campaign ad rips off Bob Dylan, Love Actually: the 30-second spot is called “Cards” and is targeted at the so-called “silent majority.” Consequence of Sound. https://consequenceofsound.net/2020/08/trump-ad-bob-dylan- love-actually-richard-nixon / Hockmuth, K. ( 2020, October 28 ). [personal conversation]. Joe Biden. (2020, September 23). Kimberly: Joe Biden for president 2020. [video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j62p2mFh0-c Joe Biden. (2019, December 4). Laughed at . [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=yUSdf-_xmJg Macagno, F. (2013). Strategies of character attack. Argumentation, 27( 4), 369-401. DOI 10.1007/s10503-013-9291-1 Poole, T. (2020, September 11). I read all those Trump tell-alls. Here’s what I learned . BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-53970246

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Introduction ic pistols, calibers, handguns, and shotguns One of the deadliest mass shootings in (Leduc, 2013). Assault weapons refer to Mass Shootings: Weak Gun the U.S. is considered to be the Las Vegas “a class of semi-automatic frearm specif- mass shooting in 2017, which left 58 people ically designed to kill humans quickly and Control and Preventions in the U.S. dead, and about 700 injured (“Mass shoot- effciently” (“Assault Weapons,” 2020). Kakeru Oikawa ings,” 2020). The present study highlights Additionally, high-capacity magazines re- the leading cause of mass shootings, main- fer to those with a “capacity of more than Kakeru Oikawa is a sophomore student majoring in Global Business. His essay “Mass Shoot- ly based on gun control laws, in addition to 10 rounds of ammunition” (“Large Capac- ings: Weak Gun Control and Preventions in the U.S.” was submitted in Advanced Research mental conditions shown by the suspects, as ity,” 2020). The possible factors affecting Writing under the supervision of Professor Mark De Boer. Oikawa has virtually studied abroad well as possible preventions of such crime. mass shootings occurrences are gun control at the University of New South Wales in Australia for a term. He always had interests in busi- The current study builds upon the existing laws and mental illness shown by the sus- ness management, psychology, and criminology. After living in the United States for several mass shooting and gun violence research- pects. It is a question whether the former is years, he was shocked by the number of mass shootings that occur in the U.S. each year, lead- es and presents a new insight into this issue the leading cause of mass shootings. In this ing to this paper of U.S. mass shootings. As for Oikawa’s future research endeavors, he is look- by shifting the focus to the voices from peo- section, I will be introducing some contra- ing forward to updated mass shootings occurrences in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic. ple with different backgrounds. Gun Vio- dictory arguments surrounding this issue. lence Archive (GVA), showed that, by the Gun control laws should be stricter end of 2019, there were 417 mass shootings Abstract Some advocate for stricter gun laws in the U.S., which is more than one per day Many studies have found causes and other factors affecting the outbreaks of in the U.S. A study shows that “imple- on average (Silverstein, 2020). The situ- mass shootings in the U.S. However, the existing research does not necessarily con- menting universal background checks ation in the U.S. is crucial to look at as, in nect some of the variables that are causing such crimes. The current study asks for could reduce frearms deaths by 56.9%; 2017, “there were just 6 gun-deaths [in Ja- the leading cause and prevention strategies of mass shootings and further restric- background checks for ammuni- pan], compared to 33,599 in the U.S” (Low, tions to be implemented in addition to the existing laws. Participants included high tion purchases could reduce deaths by 2017). When I lived in the U.S., numer- school and college students in numerous countries. Results revealed that the lead- 80.7%; and gun identifcation require- ous news media had reported a number of ing cause of mass shootings is most likely the gun control laws in the U.S. in relation with ments could reduce deaths by 82.5%” mass shootings, school shootings, and pub- people’s mental health state. Furthermore, many Americans are ea- (Kalesan, Mobily, Keiser, Fagan, & Ga- lic shootings. As these numbers show, such ger to even ban all guns in the country. Hopefully, these results and the new re- lea, 2016). Moreover, gun licensing will crime as mass shooting causes a tremendous strictions proposed will make changes in American society. Consequent- also decrease frearm homicides by 14%. amount of deaths and injuries and, there- ly, the present study hopes for the reduction of the rate of gun crimes in the future. Furthermore, the current U.S. gun fore, it is necessary to reveal the leading laws do not cover guns such as those cause and possible preventions of this issue. with high-capacity magazines, which is Literature Review a problem. An investigation has shown A criminologist states that mass shoot- that “high-capacity magazines were used ings are “a multiple, frearm, homicide in- in at least 50% of the 62 mass shoot- cidents, involving 4 or more victims at one ings between 1982 and 2012” (Follman or more locations close to one another” & Aronsen, 2013). Therefore, some ar- (Berk, n.d.). OLR Research Report has re- gue that restricting more of those high-ca- vealed that frearms that are most often used pacity magazines will be more effective. Key words: mass shooting, gun law, mental illness in mass shootings comprise semi-automat-

37 38 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021

Gun control laws are effective enough shops, shooting ranges, assault weapons, to own a gun such as needing to take cours- of mass shootings, and what are Contrary to the frst argument, there are and high capacity magazines, in 2014, Chi- es, tests, mental health and drug tests. These possible realistic preventions? people who support the current gun laws cago had 2,089 shooting victims including strict policies may be the reason why the I will be conducting a survey among and think that they are effective enough for at least 390 murders (Ali, 2014). This ex- rates of mass shootings are lower in Japan. high school and college students in multi- the citizens. For instance, a study found that plains the deadly situation in Chicago despite In Brazil, with its higher rates of gun ple countries to collect data that are as vari- “assault weapons bans did not signifcant- the state’s stricter restrictions on gun laws. crimes than that of the U.S., the laws specify able as possible. In specifc, I will be asking and regulate private ownership of guns strict- them for their opinions, views, and stances ly affect murder rates at the state level” and Mass shootings are preventable “states with restrictions on the carrying of er than the U.S. does (Alpers, n.d.). Alpers regarding this issue, as to understand what Mass shootings are preventable by im- concealed weapons had higher gun-relat- states that only licensed gun owners can law- the young people think about this issue today. posing several new laws in addition to the ed murders” (Gius. 2013). Although this fully acquire and possess frearms or ammu- current gun laws in the U.S. For example, Methodology data does not include the details of how nition. With Brazil ranked world number sev- secured frearm storage laws and education- In this research, I will be collecting in- those things were measured, it is possible to en in the number of violent gun deaths, they al programs would raise awareness about formation regarding mass shootings, gun suspect that simply banning assault weap- take on such measures to combat this issue. the importance of secure storage (“Ex- laws, and mental illness from various per- ons may not be the solution because it may Based on some of the arguments revolv- treme Risk,” 2020). Other means would be spectives. The research will be covering even increase the rate of murders in the U.S. ing around this issue, it has become even to raise the age to purchase semiautomatic the fundamental aspects of mass shootings Furthermore, some people presume clearer that there are multiple sides and op- frearms to 21, and “requiring background in the U.S. as I will be looking at this issue that gun laws infringe upon the right to positions among the citizens in the U.S. checks on all gun sales so that minors and from multiple perspectives. More specifcal- self-defense. According to the National Ri- Some agree that gun control laws should be people with dangerous histories cannot ly, I will be taking samples from high school fe Association (NRA), guns are used for stricter while others say otherwise. In ad- evade [their] gun laws.” Thus, some believe and college students in multiple countries self-defense around 2.5 million times a year dition, some argue that mass shootings are that such mass shootings can be prevent- including Japan, the U.S., South Korea, and (Association, n.d.). Moreover, Pew Re- preventable by restricting the use of guns ed if the laws were to cover more grounds. some European countries. Such informa- search showed that 61% of men and 56% even more, while others say otherwise. Mass shootings are not preventable tion will be based on the respondents’ pre- of women surveyed said that stricter gun From the comparison among the U.S., Ja- Frum argues that mass shootings are existing opinions and knowledge of this laws would make it “more diffcult for peo- pan, and Brazil in terms of gun laws, it not preventable because there is no one issue. First of all, the respondents’ descrip- ple to protect their homes and families” has been revealed that the Japanese laws law that would prevent all mass shootings tive information will be obtained to identify (Goo, 2019). Lund, a professor at George prohibit many aspects of guns and own- (2015), i.e., there are too many factors con- where they came from and what kind of ex- Mason University School of Law, has stat- ership of guns for citizens which substan- tributing to the causes of mass shootings. periences and knowledge they have obtained ed that “the right to self-defense and to the tially affects the lower rates of gun crimes. Despite the stricter gun control laws, peo- throughout their lives. These will be import- means of defending oneself is a basic nat- From what I discovered so far, I will ple could purchase illegal guns, and there- ant when analyzing the results based on their ural right that grows out of the right to life” need to conduct primary research, focused fore, there cannot be any laws or policies responses. More importantly, through their and “many [gun control laws] interfere with on high school and college students, as they that would prevent the next mass shooting. lenses, I will be collecting each country’s the ability of law-abiding citizens to defend are the growing generations and will be- statistics on mass shootings (if any), rele- themselves against violent criminals” (n.d.). Gun laws and mass shootings come a signifcant part of the society in vance of this issue to each individual, caus- This is a moral aspect of the gun laws in the internationally the near future. This will also be in addi- es of mass shootings, reactions from differ- U.S. that some people are concerned about. In Japan, “there were just 6 gun-deaths, tion to their knowledge and understand- ent races/nationalities, gun laws, whether or Some also presume that gun control compared to 33,599 in the US” (Low, 2017). ing of mental illness as it is also a factor not they support the policies, mental illness- laws do not prevent criminals from ob- Unlike how it is in the U.S., to own a gun in that may become an incentive for the sus- es they are aware of, whether or not people taining guns or breaking laws. In Chica- Japan, there are many restrictions that make pects. Therefore, my research question is: with such mental illness should be allowed go, despite the state having had banned gun it almost impossible for a regular citizen What serves as the leading cause

39 40 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 to own frearms, whether or not people with sites that clearly express their arguments other hand, some of them have stated that sarily covered by the previous researchers. such mental illness tend to be more violent, and explanations. This signifes that oth- proper education is the key to preventing Discussion whether or not mass shootings can be pre- er means such as interviews with some ex- mass shootings, instead of making the laws vented, and if so, in what ways they can be perts may not be as effective. Therefore, it stricter. Another response from a few re- Even though Frum has stated that mass prevented. These categories of data will en- would be the most effective that I conduct a spondents were that people’s mental health shootings are not preventable (2015), all able me to collect suffcient information to survey among high school and college stu- conditions should be taken care of in wider of the respondents in the current study have get an overview of how the U.S. is differ- dents to collect the non-experts’ insights perspectives such as supporting for mental- stated that they are preventable in different ent from other countries in terms of mass into this issue as this research looks for re- ly-ill people. This, in turn, will help people approaches. This has essentially disproved shootings occurrences, why that is the case, alistic preventions as the fnal conclusion. emotionally which might also prevent mass the study conducted by Frum. Contrarily, and what actions and modifcations can be shooting, according to the data. This comes the present data supported the data shown Results taken to prevent further mass shootings. from the fact that some people have respond- by EveryTownResearch, which had indicat- The target audience of this research in- The present study has seen the trend ed that the leading cause of mass shootings ed that further imposing certain laws would cludes both male and female high school where most people (n=45) often hear the stems in people’s mental health conditions raise people’s awareness which will work and college students in countries such as the word ‘mass shooting’ in their daily life. such as their mental illness and relationships for preventing mass shootings (“Extreme U.S., Japan, South Korea, and some Euro- However, despite their numerous encoun- with others. It also includes some hatred to- Risk,” 2020). Furthermore, Kalesan, Mobi- pean countries. The reason for this selection ters with the term, not many were aware of ward the world or specifc groups of people. ly, Keiser, Fegan, and Galea have revealed is that the best way to come up with possi- any news regarding this issue in their place In their spectrum, current gun laws are ef- the percentage decreases in frearms deaths ble realistic preventions is to ask the general of residence. Most of the people that were fective enough and the problem lies in a dif- if the U.S. gun laws were to be stricter than public. In specifc, people that are currently aware of some news regarding mass shoot- ferent area. It can also be concluded that in the current ones (2016). The data have shown attending high school or college tend to have ings were residents of the U.S. Interest- many countries outside of the U.S., people that as much as 82.5% of gun deaths could strong opinions and insightful knowledge ingly, most people feel uncomfortable and do not have to pay much attention to this is- be reduced by further regulating the own- as they are in the process of learning about unsafe when they hear the word ‘gun’ with sue, as it does not largely affect them on ership and use of guns, which corresponds the world and issues revolving it. In addi- an exception of one person feeling happy. daily basis. More specifcally, Japanese stu- with the data collected in the present study. tion, taking samples from multiple locations Despite the impacts mass shootings have dents tended to state that they were mostly The current study examined the lead- will enable me to gain more personal infor- on American people’s lives and their wide not aware of this issue, or even if they were, ing cause of mass shootings and possible mation not only from the U.S. but from oth- coverage on news media, not many, that re- they knew very little about it. Something that preventions of the next shooting in the U.S. er countries in which the laws either allow side outside of the U.S., were aware of one the previous research has not shown, which in general, with the data collected through or not allow people to own and use guns. of the deadliest mass shootings in the U.S. was indicated in the present study, was that the research. It was revealed that to be able Google Form will be utilized to distrib- history, which took place in Las Vegas, in guns should be regulated, especially among to make changes in a society, it requires one ute surveys evenly to people in the coun- 2017. Of those that were aware of this shoot- those with mental conditions. In fact, more to have certain levels of understanding and tries mentioned. The reason for conducting ing, many of them showed the tendency to than half of the respondents have specifed knowledge of the particular issue or event. a survey is that the public opinions also mat- support for stricter gun laws in the U.S. to that people with mental conditions could act Without understanding the problem, it is ter, and it is the most effcient way to collect possibly prevent the next mass shooting. more violently than those without any, es- diffcult to bring solutions to the table. This them. Regarding this issue, it is true that the The current study has revealed that near- pecially those with schizophrenia, depres- is what is happening in some places regard- experts’ insights like those from criminol- ly all of the respondents agree that the cur- sion, post-traumatic stress disorder, panic ing mass shootings. Particularly in the U.S., ogists, psychologists, doctors, and profes- rent gun laws should be stricter to prevent disorder, anxiety, and bipolar disorder. They it seems fairly common to acknowledge the sors, are signifcantly relevant. However, the next mass shooting. Some also presume were categorized as ‘harmful’ and ‘dan- issue and have a variety of opinions in many as I looked into this research, I have found that guns should be banned, and only then, gerous’ by the majority of the respondents. states. In fact, many American respondents numerous papers and organizational web- mass shootings could be prevented. On the This aspect is something that was not neces- have answered ‘yes’ when they were asked

41 42 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 about particular cases of mass shootings specifed, a “well-regulated Militia” should fy all the conditions. Unless otherwise, a prevented by simply banning all guns legally. that they were aware of. As a result, more be the ones to own and use guns in case of person should not be allowed to own a gun. Conclusion Americans tended to have stronger opin- emergency (“The 2nd Amendment,” n.d.). What types of guns are legal? ions about the issue, whether it be to sup- Since this was the frst ever gun law that was The present study has focused on the is- Second, the types of guns that should port the gun control laws or to oppose them. passed in the Constitution, people nowadays sue of mass shootings in the U.S., specifcally be accessible by regular citizens should The data mainly showed the tendency to still support it by trying to convey the mes- on their leading cause and preventions. The be very limited unless the purpose is for support some of the previous researches such sage that the guns are only for those who are situation in the U.S. is yet to get any better hunting or sports. All guns with high-ca- as the one where the researchers showed that licensed to and approved by the government. after numerous additional restrictions have pacity magazines, as defned in the pres- making the current gun laws stricter will re- In spite of the positive trend for mak- been implemented to make the laws strict- ent study, should be banned among reg- duce the rate of gun crimes in the U.S. by ing changes in the current gun laws, er than they were back when the Second ular citizens. The only type of gun that is about 82.5% (Kalesan, Mobily, Keiser, Fa- some still had presumed that the gun Amendment was passed. Mass shootings allowed for regular citizens is handgun. gan, & Galea, 2016). The data in the present laws should be as they are. As a re- occur more than once per day on average in study has suggested that most of the respon- sult, the data from Pew Research (2019) What about those with mental illness? the U.S. alone. Therefore, it was necessary dents presumed that the current gun control was supported because those who sup- Third, regardless of criminal re- to consider further regulations on guns as laws are not strict enough to regulate all ar- port the current gun laws justify them- cords, people with any sign of mental ill- suggested by most of the respondents in the eas such as types of guns, people with mental selves by the possibility of not being able ness should not be allowed to own a gun. study. Without this additional implementa- tion, the rate of gun crimes in the U.S. could illness, and the purpose of using guns. Many to protect people without guns in the house. Black market? suggested that the law should be designed easily increase just as it has been for the Missing regulations in the U.S. gun laws Fourth, any existing black market for to limit the purpose of using guns to self-de- past several years. There are many faws in guns will be regulated and seized by the fense, as many claimed that the main purpose In the process of answering the re- the current gun laws in the U.S. and that is police and government, and those who of owning guns is supposed to be for defend- search question, the most effcient and something to pay close attention to. Many are caught will be punished accordingly. ing oneself or those who are personally relat- clear-cut way to do this is to create or people fnd it somewhat easy to own guns in ed to them. However, the reality is much dif- re-design the gun control laws in my own What are the consequences of the U.S. because it is, in fact, easily acces- ferent from the expectation. Mass shootings words. Therefore, there are several new violating the law? sible by even teenagers in the country. In- are still happening today in the U.S. Despite restrictions that I believe should be add- Lastly, the applicants should agree deed, perhaps the prevention of a next mass the fact that the guns were supposed to be ed to the current gun laws in the U.S. that if they use guns to harm others shooting is diffcult, but not impossible as for protection of people, millions of people’s How can a regular citizen own a gun? or themselves, no matter how serious the growing generation today suggest that there are several ways to go about this issue. lives are lost each year because of the weap- First, the ownership and use of guns the circumstance is, they will be sen- The research was comprised of a sur- on. Therefore, some of the respondents have should be available for regular citizens af- tenced for life without any discussions. vey and not interviews, which may have stated that the best way to prevent the next ter strict inspections of the applicants, in- For the future caused some problems in getting more in- mass shooting is to completely ban the fow cluding mental health check by health orga- These additional restrictions combine all depth information. A set of interviews with and ownership of guns in the U.S. Another nizations; background check by the police the suggestions made in the process of data some experts on gun crimes, gun control way of revising the laws would be to restrict (e.g., criminal records); lectures on what collection and give a chance for the rate of laws, and mental health may have added the use of guns among regular citizens. This types of guns there are, how they should be gun crimes to be reduced in the future. Even further useful information to be discussed was also a popular opinion in the study as used, why they should be used, and where though some argues that guns should be in the study. Regarding the proposal made many have stated that only the government they should be used; trainings of the appli- banned, it would not be a realistic solution in the present study, it is crucial to test its offcials, police, and the military personnel cants (e.g., how to properly handle a gun); as the data show that there exist black mar- validity before putting it in place offcial- should be allowed to own guns. As the ini- interviews on what their purpose is; and kets for guns and the fow of guns cannot be ly. Therefore, a future research on whether tial gun law, the Second Amendment, had licensing the applicants only if they satis-

43 44 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 those fve additional restrictions are effec- opinions on many social, political, eco- Large Capacity Magazines. (2020, October 15). Retrieved November 19, 2020, from https:// tive will either prove or disprove the effec- nomic issues today, and the results have re- giffords.org/lawcenter/gun-laws/policy-areas/hardware-ammunition/large-capacity- tiveness of the new policies. Overall, the vealed what may be the answer to stopping magazines/ research has involved the growing genera- the next mass shooting from happening. Leduc, J. K. (2013, January 13). Weapons used in mass shootings. Retrieved November 10, tion in various countries who carry strong 2020, from https://www.cga.ct.gov/2013/rpt/2013-r-0057.htm Low, H. (2017, January 06). How Japan has almost eradicated gun crime. Retrieved October References 29, 2020, from https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-38365729 Ali, T. (2014, December 29). Though Chicago Murders Are Down, 'Gang Culture' Remains Lund, N. (n.d.). The Second Amendment and the Inalienable Right to Self-Defense. Retrieved an Issue: Top Cop. Retrieved October 29, 2020, from https://www.dnainfo.com/ October 29, 2020, from https://www.heritage.org/the-constitution/report/the-second- chicago/20141229/chicago/though-chicago- murders-are-down-gang-culture-remains- amendment-and-the-inalienable-right- self-defense issue-top-cop/ Mass Shootings in the US Fast Facts. (2020, May 03). Retrieved September 24, 2020, from Alpers, P. (n.d.). Guns in Brazil - Firearms, gun law and gun control. Retrieved November 19, https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/19/us/mass-shootings-fast- facts/index.html 2020, from https://www.gunpolicy.org/frearms/region/brazil Silverstein, J. (2020, January 02). There were more mass shootings than days in 2019. Assault Weapons. (2020, October 15). Retrieved November 19, 2020, from https://giffords. Retrieved September 15, 2020, from https://www.cbsnews.com/news/mass- org/lawcenter/gun-laws/policy-areas/hardware- ammunition/assault-weapons/ shootings-2019-more-than-days-365/ Association, N. (n.d.). Chris Cox’s NRA Armed Citizen. Retrieved October 29, 2020, from The 2nd Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. (n.d.). Retrieved December 09, 2020, from https://home.nra.org/ https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive- constitution/amendment/amendment-ii Berk, R. (n.d.). What is a Mass Shooting? What Can Be Done?: Department of Criminology. Retrieved September 15, 2020, from https://crim.sas.upenn.edu/fact-check/what- Appendix mass-shooting-what-can- be-done Here, the research instrument can be found online where a survey was conducted among high Extreme Risk Laws. (2020, October 20). Retrieved October 29, 2020, from https:// school and college students in numerous countries that served as the primary research for this everytownresearch.org/solution/extreme-risk-laws/ study. The link here can lead to the Follman, M., & Aronsen, G. (2013, January 30). "A Killing Machine": Half of All Mass survey: https://forms.gle/TTpBR8b4QTwdPsfa7 Shooters Used High-Capacity Magazines. Retrieved October 28, 2020, from https:// www.motherjones.com/politics/2013/01/high-capacity- magazines-mass-shootings/ Frum, D. (2015, June 24). Mass Shootings Are Preventable. Retrieved October 29, 2020, from https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/06/mass- shootings-are- preventable/396644/ Gius, M. (2013, November 26). An examination of the effects of concealed weapons laws and assault weapons bans on state-level murder rates. Retrieved October 29, 2020, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13504851.2013.854294 Goo, S. (2019, December 30). Why Own a Gun? Protection Is Now Top Reason. Retrieved October 29, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact- tank/2013/05/09/why- own-a-gun-protection-is-now-top-reason/

Kalesan, B., Mobily, M. E., Keiser, O., Fagan, J. A., & Galea, S. (2016). Firearm Legislation and Firearm Mortality in the USA. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 71(9), 511- 512. doi:10.1097/01.ogx.0000494725.65079.42

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with stricter punishments can never improve vidual psychological disorders, or psycho- the situation. Rather, it remarkably increases paths, who are often considered natural evils, Social responsibility for crimes the recidivism rate and the number of psy- because not many experts have yet agreed chopathic juvenile offenders. According to with the idea that psychopaths also need re- with psychopathic juvenile the Ministry of Justice of Japan (2020), the habilitation as with offenders attributed to recidivism rate has increased by about 17- social factors like relative poverty. By doing offenders 18% from 1999, reaching 47% in general and so, I aim to convince people in Japan, who 37.1% for juvenile crimes in 2016. Also, the support the amendment of juvenile law, to Leona Yanagi study conducted by Washino, a former in- acknowledge that rehabilitation is more crit- Leona Yanagi is a sophomore student. Her essay “Social Responsibility for Crimes with Psy- structor at a correctional facility, reveals that ical than retribution even for psychopaths, chopathic Juvenile Offenders” was submitted in the ENG101 Composition 1 class under the developmental disorders related to psychop- and propose the idea of what individuals, es- supervision of Professor Joel Friederich. Yanagi has had a keen interest in sociology, especially athy have increased rapidly among juvenile pecially the teenagers, can do to make a re- the childhood environment and related behaviors, since she took sociology class at AIU. After inmates (Washino, n.d.). Considering that habilitative society: frst by clarifying the learning about sociological imagination, which refers to the quality of mind to think that indi- these two factors, the recidivism rate, and the possible treatments for psychopaths, sec- viduals and social factors are strongly linked to each other, she became intrigued in seeing the number of juvenile psychopaths, have rap- ond by arguing the social responsibility for infuence of society and history that lie beyond one’s personal control. This interest led to this idly increased since Japan emphasized more stimulating psychopathic states, and third by paper connecting childhood environments and psychopathy. As for Yanagi’s future research en- on penalization, it is safe to say that stricter showing public perception of rehabilitation. deavors, she would like to narrow the focused interest from social behavior to environmentally punishments are conversely causing social Psychopathy is characterized by impul- friendly behavior, by incorporating the perspectives of green consumers and compact cities. insecurity towards crimes. Therefore, I be- sivity, superfcial charm, egocentricity, poor lieve that Japan should focus more on reha- judgments, inhumane fearlessness, the in- bilitation rather than retribution to reduce capacity of self-control, and lack of remorse As Tokyo ranked frst and Osaka ranked in six years, including homicides, indecent recidivism rates and promote social safety. or shame (Martens, 2014). Because psycho- third in the world’s safest city index con- assault, and accidental homicide in the con- What differentiates my paper from oth- paths are 4 to 8 times more likely to recidi- ducted by The Economist Intelligence Unit duct of business. Also, the death sentence is ers who researched this topic is the focus vate violently than non-psychopaths, urgent in 2019, it is safe to say that crime is not more frequently handed down these days on juvenile crimes and psychopathy. I dis- treatments are required (Kiehl & Hoffman, closely associated with Japan’s image. In (Shiraishi, 2011). Shiraishi (2011) shows that cussed both general and juvenile crimes in 2011). However, as many researchers show, fact, Japan’s crime rate is very low, and it is more than ten people have been sentenced the previous paragraphs in this paper, but it is believed that psychopaths are “resistant showing further improvements where the to death every year since 2004, compared to from now, I will focus on juvenile offenders, to most forms of treatment,” and “there is number of reported crimes decreased 62.2% no more than seven people in the 1990s. Fur- who have the potential to become produc- evidence that some kinds of treatment make from 2013 to 2018 (Ministry of Justice of Ja- thermore, the most controversial issue now tive members of society even after commit- matters worse” (ibid.). For example, psycho- pan, 2020). This trend also applies to juve- is deciding whether or not Japan should also ting crimes. If Japan manages to reduce the paths “who received group therapy actual- nile crimes, as young convicts declined 64% apply severe punishments to juvenile of- recidivism rate among juvenile offenders, ly had a higher violent recidivism rate than from a peak in 1965 (Washino, n.d.). How- fenders. This year, in 2020, Japan introduced it not only can ensure future public security those who were not treated at all” (Harris, ever, in spite of the fall in the crime rate, Ja- a bill to lower the criminal age of responsi- but also sustain the aging society’s working 1991). Due to this desperate data, there is a pan is recently giving convicts a more severe bility from 20 to 18 (Nikkei news, 2020). population. In additon, the amendment of dogma that psychopathy is untreatable. How- punishment. According to a scholarly report Although the Diet decided to shelve the bill, juvenile laws is the most recent controver- ever, some kinds of treatments have succeed- written by an Education and Sociology ma- they agreed to serve stricter punishments sy in Japan’s Crime and Justice sector, so I ed. Kent A. Kiehl and Morris B. Hoffman, the jor, Japan amended its law to pass stricter on 18 and 19-year-old offenders (ibid.). narrowed my target to juveniles. All in all, professors of Psychology and Neuroscience sentences for crimes in nine categories with- Despite the trend, penalizing convicts I will focus on juvenile offenders with indi- at the University of New Mexico, argued

47 48 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 that Caldwell’s decompression treatment, a combining those two authors’ opinions, I is an authority who determines what is nor- ter suggests that others’ reactions through specifc treatment program sophisticatedly suggest that observing the frequency of ani- mal and abnormal in society known as the interactions make juveniles with pre-psy- designed for psychopathic juvenile offend- mal cruelty behavior may help design a spe- “power elite” in sociological terms. There- chopathy believe themselves as psychopaths ers, successfully reduced recidivism rates but cifc rehabilitative treatment for each juve- fore, when those who have less power show or criminals. These two authors differ from failed to reduce that of adult offenders’. Their nile convict, further reducing the recidivism deviant behaviors, it is regarded as psycho- those who argue that society does not need published article “The Criminal Psychopath: rate. This approach differs from many other pathic and wrong, whereas when those with to take measures for psychopaths because History, Neuroscience, Treatment, and Eco- researchers who still believe psychopaths are power and status show abnormal behaviors, individual psychological problems lead to nomics” (2011) supports the idea by showing incurable, and therefore, deserve retribution. it is sometimes even regarded as heroic, just psychopathic disorders. The major differ- that the recidivism rate was 70% for control As my frst argument suggests, psychop- because they are capable of shaping soci- ence between juvenile crimes and general groups receiving no treatment, while it was athy is treatable, but why should society take ety’s norms. Along with Hall and Benning, crimes in this perspective is that juveniles only 10% for those who received Caldwell’s responsibility for rehabilitating them? Cary another respected individuals who argues are more susceptible to those social forc- treatment. More importantly, they suggest Federman and others, who are experts of Po- that the community forms psychopathy is es. People exposed to social inequality from that “treatment might work if juvenile psy- litical Science, declare that psychopathy is Gelen D. Walters, a criminal justice profes- a young age are more likely to believe they chopaths are treated early enough, intensely widely recognized as a medical problem, a sor at Kutztown University. In his experi- are psychopaths, which results in cultivat- enough and for long enough.” This emphasiz- philosophical problem of evil and respon- ment report, “Animal cruelty and bullying: ing the psychopathic and criminal states es the importance of early treatment. To de- sibility, or an individual problem. Howev- Behavioral markers of delinquency risk or more intensively (Kiehl & Hoffman, 2011). velop the idea of making a designed program, er, this assertion is incorrect. In fact, psy- causal antecedents of delinquent behav- My frst and second argument state that Joseph Ketron, a professor of criminal justice chopathy is a mental illness generated by a ior?”, Walters argues that animal cruelty and society should support rehabilitation for and legal assistant studies at the University of broad rang of social factors. Because norms bullying behaviors “not only serve as ear- psychopathic juvenile offenders because Tennessee, suggests that observing the fre- and structure of the society itself are virtu- ly behavioral markers of delinquency risk psychopathy is treatable with specifc pro- quency of animal cruelty actions helps fnd ally unchangeable, psychopathy derived but also play a potentially important role in grams, and being psychopaths is not their the most suitable treatment for each convict. from those factors seems diffcult to change. delinquency growth and persistence.” He fault but society’s. This means, to prevent In his experiment report, “Childhood animal However, since social factors are a cause of analyzes that early psychopathic behaviors recidivism, society needs to realize its re- cruelty motives and their relationship to re- psychopathy, offenders with psychopathic build a future delinquent identity because sponsibility for all the juvenile convicts, re- current adult interpersonal crimes,” Ketron states should receive rehabilitation as well. those acts are offcially and repeatedly la- gardless of whether they are psychopathic mainly studied four motives for committing In a journal, “Handbook of psychopathy: The beled as “insane behaviors.” In sociology, or not. Here, I am not suggesting that rais- animal abuse: for fun, anger, hatred for ani- successful psychopath,” written by Jason R. this process is called “labeling theory.” Wal- ing awareness is important. I am advocating mals, and imitation of others, and concluded Hall and Stephen D. Benning, who are pro- ter believes that labeling theory applies to that showing the willingness to accept the that “none of the motives were found to be fessors of psychology at the University of this situation because the continuation of la- concept of rehabilitation itself is important. predictive of later violence against humans” Minnesota, argues that almost all people beling themselves as psychopaths stimulates I understand that many people would still (p.25, para 2). Here, he means that not the have some kinds of psychopathic states, but juvenile’s proactive criminal thinking and agree with the law that penalizes convicts reasons, but the frequency is the crucial in- the ways they are displayed are different. By moral disengagement. Hall, Benning, and with stricter sentences even after reading dicator of the convicts’ treatment. Both Kie- examining the difference between non-crim- Walter emphasize the intense social pres- my arguments because there is a psycholog- hl and Ketron suggest that micro-level treat- inal psychopaths and criminal psychopaths, sure and norms deeply ingrained in society ical motivation for Japanese people to re- ments suited to each psychopath can actually they found that “psychopathy is in fact a ra- as the causes of psychopathy, and therefore, ject criminals. Thus, lastly, I will introduce rehabilitate them effectively. More specif- tional and adaptive survival strategy that is society should take responsibility for reha- the Japanese public perception of rehabil- cally, Kiehl focused on why rehabilitation for only defned as pathological when it occurs bilitating the psychopaths. To be specifc, itation by comparing it with the American psychopaths is important, while Ketron fo- among the socially disadvantaged” (p.462, Hall and Benning describe power inequality culture and identifying the very last chal- cused on how it can be implementable. By para 1). What they mean here is that there embedded in society as the cause, while Wal- lenges of putting rehabilitation into practice.

49 50 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021

The public opinion polls in Japan and the ty, revealed that “the majority of people fa- individuals in Japan are detached from soci- and I believe this is the key to promoting re- U.S show the prominent differences in the vored rehabilitation over retribution 89.25% ety, people are unwilling to accept the reha- habilitative juvenile justice. To promote this, citizens’ perception of rehabilitation for ju- of those surveyed” (p. 7, para 3) and “87.24% bilitation system for juvenile crimes. There- the very frst step that individuals can do is venile offenders. The majority of people in of people thought that publicly funded reha- fore, instead of pointing out minor incidents, to increase physical communication with Japan disagree with rehabilitation, while the bilitation programs are a good idea” (ibid.). it is important to see individual problems as their family members, friends, and com- majority in the U.S support it. This difference Although this is focused only on the topic social problems and approach them with a munity. It might seem to be a trivial action, can be explained by how people are attached of drug-use, this data indicates that people more powerful force. In sociology, this pro- but it can eventually lead to future rehabili- to others and society. As I showed in my in- in the U.S support not only rehabilitation cess is called “sociological imagination,” tative treatments and future public security. troduction, Japan has recently attempted to but also the idea of funding it because they amend its juvenile crime law to focus more feel responsible for juvenile crimes. Both Reference on penalization, suggesting that rehabilita- Takemura and Bernard analyze the public tion is not a prevailing idea among Japanese perception of juvenile crimes on the basis of Bernard, J., Haas, K., Siler, B., & Weatherby, G, A. (2017). Perceptions of Rehabilitation and Retribution in the Criminal Justice System: A Comparison of Public Opinion and people. In her journal article “The relation- the connection between individuals and soci- Previous Literature. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves, 5(4): 555669. DOI: 10.19080/ ship between public opinion and penalization ety. By comparing the two contrasting ideas, JFSCI.2017.05.555669 of juvenile delinquency” (2017), Tomoko we can say that the very frst step of Japan to Federman, C., Holmes, D., & Jacob, J.D. (2009). Deconstructing the Psychopath: A Critical- Takemura, a Japanese professor of sociolo- accept rehabilitation is to make more peo- Discursive Analysis. Cultural Critique 72, 36-65. doi:10.1353/cul.0.0037 Harris Grant gy and education, argues that the number of ple feel more attached to society like the U.S T, et al. Psychopathy and Violent Recidivism. Law & Hum Behav. 1991;15:625. people who support or somewhat support re- society is. This idea differs from others who Ketron, J. (2017). Childhood animal cruelty motives and their relationship to recurrent adult habilitation for juvenile offenders decreased see juvenile crimes and rehabilitation from interpersonal crimes. Retrieved from https://scholar.utc.edu/theses/531 from 98% in 1950 to 61% in 2005. By ana- the perspective of victims and offenders. Be- lyzing the social background, Takemura sug- fore specifying the point only to the people Kiehl, K. A., & Hoffman, M. B. (2011). THE CRIMINAL PSYCHOPATH: HISTORY, NEU- ROSCIENCE, TREATMENT, AND ECONOMICS. Jurimetrics, 51, 355–397. https:// gests that the detachment of individuals from involved, Takemura and Bernard’s research www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4059069/ society is the primary reason for the public’s supports the idea that Japan should approach disagreement. Specifcally, in 1950, people restorative practices by dealing with the dis- Martens,W,H,J. (2014).The hidden suffering of the psychopath, 31(10). Retrieved from- https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/hidden-suffering-psychopath Maxmen Jerrold were tolerant of juvenile crimes because they connection between individuals and society. S, et al. Essential Psychopathology and Its Treatment. 3. 2009. pp. 566–67. believed that an unstable society drove young In conclusion, Japan is currently penal- people to be offensive. However, around izing convicts with stricter sentences, and McGinnis, T, M. (2017). Hopelessness Depression as a Predictive Risk Factor for Recidivism and Survival Time Among Juvenile Offenders. Retrieved from https://scholarworks. 2005, people started to believe that juvenile as a result, it has increased the recidivism waldenu.edu/dissertations/4464/ crimes are the individuals’ responsibility. rate. To reverse the trend, rehabilitation will This disconnection between juvenile offend- be more important than retribution, even for MOJ. (2020). Ministry of Justice of Japan 2020. Retrieved from http://www.moj.go.jp/con- tent/001318607.pdf ers and society makes it diffcult for Japanese psychopaths. Generally, psychopaths are re- society to accept rehabilitation fully. On the garded as untreatable or despairing, but in Nikkei news paper. (2020). Sho-nen-ho kai-sei, 18/19 sai ichi-bu gen-batsu-ka, nen-rei other hand, peer-reviewed research article, fact, psychopathic states can be controlled hiki-sage miokuri [Revising juvenile crimes, 18/19 year-old will be served stricter sentences, the bill was shelved]. Retrieved from https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGX- “Perceptions of Rehabilitation and Retribu- at a young age with suitable rehabilitation MZO65609580Z21C20A0CR8000 tion in the Criminal Justice System: A Com- programs. Considering that psychopathic parison of Public Opinion and Previous Liter- identities are built and fostered by the pow- Nippon.com. (2019). Tokyo Ranked World's Safest City. Retrieved from https://www.nippon. com/en/japan-data/h00534/tokyo-ranked-world%E2%80%99s-safest-city.html#:~:- ature,” written by James Bernard and others, er elite and labeling theory, society should try text=Tokyo%20topped%20the%20Safe%20Cities,Unit%2C%20and%20Osaka%20 who belong to the Department of Sociology to rehabilitate them. The most challenging came%20third. and Criminal Justice at Gonzaga Universi- part of it will be realizing this idea. Because

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Patrick, C, J. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook of psychopathy: The successful psychopath. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.jp/ books?hl=en&lr=&id=OuNdrmHcJlgC&oi=fnd&pg=PA459&dq=+psycho- The Sino Dash to Africa—An path&ots=mzZ58KpNo5&sig=4zS3aOMOe1w3cnCyOIbVhfNXGKY&redir_es- c=y#v=onepage&q=psychopath&f=false Empirical Analysis Shiraishi, M. (2011). “Nihon ni okeru kei-batsu-ka ni tsuite [Regarding the stricter pun- ishments in Japan]. Retrieved from http://www.edu.utsunomiya-u.ac.jp/sociolo- Emmanuel Marvin Maseruka gy/2011shiraishi.pdf Takamura, T. (2017). Yoron to sho-nen hiko ‘kei-batsu-ka’ no kankei [The relationship be- Emmanuel Marvin Maseruka is a senior student majoring in Global Busi- tween public opinion and penalization of juvenile delinquency]. ness. His essay “The Sino Dash to Africa—An Empirical Analysis” was submit- ted as research for the Advanced Research Writing Class under the supervision of The Japan times. (2014). Lowering the recidivism rate. Retrieved from https://www.jaLower- ing the recidivism ratepantimes.co.jp/opinion/2014/11/24/editorials/lowering-recidi- Professor Lee Friederich. Emmanuel’s keen interest in how East-Africa should vism-rate/ position itself in the global community to enhance the fruits of globalisation and spur economic development in the region was the major impetus behind this research work. Walters, G,D,. (2018). Animal cruelty and bullying: Behavioral markers of delinquency risk or causal antecedents of delinquent behavior?, 62, 77-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijlp.2018.11.008 Abstract Washino, K. (n.d.). Sho-nen-in no gen-jyo to kadai [The current situation and challenges of The varied and at times conficting public opinion on China’s activities in Africa necessitate juvenile detention]. Retrieved from https://www.waseda.jp/prj-wipss/ShakaiAnzen- an investigation backed by comprehensive data as opposed to sentiment. This paper seeks to SeisakuKenkyujoKiyo_09_Washino.pdf investigate whether China is seeking to become a hegemon in Africa. There are a lot of skeptics and optimists on the issue of a strengthening bond—dash—between China and Africa. Con- versely, there is a line of thought that suggests that the China-Africa cooperation has exist- ed for a long time and as such, China is not dashing to Africa. By relying on bi-lateral trade data between Africa and China, this paper discovers that China is increasing its engagement with Africa, thus qualifying the argument that China is actually dashing to Africa. Contrary to that, however, foreign direct investment data collected negates that China is trying to con- trol Africa’s economy in a colonial-like manner as Western nations still possess the majority of fnancial assets in Africa. This paper goes ahead to uncover that the natural resource and energy sector of Africa is China’s primarily target. Therefore, this paper argues that min- eral rich African countries are more at risk of a poorly guided China-Africa relationship. Since the research data availed shows that Chinese non-state actors as opposed to China’s state actors are leading the China-Africa engagement, this paper makes recommendations on how African governments, particularly those of mineral rich Africa, should regulate Chi- na’s non-state actors based on the guidelines set by African Union in the Agenda 2063 policy.

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Introduction domination by another external force. The ought to position itself in regards to its for- in a space of only ten years (Winton, 2013, The African Union reported that, with a proponents of this argument claim that Afri- eign policy with China in order to lessen the p.100). Therefore, while China and Afri- sustained annual growth rate of 4.9% since ca risks undoing its progress if subjected to fears of China-skeptics and at the same time ca have a history together, it is noticeable 2000, Africa is on track to become the fast- foreign control in the modern era. The opti- maximize the benefts of collaborating with that present-day China is dashing to Africa. est-growing region worldwide (African mism, on the other hand, is hinged on the fact China as proposed by the China-optimists. Understanding China’s role in Africa that for Africa to attain sustainable growth, requires one to categorize China into two Union, 2013). This economic growth on the Literature Review continent is partly fueled by two factors. The seeking partnerships abroad who can pro- groups of actors: the state and non-state ac- Historical links between China and Africa frst catalyst for Africa’s growth is a popula- vide loans, trade and investments to boost its tors (Kai-Chen, 2016, p. 112). State actors tion boom, projected to double to 2.2 billion economy is a prerequisite. The emergence The presence of a contemporary Sino refers to China’s players in Africa that are people by 2050 (United Nations, 2016), and of China as a major partner avails more op- dash to Africa is widely negated by histori- under the direct control of the government the second is the 30% of the world’s natural tions for African governments to explore as ans. Historians alike view China as a nation of China, for example state owned enterpris- deposits underneath Africa’s soil, which has they seek to implement their development that was present in Africa as early as the 19th es (SOEs) and the government itself. On the contributed to a third of Africa’s growth (Ri- programs (Edoho, 2014, pp. 120-121). Con- Century. China, a country that also experi- other hand, the non-state actors are the Chi- elaender, 2013, pp. 1-2). Consequently, as versely, a line of thought that queries the ex- enced the horrors of colonial exploitation, nese players, typically private businesses that African economies leapfrog to development, istence of a Chinese “dash to Africa” also was a major partner and supporter of Afri- are doing business in Africa. While these two enormous opportunities have mushroomed exists. The backers of this argument believe can liberation movements to help usher in a main actors originate from the same coun- for foreign countries seeking to participate that China has always been Africa’s part- new independent Africa (Dijk, 2009, p.9). try, China, their actions and intentions in in the African bonanza. China—a nation ex- ner dating as far back as the 19th Centu- China’s historical links to Africa also man- Africa are distinct and at times conficting periencing stagnant economic growth rates ry (Dijk, 2009, p.9). It is for this reason that ifested in the cold war era. At the height of (Kai-Chen, 2016, p. 100). Because of this, (Congressional Research Service, 2019) and peddlers of this argument regard China as a the cold war, China, under the leadership of opinions about China in Africa vary (Edoho, an increasing need for geopolitical suprema- long-term partner as opposed to a newcom- Chairman Mao Zedong, funded infrastructure 2014, p. 110). A Chinese actor one chooses to cy—is headlining the contemporary exodus er trying to penetrate the continent today. developments on the continent when capital- investigate will draw a different conclusion to Africa. China’s primary goal in its coop- These three parallel opinions about Chi- ist regimes in the Western world turned their as to whether China’s dash to Africa should eration with Africa is “mutually benefcial” na in Africa necessitate synthesizing and backs on socialist Africa (Dijk, 2009, p.10). be welcomed with optimism or skepticism. trade and the spreading of its “One China mediating by mainly relying on secondary The construction of the Beguela railway in Analysts that focus on investigating the policy” gospel. Having surpassed the United analysis of loan, trade, and investment data. Angola and the TAZARA railway in Tan- Chinese state actors normally arrive at a pos- States as Africa’s leading trade partner (Win- Trade data will help show whether China is zania in the 1960s with funding from China itive conclusion that China is not a threat to ton, 2013,p.100) and in addition to aligning doing fair business transactions with Af- are additional standing examples presented Africa, thus yielding optimism (Kai-Chen, all but one African country to its “One China rica while investment data will show the to prove China’s historical presence in Afri- 2016, p. 111). The Chinese government, policy” (Chen,2011,p.104), China has been rate at which Chinese actors are starting up ca. However, while there is proof of historic which is the leading state actor, has strategic projected as a probable hegemon in Africa. production units in Africa. Lastly, the Chi- links between China and Africa, it is import- geopolitical and economic interests in Af- This noticeable footprint of China across na-Africa loan advancement data will help ant to note that China, as it mutates into a rica and as such aims to sustain a long-term the African continent has divided opinions highlight which sectors China is focusing global superpower today, is fast-tracking its relationship with Africa. China has advanced on whether the marriage between these two on aiding. With this foundation laid, it is presence in Africa. As a result, it is outcom- soft loans to African governments, which regions should be greeted with skepticism safer to conclude whether or not China has peting the previously dominant foreign forc- has helped in development of infrastructure or optimism. Skepticism arises from the fact shifted focus to Africa before going ahead es in Africa. China, for example, boosted its (Dijk, 2009, p.10). That aside, the Chinese that Africa, a former prey to colonial rule by to investigate whether the scale of its im- trade with Africa by 130% between 2000 government’s frst foreign military base is foreign powers in the 19th Century, should pact is positive or negative. This paper will and 2010, thereby surpassing the United located in Djibouti, a country located in the be wary of falling again to neo-colonial then culminate into proposing how Africa States as Africa’s leading trade partner with- horn of Africa. The aim of its establishment

55 56 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 was to combat Al-Shabaab militants and pi- Africa often emerge with anti-China senti- sion people hold towards China as a whole. for Africa?” This research question necessi- rates operating in the Indian Ocean. These ments. This is so because, unlike the Chi- This divergence between the role played tates presenting data that unearths the scale pirates intercept merchandise and thus are nese state that has long-term interests in by China’s state and China’s non-state actors of China’s presence in Africa in compari- a source for insecurity in the region, which Africa, Chinese private businesses have a cultivates distinct conclusions as to whether son with other foreign actors. The paper will hampers trade. With China’s military base short-term interest of proft maximization China is a friend or foe to Africa. Depend- study data trends of China-Africa trade, for- present in the area, security has improved. (Kai-Chen, 2016, p. 113). Chinese private ing on which angle one chooses to digest eign direct investments’ (FDIs’) infow from In addition to this, China has maintained contractors work on a number of infrastruc- the implication of China’s presence in Afri- China in comparison with other foreign ac- a non-interference stance into internal af- ture projects in Africa funded by the Gov- ca, the results are bound to differ (Kai-Chen, tors present in Africa. This will validate the fairs of African states (Tull, 2006, p. 459). ernment of China. These contractors choose 2016, p. 100). The position of President hypothesis that China is interested in Africa. This is in line with Article 2 (7) of the Unit- to hire mainly fellow Chinese people (Zhao, Xi Jinping’s government is predominate- Upon reaching a consensus that China ed Nations Charter, which stipulates that a 2014, pp. 1043-1044), which turns out to be ly one of close long-term cooperation with is or has been penetrating Africa historical- state shall not interfere into the internal mat- problematic given the fact that youth unem- Africa in the felds of geopolitics and econ- ly for some time, the second part of analysis ters of another state (United Nations, 1945). ployment is rather high amongst Africans. omy. China needs Africa as much as Africa will seek to answer the second research ques- This is particularly important because a When Chinese businesses choose not to hire needs China. However, since the Chinese tion—“What sectors, in Africa, does China number of foreign donors to Africa normal- Africans, negative sentiments are bound to government relies on Chinese private busi- have vested interested?” To answer that ques- ly advance conditional aid that stipulates arise. In addition to this, there is an issue of nesses to foster this cooperation between the tion, the balance and composition of trade how African governments should run their “dumping.” Dumping is an economic term two regions, negative sentiments towards between Africa and China will be accessed. states. An example is the Structural Adjust- which refers to a situation in international China in Africa erupt as these Chinese pri- As a sum-up, research data is presented to ment Program(SAP’s) guidelines, which are trade where the exporter (Chinese business- vate state actors carry out their sole goal of illustrate which Chinese actor, state or non- issued by the International Monetary Fund es) lower the price of their goods to unfairly proft maximization with little regard to- state, is the most active on ground in Africa. and the World Bank as a condition for loan compete with local goods produced by the wards the feelings and wants of Africans. Research Question 1: advancements (International Monetary Fund, importer (Africa) (Barone, 2019). Dumping Research Methodology Is China really shifting focus to Africa? 2019). SAPs coerced African nations to pri- of Chinese goods on African markets makes vatize their national assets of which some, if locally produced goods lose market value, In order to address the negative feelings Trade with Africa: China vs United States. not most, were acquired by wealthy western which leads to African businesses suffering towards China, a deeper analysis of China’s The graph on the next page illus- companies (Shah, 2013). Critics suggest that losses (In On Africa, 2014, p. 1). That aside, presence is necessary to better understand trates the comparison between U.S-Africa these SAPs were aimed at making Western Chinese private businesses, in the search for the areas in which China has interests in Af- and China-Africa total trade volume be- powers gain control of African state enter- precious natural resources, forego set inter- rica. The research carried out therefore seeks tween 2000 and 2013. The United States prises. With this background of interference national environmental protection standards answers as to whether China is interested was Africa’s major trade partner since by foreign powers, China-optimists argue (French, 2007, p. 130). The disregard for in Africa, and if yes, which sectors China is 2000 until it was overtaken by China in that China is a better partner for Africa. To the environment as Chinese business focus interested in. The frst research question, 2009 as illustrated in graph 1. Today, Chi- sum up, the emergence of China as a major on hunting for raw material is unprecedent- therefore, is, “Is China really scrambling na stands as Africa’s leading trade partner. partner to Africa has diminished the unilat- ed, according to China-skeptics (French, erality of Africa dealing solely with western 2007, p. 130). From this, it is clear that there powers (Edoho, 2014, pp. 120-121). Today, is a contradiction between the Chinese state African governments have the liberty to actions and non-state actors’ actions. The choose from a variety of donors or partners. fact that it is these Chinese private business- On the other hand, analysts that focus es that are on the ground in Africa, makes on investigating China’s non-state actors in them a signifcant determinant of the impres-

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Graph 1 Interpretation of Research Question 1 nomic activities with Africa positively con- The quantitative data on trade and FDI tribute to sustainable development in Africa. tabulated in Graph 1 and 2 respective- China’s Sectoral loan advancements to ly illustrate a sudden increment in Chi- Africa. As highlighted earlier, China is ad- nese interests in Africa. While this is not vancing a good amount of loans to Africa enough to conclude that China has a frm to fnance different projects. Chart 1 gives grip on the continent, it is safe to state that, an in-depth look into how the loans are ap- with increasing Chinese interests in Afri- propriated across different sectors in Afri- ca, the China-Africa bond is strengthening. ca. Based on the information mapped by the chart, close to half of what is loaned to Afri- Research Question 2: What sectors, in Afri- ca is spent in the transportation sector, which ca, does China have vested interested in? entails road, port and railway construction. The following section will conduct a Retrieved by: Yun (2014) as cited in U.S.Census Bureau and Global Trade Atlas (2014). That aside, a quarter of the loans from China deeper analysis of China’s activities in Afri- are spent in the Energy sector which includes Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Africa: investments of Africa’s top fve foreign in- ca, seeking to identify whether China’s eco- oil refneries, dams, and power stations. The Big fve. vestors as of 2013 and 2017. According to Chart 1 FDI, in this context, refers to investments graph 2, among Africa’s top 5 investor coun- made by foreign countries in Africa. FDI is a tries, China does not compete favorably as it common benchmark used to fnd out which lags behind four other nations. However, the foreign countries have economic interests growth of China’s investment fgure in Afri- in a given region. Graph 2, retrieved from ca rose by 65%, an increase greater than the the United Nations Conference on Trade other nations apart from Netherlands, which and Development, represents the total FDI sharply increased its investment by 215%.

Graph 2

Data Retrieved from: American Enterprise Institute (2018)

Balance of China-Africa trade. there was a widening trade defcit as China While Graph 1 focuses on China trade sells more goods to Africa than it buys from with Africa, Graph 3 gives a deeper per- Africa. Nonetheless, sustaining this bi-lat- spective of how much Africa earns from eral trade is of paramount signifcance be- trading with China. Graph 3 trade data sug- cause Africa, however little the income, gests that Africa has a trade defcit with still earns from trading with China. Afri- China. This means that China earns more ca, within one year, increased its exports to income than Africa from bi-lateral trade ex- China, thus reducing the trade imbalance changes. Between 2017 and 2018 alone, between the two regions to US $5 billion. Data Retrieved from: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2019)

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Graph 3 The China actors: na is doing in Africa. The data retrieved by Who is responsible for China’s moves McKinsey & Company on the feldwork in Africa? At this stage, it is important to in- it carried out in Africa points to the fact vestigate which particular Chinese actors that it is mainly China’s non-state actors are responsible for the groundwork Chi- directly engaging with Africa (Jayaram, Kassiri, Sun (2017) as shown in Chart 3.

Chart 3

Data Retrieved from: Ministry of Commerce, People’s Republic of China (2018)

Composition of Trade: primary focus is importation of Africa’s min- China’s Imports from Africa. eral resources. These resources come from a Chart 2 amplifes which type of goods select few mineral-rich African countries as China is purchasing from Africa. China’s opposed to coming from the entire continent. Data Retrieved from: McKinsey & Company (2017) Chart 2 Interpretation of Research Question 2 actors taking up most initiatives in Africa.

The data collected clearly illustrates a Discussion & Argument sharp interest China has for Africa’s mineral China: A colonizer? resources. Loans advanced by China to Af- rica are channeled to access mineral and en- Firstly, it is important to note that Chi- ergy resources. The Transportation sector, a na’s “grip of Africa” is partly inspired by major recipient of Chinese loans, is a vehi- the West, which views China as a threat to cle to reach mineral deposits in remote Afri- its values (Hirono & Suzuki, 2014, pp. 443- can regions. That aside, as the China-Africa 461). This is so because the investment data trade volumes expand, China will continue indicator points to the fact that China does not have the highest economic interests in Data Retrieved from: Africa Research Initiative (2012) to acquire Africa’s mineral resources. Afri- can countries, without a large stock of min- Africa. In fact, it is France with the largest eral deposits, may not necessarily reap ben- investments in Africa. In addition to that, the efts from expanding China-Africa bi-lateral Netherlands is the nation rapidly increas- trade volumes. Incidentally, the Chinese state ing its investments in Africa. The Nether- accounts for little when it gets to direct en- lands grew its investment in Africa to be al- gagement with Africa as it is the non-state most twice as much as China between 2013

61 62 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 and 2017 alone. This raises a question. Why ties are largely concentrated in mineral rich • China’s main goal is seek- 2. Mineral rich African countries could is negative criticism of “China’s grip on Af- African countries because not all African ing African minerals. legislate a quota on the number of rica” more audible? There is one argument countries have a large stock of minerals. • Four African countries with large Chinese allowed to work on differ- to respond to this question. It is probable China seeks a number of natural resourc- mineral deposits, especially crude ent projects in order to give room for that criticism against China in Africa, which es from Africa, for example, iron ore and dia- oil, are more exposed to the risk of a employment of locals. This would is aired in the media, largely owned by the mond. However, crude oil is the major miner- mismanaged relationship with China. ensure skills acquisitions by lo- West, is not entirely about what wrongs it is al China seeks in Africa. This oil is processed • Mainly for-proft Chinese busi- cals underpinned by Science, Tech- doing in Africa; rather, it is inspired by the to make fuels essential in the production pro- nesses (non-state actors) peddle nology and Innovation essential wider global discourse about China challeng- cess of industrious China. China gets 30% of negative criticism against China. for upping productivity in Africa. ing the Western world as global powerhouse its oil from Africa (Poplak, 2011, pp. 1-2). In order to improve China-Afri- 3. Lastly and most importantly, the Chi- (Kai-Chen, 2016, p. 106). Therefore, China, Of this 30%, the majority of it, 70%, comes ca relations, the above points are essen- na-Africa loan advancement scheme according to data availed, is not necessar- from only four African countries, namely An- tial guides to make recommendations. should be aimed at ensuring that Af- ily aiming at having a frm grip on Africa. gola, South Africa, Sudan and Democratic This paper will make recommenda- rica, in the end, takes full control of Stakes are higher for mineral rich African Republic of Congo (Winton, 2013, p. 101). tions based on “Agenda 2063.” The Agen- fnancing its own budget as opposed countries. Surprisingly enough, these four African na- da points out environmental conservation, to continuous relying on foreign aid, tions also double as the largest consumers of human capital development, and a reduc- as is the case today. A self-sustain- In contrast, China is in Africa primari- Chinese loans. As the number of activities tion in foreign aid dependence as key pil- ing Africa should be the end goal. ly for mineral resources to get raw material between Africa and China continue to grow, lars of achieving a desirable Africa by 2063 that will enable production, which will give Conclusion these four nations are bound to feel China’s (African Union, 2015). The recommen- its economy a boost. This is evident if one presence more compared to the other 49 Af- dations suggested below encourage Afri- China requires natural resources, particu- analyzes the loan advancement and trade rican countries. There is already concern can governments, particularly the mineral larly crude oil, to fuel its economic growth. indicators. The energy sector, which partly about China’s disregard for the environment rich African states, to observe these prin- Butler (2019) argues that, “Oil has become comprises natural resources, is a major recip- as Chinese companies (non-state actors) ex- ciples in order to cause sustainable devel- inseparable from economic activity and is ient of loans advanced from China to Africa cavate minerals from African soil. In addi- opment and a better friendship with Chi- essential to satisfying the consumer needs of as shown in Chart 1 above. On top of that, tion to that, China’s non-state actors doing na. The recommendations are as follows: China’s growing middle class” (p. 2). Chi- minerals are also a medium through which work in these mineral rich countries usually 1. Mineral rich African countries ought na—the world’s largest importer of crude Africa pays back loans from China. For re- hire Chinese people in strategic management to ensure that China’s operations in oil—is mainly increasing its presence in Af- source backed deals, Africa gets monetary positions. Furthermore, Chinese non-state their territories observe internation- rica to access this natural mineral partly be- assistance and has to pay it back with min- actors purchase most of the products they al environmental standards. This en- cause its major supplier, the Middle East re- eral resources (Nyabiage, 2019, p. 3). When use during projects from China (Kai-Chen, ables the birth of sustainable commu- gion, is facing instability due to the on-going it comes to trade activity, China is mainly 2016, p. 109). As a result, African locals in nities for future generations. China’s Iran-U.S economic war. This is a major rea- importing mineral resources from Africa. these mineral rich countries do not beneft non-state actors that do not pass this son behind China’s dash to Africa. Therefore, It is evident that the common denom- in terms of employment, technical skills de- benchmark should have contracts ter- it is misleading to suggest that the Chinese inator in the China-Africa relationship is velopment, nor sales of their local products. minated. By doing this, China’s im- government intends to assert a colonial-like natural resources. At this point, it is safe to age would be improved, as it would strong hold on Africa. However, it is im- change the statement from “China’s dash Recommendations not be negatively tainted by Chinese portant to note that China’s non-state actors, to Africa” to “China’s dash for Africa’s Creating a better China-Africa partnership businesses seeking short-term prof- driven by short-term proft-making motives mineral resources”. Upon uncovering this To this point, this paper has es- its especially because China seeks in mineral rich African countries, pose a sub- fact, it is safe to state that China’s activi- tablished the three following points: long-term cooperation with Africa. stantial threat to the China-Africa relation-

63 64 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 ship. China’s search for natural resources interests, they ought to pave better pathways In On Africa. (2014, March 6). Cheap Chinese imports in Africa: Implications and remedies. should neither debt-trap Africa nor negatively for the Sino-Afro engagement. With the guid- Retrieved from Polity: https://www.polity.org.za/article/cheap-chinese-imports-in-afr- impact the environment. In addition, Chinese ance of recommendations highlighted herein, icaimplications-and-remedies-2014-03-06 frms ought not to neglect Africans’ quest for African governments could enact the same to International Monetary Fund. (2019, March 5). International Monetary Fund Conditionality. employment opportunities. Since African give birth to self-reliant Africa and a sustain- Retrieved from International Monetary Fund: https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/ governments are the custodians of Africans’ able mutual-benefcial friendship with China. Sheets/2016/08/02/21/28/IMF-Conditionality Jayaram, K., Kassiri, O., Sun, I.Y. (2017). The closest look yet at Chinese economic References engagement in Africa. NewYork: McKinsey & Company. Africa Research Initiative. (2012, October 22). Between Extremes. China and Africa. https:// africaresearchinstitute.org/newsite/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Briefng-Note-1202- Kai-Chen, C. (2016). China in Africa: A Threat to African Countries. In Strategic Review for pdf.pdf Southern Africa (p. 112). Memphis: Rhodes College. Africa Research Institute . (2012). Between extremes: China and Africa. Africa Research McKinsey & Company. (2017, June 28). The closest look yet at Chinese economic en- Institute , 4-5. gagement in Africa. McKinsey & Company Report. https://www.mckinsey.com/ featured-insights/middle-east-and-africa/the-closest-look-yet-at-chinese-economic-en- African Union. (2015, January 31). Goals & Priority areas of Agenda 2063. Retrieved from gagement-in-africa African Union: https://au.int/en/agenda2063/goals Ministry of Commerce, People’s Republic of China. (2018, January 26). Statistics on American Enterprise Institute. (2018, September 6). Figures of the week: Chinese in- China-Africa Bilateral Trade in 2017. Ministry of Commerce, People’s Repub- vestment in Africa. Africa in Focus. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-fo- lic of China. http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/statistic/lanmubb/AsiaAfri- cus/2018/09/06/fgures-of-the-week-chinese-investment-in-africa/ ca/201803/20180302719613.shtml Barone, A. (2019, April 14). Dumping. Retrieved from Investopedia: Nyabiage, J. (2019, July 28). Are Chinese infrastructure loans putting Africa on the debt-trap express? Retrieved from South China Morning Post: https://www.scmp.com/news/chi- https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/dumping.asp na/diplomacy/article/3020394/are-chineseinfrastructure-loans-putting-africa-debt-trap Butler, N. (2019, June 03). Is China about to change the global oil trade? Retrieved from Poplak, R. (2011, July 04). Aid and infuence: China's great leap into the heart of Africa. Re- Financial trieved from CBC: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/aid-and-infuence-china-s-great- Times: https://www.ft.com/content/fd01b21a-81f9-11e9-b592-5fe435b57a3b leap-intothe-heart-of-africa-1.1073266 Chen, C.-K. (2011). China In Africa: A Threat to African Countries? (1st ed., Vol. 38). Rielaender, J. (2013, May 27). Africa: Making the most of its natural resources*. Retrieved Rhodes College. https://www.up.ac.za/media/shared/85/Strategic%20Review/Vol%20 from OECD Observer: http://oecdobserver.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/4218/Africa:_ 38(2)/chen-pp100-122.zp104540.pdf Making_the_most_of_its_n atural_resources_.html Congressional Research Service. (2019). China's Economic Rise. Washington D.C: United Shah, A. (2013). Structural Adjustment—a Major Cause of Poverty. Global Issues. States Congress. Tull, D. M. (2006). China's engagement in Africa: scope, signifcance and consequences. The Dijk, M. P. (2009). The New Presence of China in Africa. Amsterdam University Press. Journal of Modern African Studies, 459. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46n2kj United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. (2019, June 12). Foreign direct in- Edoho, F. (2014). Globalization and Marginalization of Africa: Contextualization of China– vestment to Africa defes global slump, rises 11%. UNCTAD. https://unctad.org/news/ Africa Relations. Africa Today, 103-110. foreign-direct-investment-africa-defes-global-slump-rises-1 French, H. (2007, January 1). Commentary: China and Africa. Retrieved from https://doi. United Nations. (1945, June 26). Charter of the United Nations. Retrieved from United Na- org/10.1093/afraf/adl060 tions: https://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/introductory-note/index.html Hirono, M., & Suzuki, S. (2014). Why do we need myth busting in the study of Sino-african Winton, D. W. (2013). Economic Statecraft: China in Africa. In Confict by other Means (p. Relations. In Journal of Contemporary China (pp. 443-461). 101).

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Yun, S. (2014, August 5). American and Chinese trade with Africa: Rhetoric vs. reali- ty. Retrieved from Stimson: https://www.stimson.org/content/american-and-chi- nese-trade-africarhetoric-vs-reality Possibility of Female Migration Zhao, S. (2014). A Neo-Colonialist Predator or Development Partner? China's engagement and rebalance in Africa. In China in Africa: Strategic Motives and Economic Interests Stimulated by Education for (pp. 10431044). Socio-Economic Development in Zimbabwe Hana Tomioka

Hana Tomioka is a senior student majoring in Global Studies. Her essay “Possibility of Fe- male Migration Stimulated by Education for Socio-Economic Development in Zimbabwe” was submitted in the Global Studies Capstone Seminar under the supervision of Professor Satoko Horii at AIU. Her interest is in social development, especially focusing on the evo- lution of developing countries from political, cultural, geographical, and socio-econom- ic perspectives. After studying in the U.K. about the relationship between migration and social development in Sub-Saharan Africa, she became interested in multidisciplinary ap- proach to the complex issues in social development. As for Tomioka’s future research en- deavors, she would like to combine her studies with other related subjects such as history and anthropology, acquiring a broader understanding of the challenges that the country faces.

1. Introduction ies. Many critical development studies have Africa is a region of immense diversity highlighted the increasing number of immi- in terms of history, culture, colonial expe- grants after the independence of Zimbabwe, rience, socio-political systems, economy, rising literacy rates, and increasing of labour population size, ecology, and patterns of de- population. The majority of the existing re- velopment. Countries in the continent are of- search focused on the socio-economic de- ten argued to be underdeveloped. However, velopment driven by males, refecting the looking at the street view of Harare, a capi- traditional gender disparities within the na- tal city of Zimbabwe, for instance, there are tion. However, few of them focused on the skyscrapers, advanced transportation sys- linkage between women’s education and in- tems, and business-people coming and go- creasing female migrants, or the female mi- ing to the city centre. Zimbabwe is a South- grants’ contribution to the socio-economic ern African country with approximately 13.5 development in Zimbabwe. In fact, currently, million people. With the rapid growth of its Zimbabwe is the largest country of emigra- economy, Zimbabwe has been capturing tion in the region (Crush, Dodson & Tevera, the global attention of development stud- 2017), and more females than ever are mi-

67 68 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 grating and breaking away from male-dom- 2. Literature Review and wells. In other words, many of the ru- babwe. On the one hand, males have been inant traditions. Therefore, this paper set the 2-1. Defning the Key Term, “Socio-Eco- ral Zimbabweans are still exposed to unsafe expected to engage in paid-employment research question: “what is the contribution nomic Development” within the Context of sanitation (Pushak & Briceno-Garmendia, and become bread-winners. On the other of educated female labour migrants to the so- Zimbabwe 2011). The situation turned worse over the hand, most females have stayed in the kitch- cio-economic development in Zimbabwe?” last 15 to 20 years because of the soaring en and farms in rural households. Focusing Socio-economic development is often hypothesizing that educating women encour- price of ingredients for latrines. In terms of on the employment market, for instance, al- defned as a state in which people’s lifestyles ages them to voluntarily migrate and that the roads, Zimbabwe has intended to extend its though the gap between male and female are improved through improved infrastruc- migration enhances the socio-economic de- road networks to play a key role as a transit workers is currently narrowing, 85.0% ture, skills, technologies, health care, nutri- velopment in Zimbabwe through remittanc- country in regional trade with neighbour- for males and 73.8% for females, there re- tion, education, incomes, and employment. es and skills acquisitions in labour markets. ing countries such as Botswana and Zambia, mains more than a 10% difference (World It is measurable with indicators such as gross By studying the intertwined relation- and expand paved roads across the country. Bank, 2020). Regarding the female work- domestic product (GDP), literacy rate, life ship among gender disparities, education, However, the quality of most roads has de- ing population rate targeting age 15 to 24, expectancy, employment rate, improvements and migration in Zimbabwe, this paper ar- teriorated over the last two decades; approx- although the rate has decreased compared of poverty reduction, and income levels per gues that the education empowers women imately 65% of roads require reconstruc- with that 30 years ago, still 62.3% of young capita (Cortina & Ochoa-Reza, 2013; Lu- to overcome the traditional gender dispar- tion (Pushak & Briceno-Garmendia, 2011). females are in employment (World Bank, cas, 2004; McGranagan, 2971; Rontos & ities in Zimbabwe by challenging the gen- At the individual household and nation- 2020). That is, when females are in their Vavouras, 2018). In addition to those crite- der roles within households, and pushes al’s level, various criteria are applicable such late teens and early twenties, they are sup- ria, the Human Development Index (HDI) is them to migrate, which ultimately stimu- as educational attainment, life expectancy, posed to work rather than study at schools. often referred to when discussing a nation’s lates socio-economic development through employment rate, or per capita income level. In terms of education, gender discrimi- development, which assesses the quality remittances, and skills and knowledge ac- Although conventional studies have assessed native perspectives and diffculties in phys- of healthy life, standard of living, and ac- quisitions. The study was entirely based on a nation’s socio-economic development with ical access to schools are also the major ob- cess to education (UNDP, 2019). In the case existing studies conducted by qualifed re- those criteria, they are complex, impractical stacles to equal educational opportunities of Zimbabwe, the country ranked in 150th searchers. In addition, to examine the mi- to evaluate, and may lead to contradictory re- in Zimbabwe. Although the females’ litera- out of 189 countries is categorized as me- gration behaviour, education levels, and search results in this study. Since each study cy rate in Zimbabwe reaches approximate- dium human development (UNDP, 2019). gender issues in Zimbabwe more in detail, needs to assess development in its context, ly 96% and is comparatively higher among At the governmental level, infrastructure this paper referred to the data provided by this paper applies more cogent concepts that other sub-Saharan African countries, the rate is often regarded as one of the major aspects the United Nations and its relevant agencies. focus on gender disparities, individual house- that girls drop out of school remains as high that contribute to a country’s socio-econom- This research will help fulfll the gender gap holds’ economic levels, and labour market: as 54% while that of males is 44% (UNES- ic development and per capita growth with in education by emphasizing the signifcant gender inequalities and the level of women’s CO, 2015). Particularly, although 90 % of fe- its role to support sustained functionality of contribution of female migrants who have empowerment within Zimbabwean society male Zimbabweans complete primary educa- households and business sectors. Concern- received an education. This study also pro- and education, poverty levels at individu- tion and there is almost no gap between boys ing the current state of Zimbabwe’s over- vides a key to achieving the Sustainable De- al households, and employment experience. and girls, which is slightly higher than that all infrastructure, the country ranks among velopment Goals (SDGs) which are com- of males, only 69 % of girls complete low- the highest in relatively low-income coun- 2-2. Zimbabwean Women in Households, mitted to ensuring that no one is left behind. er secondary education (UNESCO, 2015). tries in Africa. However, focusing on water Society, Labour Market, and Education Moreover, regarding upper secondary edu- supply and sanitation in rural areas in Zim- Gender inequalitity is one of the major cation, as few as 11% of females graduate babwe, for example, only 31% of the rural issues of social development in Zimbabwe. from the school. UNDP (2019) supports this population can access improved latrines, and The gaps are attributed to tradition, culture, series of data by indicating that although the the rest of them are dependent on springs social norms, and colonial history in Zim- expected years of schooling in Zimbabwe is

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10 years, females on average fnish schooling 2-3. Migration employment (Gugler & Gudrun, 1995; Hira- 2-3-2. Migration in socio-economic in 7.6 years while males fnish in 9.0 years. 2-3-1. Background: changing patterns of lal, 2015). Consequently, approximately 45 development: pros and cons The major diffculties for girls in accessing migration in Zimbabwe percent of recent Zimbabwean migrants are The role of migration in terms of so- full education are, for example, poverty, ear- independent women (Crush & Tawodzera, Since Zimbabwe achieved its indepen- cio-economic development in the develop- ly marriages, and pregnancies, sanitation is- 2016). As more women replace men within dence in 1980, the number of Zimbabwe- ing world is often at the centre of discussions sues at schools, or religious, cultural, and tra- their households and become breadwinners, ans who have traveled from Zimbabwe to in development studies because the conse- ditional beliefs (Kanyenze & Kondo, 2011). feminization in Zimbabwean migration chal- Southern Africa seeking employment has quence of migration is a double-edged sword. Especially in Zimbabwe, there are structured lenges the conventional gender disparities increased. The background factor was the re- Major positive results brought by migration gender discriminations in the whole society, and empowers migrant women to obtain in- location of European-owned lands fostered are economic stimulation through remittanc- which often emerges in rural areas; for exam- dependence, confdence, and freedom over by the governments’ programme, which re- es, brain gain, alleviation of pressures on la- ple, some rural parents believe that spending decisions within families (Mbiyozo, 2018). sulted in the loss of farms and mass migration bour markets and reduced unemployment on their daughters for education is a waste In addition to feminization, more and from rural to urban areas within the country rate, and more intimate links among sending of resources as they will ultimately engage more Zimbabweans from poor households (Crush & Tevera, 2006). The internal trav- and receiving countries. All of the positive in households when they marry (Mawere, are migrating. At the same time, most of el fostered further migration both from rural aspects of migration contribute to reducing 2012). Another misbelief is that the ability to them are experiencing intra-African migra- to urban within Zimbabwe and from rural to poverty (Masunungure & Shumba, 2014). read and write in daily life proves a girl ed- tion, specifcally to Southern Sub-Saharan another Southern African country. Conse- The most notable and infuential aspect ucated enough. In other words, some parents African countries. Dzingirai et al. (2015) quently, Zimbabwe has come to the top net among them is the positive socio-econom- assume that special knowledge is not neces- have found that the majority of Zimbabwe- sending country between 2000 to 2020, with ic development facilitated by remittances sary for females. (Mawere, 2012; ZIMBA- an migrants are from households that live 121,000 emigrants among sub-Saharan Af- from migrants to their home countries. It not BWE: Thousands of girls forced out of edu- below the food poverty line. Indeed, pover- rican countries (UN, 2019). Although un- only provides fnancial support to migrants’ cation, 2011). Particularly focusing on the ty is currently a serious issue in Zimbabwe; til currently, most of Zimbabwean migrants families but also stimulates the economy of gap between rural and urban areas in terms of 62.6% of the population are below the pover- were male. As a current trend, however, the the sending country. At the household level, educational attainment, while almost 100% ty threshold, and 16.2% are in extreme pov- number of female migrants has increased. remittances are a major source of income, of urban students complete primary educa- erty (UNDP, 2015). For economically poor Conventionally, Zimbabwean females had especially for poor and vulnerable house- tion, 85% of urban children graduate from migrants, migrating to Southern Sub-Saharan intentionally chosen not to leave their homes holds. Additionally, for low-income fam- primary schools regardless of their genders African countries saves the travel costs, and for fear of unsafe, long journeys (Kane & ilies, remittances help them recover from (UNESCO, 2015). Besides, only half of them provides better employment opportunities Leedy, 2013); they were more vulnerable unexpected crises (Maimbo & Ratha, 2005). complete lower secondary education, while and living conditions (Hiralal, 2015). Con- than males in terms of risks and challenges At the national level, recently remittances 88% of urban children can fnish it (UNES- cerning the family ties of migrants, approx- such as discrimination, sexual abuse, vio- have contributed a 10% increase in nation- CO, 2015). More importantly, approximate- imately 80% of emigrants from Zimbabwe lence, and physical health (Caritas Interna- al annual incomes in a number of countries ly 10% of rural Zimbabwean children never maintain regular contact with their families tionalis, 2004). Even when women migrated, (Beath, Goldin, & Reinert, 2009). Remit- attend schools (UNESCO, 2015). As a result, at home, and almost 60% of Zimbabwean it was simply for a family reunion (Adepoiu, tances connect countries and therefore costs those girls who have dropped out or who nev- migrants send remittances to support their 2008), and they were still dependent on their for the transactions will decrease (Docquire, er study at schools are constrained in employ- family incomes. Along with fnancial sup- family members and husbands for house- Lohest, & Marfouk, 2007). It turns easy for ment in informal sectors (Adepoiu, 2008). port, they also provide other material sup- hold incomes. However, as more women migrants to send money to their homes and port such as clothes or food (Hungwe, 2017). out of urban cities have received secondary more remittances are expected to be sent. education, the number of women who move Besides, Masunungure and Shumba (2014) to the cities has increased in search of better have found that during the global fnancial crisis in 2008, “[r]emittances have remained

71 72 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 more resilient relative to other categories of contemporary context where sustainability tion opportunities, and attractive salaries or tion; rather, immigration is more benefcial resource fows to developing countries and matters, the economic independence of mi- working conditions (Brock & Blake, 2015). than harmful in many cases (Docquire, Lo- have thus become more important as a source grants’ families should be maintained. Fur- Brain drain is a serious issue in Zimbabwe hest, & Marfouk, 2007). Despite this fnd- of external fnancing in many developing thermore, remittances are benefcial to home today, particularly among medical work- ing, xenophobia and friction between the countries” (p. 176). When more money is countries at a national level only when the ers. In Zimbabwe, a number of medical staff local population and immigrants can easily sent, banks and other fnancial institutions money is sent through the formal fnancial such as doctors, nurses, or technicians travel happen, resulting in the unexpected early re- can gain new customers for their business sectors such as banks. Indeed, the situation to another Southern African country seek- turn of migrants to their homes before they with remittance services (Gruescu, 2010). is opposite in most cases and migrants send ing better working conditions or payments. gain any skills or education. In addition to Thus, remittances are argued to contribute remittances through informal sectors be- The shortage of those workers has result- those negative perspectives, migration is of- to the socio-economic development in the cause the informal fnancial sectors often ed in the government’s cut in health care ten regarded as cost-demanding, especially sending countries. Along with the remittance, offer the service more quickly with lower expenditure. Therefore, the price of drugs for the poor. This is true because those who brain gain is another expected benefcial re- transfer fees (UN WOMEN, 2017); there- and medical services has risen drastical- attempt to emigrate need to pay high pric- sult in human capital. Brain gain is more fore, informal remittance channels are more ly and been unaffordable for more families es for passports and legal permission on mi- likely to happen with low-skilled workers. attractive to the poor migrants who cannot (Kanyenze & Kondo, 2011). Based on this gration together with the remittance charge It provides the home country with improved afford formal remittance networks (Dzingi- fact, one can argue that brain drain negatively when wishing to fnancially support fami- and new technology, skills, education, and rai et al, 2014). Within the informal sector, infuences not only a nation’s skilled work- lies (Murrugarra, Larrison & Sasin, 2010). knowledge, although there seems to be no the majority of senders rely on their acquain- er population but also, in Zimbabwe’s case, Therefore, countries must lower costs and research data that present Zimbabwean mi- tances or relatives rather than commercial the quality of public health care services. expand opportunities for migration in or- grants’ contribution to Zimbabwe’s skills and companies, which produces distinct forms Regarding the negative views of migra- der that the countries enhance migration. technology improvement. To maximize the of informal sectors (Bracking & Sachikonye, tion from the perspectives of the locals of For example, countries can lower the migra- benefts of brain gain, a group of migrants 2006). Bracking and Sachikonye (2006) ar- host countries, there has been a conservative tion cost by negotiating bilateral migration must effectively use their newly gained gue that the distinct forms “in turn relate to belief that immigrants steal their jobs or neg- agreements. New Zealand and several Pacif- skills, knowledge, and education when the social positioning of recipients, and feed atively infuence the economy of the host so- ic Island countries, for example, have agreed they returned to their homes (Hart, 2009). into political economies of corruption, col- ciety, which leads to racism and xenophobia to provide the seasonal worker program to Despite the positive aspects of migration, lapse, rentierism and externalization of funds toward immigrants and causes integration work in New Zealand with lower charges there are several counterarguments toward in failing states” (p. 27). In other words, the diffculties and friction within their local en- (Murrugarra, Larrison & Sasin, 2010). them: negative results produced by remit- remittances out of formal channels limit the vironment. The results of the empirical re- 2-3-3. Impact of migration on individual and tances, decrease in the productive popula- potential of remittances (Maphosa, 2007). search conducted by Bakewell and Landau national economic levels, livelihoods, and tion, rejection of migrants in host countries, Therefore, remittances are not always advan- (n.d.) reveal that even if migrants acquire employment and limited opportunities to migrate for the tageous for home countries’ development. citizenship certifcates, those certifcations As examined in the last part about the poor. Although the potential of remittances Another negative consequence of mi- do not necessarily translate into inclusion or negative aspects of migration, especial- for home’ countries’ socio-economic devel- gration is brain drain or decrease in the pop- belonging. In other words, the genuine mean- ly about the mobility out of Zimbabwe, it is opment, there are several missing points that ulation of productive ages in sending coun- ing of integration is far more complex, and necessary to explore the potential impacts of are signifcant to consider but not have been tries. In terms of skilled migrants, especially integration issues among African migrants migration in more detail, specifcally for la- addressed by most of the existing studies in focusing on Zimbabwe, both push and pull and the local people of host countries remain bour purposes. IOM (2018) argues the impact detail; remittances can cause the econom- factors result in brain drain; push factors under debate. However, several studies have of migration on individual and national eco- ic dependency of immigrants’ family mem- are, for example, declining currency rates proved that the impacts of immigrants on nomic levels, livelihoods, and employment. bers (Sirkeci, Cohen, & Ratha, 2012). When and unsatisfactory employment opportu- the labour market are extremely small and At the national level, the sending country considering sustainable development in the nities, while pull factors are better educa- that thet do not infuence the native poula-

73 74 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 can promote transnational loans and mutual remittances and extremely poor households gender and education (Mawere, 2012; ZIM- women. Education provided Zimbabwean funds through the bilateral connections be- has not been researched in depth. In terms BABWE: Thousands of girls forced out of females with more opportunities and options tween the sending and receiving countries of emigration for employment, it has been education, 2011), traditional culture as pre- in terms of employment and living condi- if the country’s access to the internation- almost impossible to track Zimbabwean em- sented by early marriage and early preg- tions outside of Zimbabwe. Females who re- al capital market is limited. In the case of igrants’ employment at destinations due to nancy (Kanyenze & Kondo, 2011), or pov- ceived education presented more tendency Zimbabwe, the country is ranked 132nd out practical diffculties. However, clearly, not erty issues at individual household levels. to migrate seeking employment opportuni- of 144 countries in the World Economic Fo- all the Zimbabwean emigrants can engage in Looking at the female working population, ties to urban areas within or outside of Zim- rum’s Global Competitiveness Index report the formal sector employment; rather, they 62.3% of females aged 15 to 24 were work- babwe (Gugler & Gudrun, 1995; Hiralal, in 2012-2013 (African Development Bank are often employed in informal sectors or in- ing (World Bank, 2020). Since only the data 2015). In addition, the change in migration Group, 2013). In other words, Zimbabwe’s formalized sections of formal sectors (Inter- of females was available, the research could destination turned migration more accessi- economic competitiveness is still weak in national Organization for Migration, 2018). not compare and contrast with that of males. ble to females. Most of the female migrants the world; therefore, migration can boost the However, considering the schooling ages traveled to another sub-Saharan African 3. Results and Analysis country’s economy by strengthening bilat- which were mostly from 6 or 7 to late teens country, especially the southern part, be- eral relations. More importantly, focusing 3-1. Zimbabwean Females: Education, or early twenties, obviously, more than half cause of its proximity and lower travel costs. on the increasing number of female volun- Employment, and Migration of Zimbabwean girls dropped out of school, Thus, considering the feminization of emi- tary migrants, IOM (2018) asserts that the 3-1-1. Gender disparities or did not go to school at all. Those females gration in Zimbabwe and the Zimbabwean feminization of migration can contribute to The research revealed that Zimbabwe- who did not receive education, on the one education improved both qualitatively and the economy at both national and individu- an females underwent disadvantageous ex- hand, were more likely to engage in employ- quantitatively, one could surmise the pos- al levels. According to IOM (2018), female perience within households, education, and ment in informal sectors. On the other hand, itive interlinkage between education and migrants send more money more frequently employment because of the traditional gen- those who received were more likely to ob- migration. Moreover, the increased educa- to their homes than male migrants, and thus, der perspective and social norms within tain opportunities for employment in formal tional opportunities among women proved migration can “enables women to construct Zimbabwean society. The traditional view sectors and better living standards. This gap the changing roles among genders within secure livelihoods despite restrictive condi- had expected the gender roles; while males in educational attainment was linked not individual households. Recently, there have tions in the country of origin” (IOM, 2018, p. were supposed to work outside for fami- only to their future career and living con- been more women who were the main wage 54). IOM’s research has revealed that there is ly incomes, females were to stay homes and ditions but also to the poverty cycle. The earners, which was demonstrated by the in- a positive linkage between remittances and engage in housework. The view also dis- poverty cycle created another gap in their creasing number of independent female individual consumption, education, health, criminated against women in education. Al- children’s education due to the households’ Zimbabwean migrants (Crush & Tawodzera, welfare, poverty alleviation, and risk miti- though the gap between males and females lower incomes and economic vulnerability 2016). Therefore, with the positive linkage gation. For instance, a recent study has con- in education was flled compared with the (Adepoiu, 2008). Therefore, gender dispar- between education and migration among fe- frmed that the living conditions or economic situation a few decades ago, and the gender ities within Zimbabwean society produced males, women’s education provides them levels of households with migrants are bet- gap between boys and girls at the primary female’s vulnerable conditions by leading fe- with not only wider choices of employment ter than those without migrants, because of level was close to zero (UNESCO, 2015), males to lower attendance in schools, vulner- and their own lives but also the confdence the fnancial support of remittances (Crush, girls were still forced to drop out of school. ability in employment, and lower incomes. to challenge the gender disparities with- Chikanda & Tawodzera, 2012). Another ex- Zimbabwe marked almost 90% of girls’ at- 3-1-2. Intertwining relationship between in Zimbabwean society (Mbiyozo, 2018). ample is, regarding poverty alleviation, Ad- tendance in primary schools, yet, 54% of women’s education and migration However, to maximize the positive ef- ams and Page (2003) have proved that remit- fect of education on females’ migration, them drop out of school, which was 10% The series of existing research has proved tances mitigated the poverty in 71 developing mitigation of gender inequalities should higher than boys’ (UNESCO, 2015). There that education was a catalyst for female mi- countries, including Zimbabwe, by 3.5% on be prioritized. As several research results were various factors for the gender gap in gration and empowerment for Zimbabwean average. However, the relationship between education, such as traditional views toward have revealed, there remain gender dis-

75 76 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 criminations against women, which pre- the female migration, IOM (2018) revealed was comparatively weak; in the case of Zim- proper sanitary products, and girls need to vented them from studying at schools, or that female migrants sent more money more babwe, the country ranked in 132nd in the endure the monthly cycle by uncomfortable forced them to drop out of school. For ex- frequently to their families than male mi- World Economic Forum’s Global Competi- and improper means such as rags, old pants, ample, in the case of poor households, par- grants. The study, however, could not obtain tiveness Index report in 2012-2013 (African tissues, grasses or leaves. In addition, men- ents chose not to allow their children to go any results that presented the co-relation Development Bank Group, 2013). There- struation is often regarded as a sign of an end to school but to ask them to work for house- between extreme poverty and remittanc- fore, remittances in developing countries to girlhood, and a sign of maternity, imply- holds. Even educated female migrants es. Murrugarra, Larrison, and Sasin (2010) stimulated the national economic growth ing early marriage (Kirk & Sommer, 2006). were still vulnerable in terms of employ- suggested that migrants often needed to pay in addition to migrants’ family incomes. Since the subject of menstruation is cultur- ment, sexual abuses, violence, and gender several charges for passports, legal permis- ally taboo, many girls cannot talk about the 4. Discussion discriminations (Caritas Internationalis, sion on migration, and remittance. In other relevant diffculties and some school girls 2004; Crush & Tawodzera, 2016; Kane & words, the cost-demanding migration was 4-1. Education for All: Policy Implications end up dropping out of school (Mafoko, Leedy, 2013). The research confrmed that not accessible to extremely poor households. and Recommendations for Overcoming Gaps 2017). In terms of the road as a part of the in Education social development issues including ed- 3-2-2. Benefts at a national level infrastructure, if the way to schools is un- ucation need a comprehensive approach. Socio-economic development issues are improved or inadequately constructed, it is The literature review presented that mi- intertwining with various aspects, and ap- diffcult for children to go to school. Espe- 3-2. Migration Contribution to gration was benefcial not only for individu- proaches are different from country to coun- cially in the case of Zimbabwe, the literature Socio-Economic Development in Zimbabwe al households but also for sending countries. try. By featuring the case of Zimbabwe with review presented that about 65% of roads 3-2-1. Benefts at an individual household The major expected positive consequences its education and migration issues, this paper are improperly constructed or need recon- level were fnancial and political benefts through has proved that socio-economic develop- struction. These issues, femininity, pover- remittances, and brain gain. Remittances The existing research examined in the last ment issues are not simple and clear-cut but ty, rurality, and underdeveloped infrastruc- contributed to supporting not only individu- section argued that, at an individual house- more complex and vaguer than one expects. ture, are only a part of the factors that cause al households but also the national economy. hold level, the major benefcial consequence Therefore, this paper implies the importance the gender gap in education. An approach to The expected results of remittances at the was brought by remittances to migrants’ fam- of understanding and examining social de- social development issues requires address- national level were positive if migrants send ilies in home countries. Concerning remit- velopment issues comprehensively. For ex- ing various complex issues simultaneously. money through the formal remittance chan- tances sent to home countries, as a negative ample, concerning the gender inequality is- Based on the results and analysis of the nels (Maphosa, 2007). Yet, the reality was result, migrants’ families became highly de- sues in education in Zimbabwe, there have study, this paper provides two recommenda- that the majority of migrants sent through in- pendent on remitted money for their house- been various aspects that intertwine with tions: improving infrastructure, and provid- formal routes because of its quickness, cheap hold incomes (Sirkeci, Cohen, & Ratha, each other such as traditional gender per- ing free school meals. First and foremost, commission fees, and familiarity despite the 2012). This tendency was clearer among poor spectives, underdeveloped infrastructure, to address the major obstacle to equal edu- risks of unsafety (Dzingirai et al, 2014; UN households. The research presented, howev- and poverty issues in the country as major cation, the improvement of infrastructure is WOMEN, 2017). Thus, it was signifcant er, that a household with migrant(s) were bet- obstacles. Particularly, concerning the san- a crucial goal to be achieved. The research for the government to establish safe remit- ter-off than that without migrant(s) (Crush, itation issue, if lavatories at schools are in- pointed out that underdeveloped infrastruc- tance agencies that transferred more quick- Chikanda & Tawodzera, 2012). There was a adequate and lack privacy, teen-aged girls ture is one of the obstacles. For instance, it ly with affordable charges. Furthermore, study result that remittances alleviated pov- can hardly attend schools when they are on is necessary to construct adequate lavatories transferring money internationally promoted erty by 3.5% on average in 71 developing their period. Menstruation also prevents girls securing privacy, safe roads, and schools ac- both sending and receiving countries to es- countries including Zimbabwe (Adams and from attending schools every day because cessible to rural children. Particularly, the tablish bilateral connections (IOM, 2018). Page, 2003), and increased national annual of the issue of soiling school uniforms and construction of proper lavatories removes The beneft of migration for a country was incomes by 10% on average (Beath, Goldin, stigma from schoolmates. Relating to pov- pubertal girls’ physical unease and uncom- more substantial if the country’s economy & Reinert, 2009). Furthermore, in relation to erty issues, poor households cannot afford fortableness. Safe roads allow children, es-

77 78 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 pecially girls, to go to school without any slavery exists in those employment as an op- frst issue of the overgeneralization, many of ly, by focusing on the gender gap in educa- dangers. Also, since proximity is a central pressive trap, which forces vulnerable work- the existing research regard African coun- tion and possible positive results of women’s concern for rural children who live far from ers to work in harsh working conditions with tries as one whole unit with the stereotypical education brought by their migration, this schools, constructing schools in rural ar- fairly low incomes. Many migrants are likely perspectives, or as one developing world, paper intended to answer the research ques- eas can increase the number of students who to fall into modern slavery for two reasons. paying less attention to each of the particular tion: ‘what is the contribution of educated can access schools. Since constructing and One reason is that because, currently, approx- countries. Specifcally, the author encoun- female labour migrants to the socio-econom- opening one school costs substantially, the imately 70% of employment in most African tered many pieces of literature that focused ic development in Zimbabwe?’. Through- scale does not necessarily need to be large countries is informalized, and employers of on ‘Sub-Saharan Africa’ or ‘Southern Afri- out the research, this paper emphasized the as long as the accessibility for rural children informal sectors “[prefer] to recruit migrant ca’ on social development topics. However, signifcant contribution of educated female and basic functions, such as classrooms and people as they were more blackmailable and African countries are diverse, and each of migrants to socio-economic development lavatories, are considered. By sponsoring cheaper than native workers” (Vianello & them has its own culture, religion, political in Zimbabwe. The paper answered the re- the investment for the construction, Zimba- Sacchetto, 2016, p. 302); therefore, it is eas- and economic systems, history, tradition, et- search question and argued that empowering bwe can also protect and enhance the work, ier for migrants to start working in informal cetera. In other words, researchers can nev- women through education is a push factor business, and lives in the country. The second sectors than in the formal sectors. The other er generalize about the African continent as for females to migrate, which consequent- recommendation claims the vital role of free reason is that migrants wish to fee poverty, a whole. Although it is true many countries ly stimulated socio-economic development school meals. In some poor households, par- improve their lives, and fnancially support are facing numerous problems in socio-eco- through remittances and skills acquisition. ents believe it is more proftable for house- their families far away; therefore, they be- nomic development, developing countries As remarkable fndings of this research, holds to have their children work rather than lieve working is better than not regardless are also pursuing their own ways to improve there was a positive correlation between sending them to schools. However, if schools of employment sectors. Once migrants are society and economy; therefore, the level women’s migration and education, and be- provide free meals every day, parents fnd caught in slavery, they are treated as prop- and strategies for development differ from tween migration and socio-economic devel- that their children can eat meals for free if erty and lose control over their employment country to country. With that point, this pa- opment. With the increasing number of fe- they go to school. In addition, school meals conditions. As a consequence, many migrants per suggests that future research on social male migrants, more and more women have improve children’s nutrition. In other words, are constrained in informal employment sec- development in African countries should become independent and replaced males school meals are more proftable for promot- tors and the slave status will be passed down not regard all of Africa as one united sub- within households to challenge the tradition- ing children’s attendance in schools because to migrants’ children. In other words, without ject because there is a diversity in each Af- al social norms. Remittances were one of parents do not have to pay for their children’s any effort to abolish modern slavery, there rican country’s culture, ecology, colonial the most notable positive effect, despite the meals, and children can learn at schools with remains large-scale and long-term margin- history, politics, economy, and issues rel- issue that migrants’ family members tend- proper nutrition. Additionally, the school alization in labour market. If a receiving evant to the society. Rather, Africa should ed to be dependent on them. To encourage meals should be cooked with local agricul- country is going to rely on and take benefts be regarded as ‘Africas’, which consists of more migration and remittances in Zimba- tural products in order that local agriculture from migrants as labour forces for the coun- 54 different and characteristic countries. bwe, there were two policy recommenda- is also protected and stimulated. Taking ad- try, the receiving country needs to launch tions: improvement of infrastructure and free 5. Conclusion vantage of school meals, therefore, children regulations that protect vulnerable migrants. school meals with local agricultural products. This paper set out to document, analyze, obtain the opportunity to attend schools. 4-3. Implications to Further Research for With the end of modern slavery, it is possi- and approach the current gender disparity 4-2. Migration and Modern Slavery Future: Research on ‘Africas’, not ‘Africa’ ble that migration can positively infuence issues in Zimbabwean society. Specifcal- Zimbabwe’s socio-economic development. As existing research presented, migrants Through the research, the author has often fll in informal sectors or informalized found two issues to be mentioned: an over- sections of formal sectors (International Or- generalization in many African studies and ganization for Migration, 2018). Modern gender-biased research data. Concerning the

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Global Poverty Re- search Group, Oxford. Retrieved from https://hummedia.manchester.ac.uk/institutes/ Dzingirai, V, Mutopo, P and Landau, L. (2014). Confrmations, coffns and corn: kinship, gdi/publications/workingpapers/bwpib/wpi-wp-2808.pdf social networks and remittances from South Africa to Zimbabwe. Migrating out of Poverty Research Programme. University of Sussex, Sussex. Retrieved from Brock, G., & Blake, M. (2015). Debating brain drain : May governments restrict emigra- https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a089c540f0b64974000266/WP18_ tion?. ProQuest Ebook Central. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12111 Dzingira i_et_al_2014.pdf Browne, Evie (2017). Evidence on education as a driver for migration. K4D Helpdesk Re- Gruescu, R. (2010). Migration, migrants and economic advantages of migration. Revista De port. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies. Retrieved from https://gsdrc. Stiinte Politice, (25), 60-69. 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Hungwe, C. (2017). Motivations for remitting behaviour of Zimbabwean migrants in McGranahan, D. V. (1971). Analysis of Socio-Economic Development Through a System of johannesburg. Journal of Identity and Migration Studies, 11(1), 47-64,194. Retrieved Indicators. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 393, from fle:///Users/tomiokakana/Downloads/JIMS_HUNGWE.pdf 65-81. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1039755 International Organization for Migration (IOM) (2018). Migration in Zimbabwe, a country Murrugarra, E., Larrison, J., & Sasin, M. (Eds.). (2010). Migration and poverty: Towards profle 2010-2016. Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT). Retrieved from better opportunities for the poor. ProQuest Ebook Central. Retrieved from https:// https://publications.iom.int/system/fles/pdf/mp_zimbabwe_2018.pdf www.proquest.com/docview/2131748988/bookReader?accountid=45916 Kane, A. & Leedy, H. T. (2013). African Migrations: Patterns and Perspectives. Bloomington, Pushak, N. & Briceno-Garmendia, C. (2011). Zimbabwe’s infrastructure: a continental per- IN:Indiana University Press spective. World Bank Group. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/27258 Kanyenze, G., & Kondo, T. (Eds.). (2011). Beyond the enclave: Towards a pro-poor and inclusive development strategy for zimbabwe. ProQuest Ebook Central. Retrieved Rontos, K., & Vavouras, I. (2018). Corruption and development: A comparative approach to from https://www.proquest.com/docview/2131317967/bookReader?accoun- socioeconomic and political dimensions worldwide. Corvinus Journal of Sociology tid=45916 and Social Policy, 9(2). Retrieved from fle:///Users/tomiokakana/Downloads/Article- published242-1341-1-PB.pdf Kirk, J., & Sommer, M. (2006). Menstruation and body awareness: linking girls’ health with girls’ education. Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Special on Gender and Health, 1-22. Sirkeci, I., Cohen, J. H., & Ratha, D. (Eds.). (2012). Migration and remittances during the Retrieved from http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/2-1200-kirk- global fnancial crisis and beyond. ProQuest Ebook Central. Retrieved from 2006-menstruation-kit-paper.pdf fle:///Users/tomiokakana/Downloads/ProQuestDocuments-2020-12-15.pdf Lucas, R. E. B. (2004). International migration regimes and economic development. Paper United Nations Development Programme (2015). Assessment of development results: presented at the Third Coordination Meeting on International Migration. United Na- Zimbabwe. Independent Evaluation Offce. Retrieved from fle:///Users/tomiokakana/ tions. New York. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/ Downloads/ADR_Zimbabwe_2015.pdf events/pdf/3/P22_AnnexIII.pdf United Nations Development Programme (2019). Inequalities in human development in the Mafoko, C. (2017). Menstrual hygine management: a challenge for female pupils in rural 21st century; briefng note for countries on the 2019 human development report. schools in Zimbabwe. Retrieved from fle:///Users/tomiokakana/Downloads/Menstru- Human Development Report 2019. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/ al_Hygiene_Management_A_challenge_for_Female_pupils_in_Rural_schools_in_ themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/ZWE.pdf Zimbabwe..pdf UNESCO (2015). Explore disparities in education across and within countries: Zimbabwe: Maimbo, S. M., & Ratha, D. (Eds.). (2005). Remittances: Development impact and future Selected years, 2015 [Indicator]. In World Inequliaty Database on Education. prospects. ProQuest Ebook Central. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/ Retrieved from https://www.education-inequalities.org/countries/zimbabwe#?dimen- docview/2131282266/bookReader?accountid=45916 sion=sex&group=|Male|Female&year=latest Maphosa, F. (2007). Remittances and development: The impact of migration to South Africa UNICEF: Zimbabwe (2006). Zimbabwe’s groundbreaking plan for girls, orphans and vulner- on rural livelihoods in southern Zimbabwe. Development Southern Africa, 24(1):123– able children’s education. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/index.php. 135. Retrieved from fle:///Users/tomiokakana/Downloads/MaphosaDSA%20(1).pdf United Nations (2019). International migration 2019: report- the United Nations. Retrieved Masunungure, E. V., & Shumba, M. (Eds.). (2014). Zimbabwe : mired in transition. ProQuest from https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/mi- Ebook Central. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/docview/2131402413/ grationreport/docs/InternationalMigration2019_Report.pdf bookReader?accountid=45916 UN WOMEN (2017). Women might workers’ contributions to development. Retrieved from Mawere, M. (2012). Girl child dropouts in Zimbabwean secondary schools: A case study of https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2017/7/women-migrant Chadzamira secondary school in Gutu district. International Journal of Politics and workers-contributions-to-development Good Governance, 3(3), 1-18. Retrieved from http://onlineresearchjournals.com/ijop- agg/art/107.pdf Vianello, F. A., & Sacchetto, D. (2016). Migrant workers’ routes to the informal economy during the economic crisis: structural constraints and subjective motivations. Prakseo- Mbiyozo, A. N. (2018). Gender and migration in South Africa: Talking to women migrants, logia, 158, 299-322. Retrieved fromhttp://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. Retrieved from https://issafrica.s3.ama- element.desklight-f8ec037f-f306-4acc-af58-52fdfcf17853 zonaws.com/site/uploads/sar-16.pdf.

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World Bank (2013). Primary education, teachers (% female) – Zimbabwe. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.TCHR. FE.ZS?locations=ZW Regarding Mothers as Individuals, World Bank (2020). Employment to population ratio, 15 , female (%). Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.FE.ZS?end=2019&locations not as Tools: Issues of Surrogacy =ZW&start=1987&view=chart ZIMBABWE: Thousands of girls forced out of education. (2011, Nov 07). IRIN Africa Miwa Nakada Service Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/docview/902524592?accoun- tid=45916 Miwa Nakada is a sophomore student at AIU. Her essay “Regarding Moth- ers as Individuals, not as Tools: Issues of Surrogacy” was submitted in Compo- sition 1 course under the supervision of Professor Naoko Araki. Issues in sav- ing women’s rights are part of her interest, and she discussed surrogacy from the perspective of surrogate mothers in this essay. As for the future outlook, she would like to explore gender issues and family diversity in current society in the Global Studies Program.

In 2001, a Japanese celebrity couple, tems ensure the safety of pregnant women Aki Mukai and Nobuhiko Takeda, received a who are essential in the practice of surrogacy. child through surrogacy in the U.S. as Mukai In particular, commercial surrogacy would had cancer and could not bear children (Yan- have a risk of exploiting surrogate mothers’ agihara, 2020). Yanagihara (2020) reports health and well-being since the focus could that Mukai tried to register herself as their be placed more on the fnancial benefts child’s biological mother in Japan, which and the child being born through surrogacy. was not successful since it was against Japa- Surrogacy is one of the assisted repro- nese law. The news was broadcasted through duction technologies (ARTs), which helps TV programs and other media every day, al- infertile couples to have children (Deonan- lowing the viewers to become more aware dan, 2012). Surrogate mothers are women of surrogacy, a new reproductive technolo- who can reproduce children for other cou- gy that Japanese people are unfamiliar with ples. The client couples often have limited or (Yanagihara, 2020). Just as Mukai, some no options to have a natural pregnancy due to people may not be able to produce children illnesses or sexual identities. Surrogate moth- themselves, but they still want to become erhood is classifed into two types by whose parents even if they cannot have biologi- eggs are used: traditional surrogacy and ges- cal relationships with the baby. Surrogacy tational surrogacy (Deonandan, 2012). In is one of the possible options for such cou- traditional surrogacy, or ovum surrogacy, a ples. People who support surrogacy, howev- surrogate mother’s eggs are artifcially fertil- er, may be blind to issues faced by the sur- ized with a sperm in her womb; on the oth- rogate mothers, although childbirth cannot er hand, the eggs of commissioning women be achieved without their cooperation. It is fertilized outside their bodies are implanted questionable if the current surrogacy sys- in surrogate mothers’ uteruses in the case of

85 86 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 gestational surrogacy (Deonandan, 2012). In- kar (2018) describe that surrogate moth- before pregnancy, but they may not receive birth, surrogate mothers would have to deal fertile couples can choose either method ac- ers’ bodies are sometimes regarded even as enough treatment during the period of recov- with emotional and physical damages after cording to their conditions. Regardless of the “empty space to be rented” (p. 53) in com- ery. Without adequate medical support, surro- completing their roles as pregnant women. types, surrogate mothers are often paid for mercial surrogacy. Under this condition, the gate mothers would not be able to deal with Although commercial surrogacy may their childbirth, which is specifcally called attention given to the health and well-being the health problems that might follow child- negatively impact surrogate mothers for a commercial surrogacy. Commercial surro- of surrogate mothers would be dubious. De- birth, such as severe anemia and inert states long time, some people argue that commer- gacy is conducted with the engagement of onandan et al. (2012) explain that the intend- of organs. Similarly, mental issues may re- cial surrogacy does not have to be regulated intended parents, surrogate mothers, med- ed parents are the clinics’ customers, and main unresolved. Women after childbirth are and that surrogate mothers can take responsi- ical practitioners, and surrogate agencies doctors might prioritize their own beneft likely to experience strong anxiety or unusual bility for their participation from the perspec- (Saravanan, 2013). Agencies hire women and effciency instead of ensuring the qual- wavering of mind, which is called post-par- tive of liberalism. Becoming surrogate moth- as surrogate mothers and work as gatekeep- ity of the treatment for surrogate mothers, tum depression (Deonandan et al., 2012). In ers could be regarded as voluntary because ers between the intended parents, surrogate whose healthy childbirth may be negatively commercial surrogacy, the support for surro- they choose to be involved in surrogacy. mothers, and clinics. The intended parents impacted. Also, their mental health may gate mothers in post-partum depression are Some women might view commercial surro- pay the surrogate mothers and the agencies, not be paid enough attention to. During the not included in the contracts (Deonandan et gacy as a way of making a living or gaining including medical-related costs for the moth- gestation period, women are emotionally al., 2012). It can cause unwanted outcomes fnancial support since they can receive mon- er and baby. In other words, medical practi- sensitive and often feel depressed because where surrogate mothers might suffer from ey from the practice. It is reported that low- tioners and intermediate agents gain proft of hormone imbalances and stress. Preg- long-term post-partum depression. Anoth- skilled, fnancially challenged women in In- through surrogacy. The fnancial gap between nant women would require both medical and er mental concern would be for the relation- dia could improve the lives of themselves and the people involved and the following risk emotional care; however, the payment from ship between surrogate mothers and children. their families by giving birth to children as of exploitation become an issue since “sur- the clients for surrogate mothers often cov- One signifcant case that illustrates this is- surrogate mothers (Patel et al., 2018). As this rogate mothers in Asia, South America, Eu- ers only the physical part of the treatment sue would be the Baby-M incident in 1985, report illustrates, the compensation might be rope, and Africa usually live in impoverished (Deonandan et al., 2012). This would mean where a surrogate mother insisted on her cus- an unquestionable beneft for surrogate moth- conditions” (Fronek, 2018, p. 13). These f- counseling or other mental care programs tody right after having a girl despite signing a ers. As long as they can earn money, some nancial concerns would make commercial may not be offered to surrogate mothers de- contract to pass the child to the client (Haber- females may be willing to become surrogate surrogacy a problem as it troubles the surro- spite the need to address the mental health man, 2014). The surrogate mother stated that mothers. Patel et al. (2018) state that “it is a gate mothers both before and after childbirth. issues that may follow pregnancy. The heavy she had “a biologically determined sacred woman’s right to enter into a contract and to Surrogate mothers may experience chal- physical and mental burden on surrogate bond” (Peterson, 2016, p. 119) with the new- make decisions regarding her own body” (p. lenging pregnancies that affect their phys- mothers due to the nature of commercial born child and persisted in staying with the 215). From this viewpoint, surrogacy can ical and mental health because of the busi- surrogacy would be undesirable. This con- baby. Like the woman in the Baby-M case, be accepted as an option for such women. ness aspects of commercial surrogacy that cern may not disappear even after they fn- who came to develop a special bond with the This idea of respecting the rights of choice focus chiefy on fnancial profts. The safety ish playing their roles as surrogate mothers. child she bore, some surrogate mothers might is well explained by Deonandan (2019), of the mother and the child in normal child- Surrogate mothers would keep suffer- feel attached to the baby. Being separated which can also be found in the principles birth at hospitals would be the frst priori- ing from the bodily burden and mental load from their surrogate children while having at- of Western liberalism. Deonandan (2019) ty. When problems occur in the process of after childbirth since in many cases they are tachments to them would involve severe psy- further discusses that the ideology basical- pregnancy or childbirth, doctors and families not supported by agents or healthcare once chological pain. The Baby-M incident may ly places importance on individual choice; will make a decision that is the best for sav- the transaction ends (Fronek, 2018). After the also demonstrate that this emotion can arise therefore, it is supportive of conducting sur- ing the mothers’ lives and bodies. Surrogate delivery, the surrogate’s body does not recov- unexpectedly, even if the surrogate mothers rogacy. From a liberalist’s point of view, it mothers’ health, however, may not always er quickly. It takes a certain amount of time and the clients had reached a consensus. In might be possible to claim that the women be maintained properly. Lozanski and Shan- for them to become as active as they were addition to the stress of pregnancy and child- themselves are responsible for addressing

87 88 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 whatever concerns they may have since they if the baby did not meet the demand of the of having children. Surrogacy can be a sil- their wills. As many new technologies have choose to become surrogate mothers. In oth- clients. These mothers “do not always get ver lining to the people who are infertile been introduced to support people’s vari- er words, becoming surrogate mothers could the compensation promised, or do not get but cannot give up their hope for parent- ous choices, surrogacy may become more refect their freedom of choice. This idea paid at all if a child is born with a disabil- hood; however, the negative aspect needs widely accepted in the near future. In or- may be preventing the potential exploita- ity” (Fronek, 2018, p. 17). If the child were to be examined at the same time. Today, der to conduct safe surrogacy without any tion of surrogate mothers and the need for refused, the surrogate mothers may have people’s lives have become increasingly di- exploitations, not only the advantages but better systems from being widely discussed. to take care of the child even if they are not verse, and more people are likely to achieve also the risks should be discussed now. While the idea of self-responsibility paid, which would be an additional burden of surrogate mothers may be understand- on them. If detailed regulations that include References able, legislations on commercial surrogacy penalties for those who violated the con- would still be desired, considering that not tract were adopted and maintained, the pay- Deonandan., R. (2019). Thoughts on the ethics of gestational surrogacy: perspectives from religions, Western liberalism, and comparison with adoption. Journal of Assisted Re- all women would be capable of understand- ments for surrogate mothers would be more production and Genetics, 37, 269-279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-019-01647-y ing or making fair contracts. Since women secure. If the laws on commercial surrogacy in the middle- and low-income countries are were maintained and governed under judi- Deonandan, R., Green, S., & Beinum, A. V. (2012). Ethical concerns for maternal surrogacy and reproductive tourism. Journal of Medical Ethics, 38(12), 742-745. http://dx.doi. often uneducated or even illiterate, they may cial powers, gatekeepers would ensure safe org/10.1136/medethics-2012-100551 not fully understand the contents of contracts and honest transactions. Again, appropriate due to a lack of medical or legal knowledge regulations can reduce the risks of exploita- Fronek, P. (2018). Current perspectives on the ethics of selling international surrogacy support services. Medicolegal and Bioethics, 8. 11-20. https://doi.org/10.2147/ (Fronek, 2018). It would be immoral to hire tion of women and promote fair transactions MB.S134090 those women who do not have the ability between the clients and surrogate mothers. to recognize a fair and proper contract, de- In conclusion, current commercial sur- Haberman, C. (2014, March 24). Baby M and the questions of surrogate motherhood. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/24/us/baby-m-and-the-question- pending merely on their responsibilities. rogacy can cause a heavy burden for surro- of-surrogate-motherhood.html Judging from the fact that many surrogate gate mothers despite the fnancial benefts mothers are struggling fnancially, the gov- they may receive. Surrogate mothers are Lozanski, K., & Shankar, I. (2019). Surrogates as risk or surrogates at risk? The contradictory constitution of surrogates’ bodies in transnational surrogacy. Social Theory & Health, ernment might want to establish rules to not always ensured of a safe pregnancy and 17, 40-56. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41285-018-0066-5 support those women. Regulations on com- well-being because the delivery of the child mercial surrogacy based on careful exam- to its new parents and money can be priori- Patel, N. H., Jadeja, Y. D., Bhadarka, H. K., Patel, M., N., Patel, N., H., & Sodagar, N. R. (2018). Insight into different aspects of surrogacy practices. Journal of Human Repro- ination of the perspectives described in this tized in commercial surrogacy. Even after ductive Services, 11(3), 212-218. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/jhrs.JHRS_138_17 paper can save women from being exploit- these transactions, surrogate mothers may ed. In addition, the actual consequences the keep suffering from both physical and psy- Peterson, J. (2016). Baby M: American feminists respond to a controversial case. Journal of Women’s History, 28(2), 103-125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2016.0020 surrogate mothers face may not always be chological disorders. Although females are fully understood before they sign the con- the ones who choose to become surrogate Saravanan, S. (2013). An ethnomethodological approach to examine exploitation in the con- tract. Under the current, inadequate regula- mothers, regulations should be prepared text of capacity, trust and experience of commercial surrogacy in India. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, 8(10). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1747-5341-8-10 tions, the integrity of the contracts may not so that their choice would not result in sac- be guaranteed. Especially, surrogate moth- rifcing themselves. While women could Yanagihara, Y. (2020). Reconstructing feminist perspectives of women’s bodies using a ers might not be ensured of satisfactory pay- help others with childbirth, it would be un- globalized view: The changing surrogacy market in Japan. Bioethics, 34(6), 570-577. https://doi.org/10.1111/bioe.12758 ments. Saravanan (2013) reports that clinics ethical to consider them as tools to repro- tend to be paid more than surrogate mothers. duce children. Ensuring the health of their Fronek (2018) points out the possibility that body and mind would be as important as surrogate mothers could not receive rewards providing couples with a broader choice

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an emergent C-section. If a doctor makes the partum sexual dysfunction (Hannah, 2004). judgment that it is diffcult to continue a vag- The incidence of sexual dysfunction depends Elective Cesarean Section: Safe and inal delivery due to the mother’s health con- on the severity of perineal trauma (Signorello dition during childbirth, an emergent C-sec- et al., 2001; Buhling et al., 2006). A perine- Painless? tion must be performed, which has a higher al trauma is a skin injury between the vaginal maternal mortality rate than a planned c-sec- outlet and the anus caused by a fetus pass- Kana Himeno tion. (Marshall & Guise, 2011). According to ing through the birth canal; about 78 percent Kana Himeno is a sophomore student. Her essay “Elective Cesarean Section: Safe and Pain- Zimmo et al. (2017), the proportion of preg- of women in Iran have physical and sexual less?” was submitted in the Composition I course under the supervision of Dr. Paul Iida. Kana nant women undergoing an emergent C-sec- problems after a vaginal delivery (Nooro- has had an intense interest in Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR) since she tion during a vaginal delivery varies from zi et al., 2005). The planned c-section has learned about it in sex education classes at her high school. The topic of her essay, for and hospital, but it is estimated approximately no or minimal risks of a perineal trauma be- against having a medically unft cesarean section, was inspired by her experience of vol- 5.8 percent to 22.6 percent for among prim- cause a fetus does not pass through the birth unteer activities in a maternity hospital in Brazil, which has the highest cesarean section iparas. As this data mentions, many wom- canal (Faúndes & Miranda, 2020). There- rate in the world. Kana received Dr. Paul Iida’s generous support in her academic writing. en encounter emergent C-sections, which fore, the risk of sexual dysfunction is also threaten maternal health more than planned considered to be low in a planned C-section. C-sections. Therefore, some women with Sexual dysfunction harms the sexual life of According to the World Health Organi- having a C-section as the painless and safer conditions that are likely to induce an emer- women after childbirth. It means that vaginal zation (WHO) (2018), over the last few de- way of childbirth because a planned C-sec- gent C-section, such as advanced age or delivery threatens a woman’s safe and satis- cades, the proportion of women who choose tion could be riskier for both the mother and obesity, think that a planned C-section is a fying sexual life. Preventing sexual dysfunc- the Cesarean section (C-section) has contin- the fetus than vaginal delivery, and most of safer delivery method. Avoiding the emer- tion is one of the main reasons why women ued to grow at an unprecedented rate. From the mothers who prefer to choose a planned gent C-section is one of the reasons why choose a C-section (Dabiri et al., 2014). 1990 to 2014, the C-section implementation C-section to avoid labor pain do not know the number of C-sections without accept- The disadvantages of the C-section rate tripled from 6.9 percent to 19.1 percent the post-delivery pain caused by C-section ed medical indications has been increasing. in terms of health (WHO, 2018). One of the causes of the in- and other safer ways to relieve labor pain. A planned C-section is also preferred by crease is the maternal request for a C-section mothers because it can reduce the risk of pel- Although some women consider a The disadvantages of vaginal delivery (Panda et al., 2020). Originally, C-section is vic damage and sexual dysfunction to moth- planned C-section to be a reliable and safe in terms of health the surgical childbirth method for mothers ers. (Zakerihamidi et al., 2015; Dabiri et al., delivery method, it actually has a higher risk who cannot have a vaginal delivery for some Some women believe that vaginal de- 2014). Maternal postnatal pelvic damage of severe complications such as a thrombo- medical reasons, but in recent years, a large livery involves uncertainty for mothers and leads to serious problems in women’s daily embolism for mothers during the short peri- number of C-sections have been performed the fetus’s health, and thus prefer to have life, such as a urinary incontinence in which od after childbirth than that of a vaginal de- on demand, instead of for medical reasons. elective C-sections. Uncertainty in vaginal urine leaks regardless of one’s will. A vaginal livery. According to the statistics, the risk of For instance, in Norway, approximately 14 delivery specifcally means the following delivery has a higher risk of urinary inconti- serious complications caused by a planned to 22 percent of elective C-sections are per- possibilities: an emergent C-section may nence compared to a planned C-section. Spe- C-section for mothers is about 3.1 times formed at the request of pregnant women have to be performed during childbirth, and cifcally, the risk of developing urinary incon- greater than by a planned vaginal delivery (Wolf, 2018; Kolås et al., 2003). A large num- a woman may have a pelvic disorder and tinence after a vaginal delivery is 33 percent (Armson, 2007). According to WHO (2018), ber of women voluntarily request a C-sec- sexual dysfunction after a vaginal delivery. On the other hand, there is only a fve percent one of the complications whose incidence tion because they consider it less painful and Some women believe that a planned risk of developing urinary incontinence after rate is increased by C-sections is thrombo- healthier than vaginal delivery (Tatar et al., C-section is safer than a vaginal delivery be- an elective C-section. Furthermore, an elec- embolism. Thromboembolism is a disease 2000). However, this paper does not suggest cause a vaginal delivery sometimes leads to tive C-section has a low risk of causing post- in which a blood clot in a vein obstructs the

91 92 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 blood fow, narrowing and infaming the previa in a scarred uterus created by C-sec- through the birth canal, pain in the moth- sonable to recognize a planned C-section as blood vessels. After a cesarean section, blood tion was 67.45 percent. In other words, an er’s perineal area rarely occurs. According an effective childbirth method to prevent congestion because of recumbency tends to elective C-section increases the risk of devel- to Chang et al. (2015), women who had a pain because a planned C-section causes se- occur, which causes a thromboembolism. oping placenta previa and massive bleeding C-section had a signifcantly lower score for vere and long-lasting pain after the delivery. (Kobayashi & Kawabata, 2009). According in subsequent pregnancies. A planned C-sec- perineal pain in the frst few weeks after de- In addition, the lack of knowledge about to Evangelista et al. (2018), the incidence of tion poses a long-term risk not only to mater- livery than women who had a vaginal deliv- painless delivery methods other than an elec- thromboembolism after a vaginal delivery nal health but also to fetal health. Specifcal- ery. Therefore, the elective C-section is con- tive C-section, such as a labor analgesia, is is one in 1,000 people, but that of after a ly, it increases the risk of asthma in children. sidered to be an effective childbirth method one of the reasons for the increase in mater- C-section is three in 1,000. This means that Mrcog et al. (2015) reported in the American to prevent the pain of labor and perineal pain. nal requests for a planned C-section. Pain the risk of developing thromboembolism is Medical Journal JAMA that children deliv- caused by a vaginal delivery can be relieved The disadvantages of the planned three times greater with a cesarean section ered through elective C-sections have an by using local anesthesia or acupuncture (Ak- C-section in terms of pain than with a vaginal delivery. Thromboem- approximately 22 percent higher risk of de- soy et al., 2014). It is revealed that the lack bolism can occur anywhere in the body. If it veloping childhood asthma than children de- While the C-section causes little pain of knowledge about how to relieve labor appears in the lungs, it will cause respirato- livered through vaginal deliveries. Compar- during labor, it causes severe postoperative pain increases a woman’s fear of vaginal de- ry distress and increase maternal mortality ing the risks of both a vaginal delivery and a pain, which lasts for months to a year. Most liveries and boosts the demand for planned (Kobayashi & Kawabata, 2009). According planned C-section, it is evident that elective women who perceive an elective C-section C-sections (Aksoy et al., 2014). In fact, to Kobayashi et al. (2005), about 85 per- C-section does not only cause more severe as a childbirth method to avoid pain might women without knowledge of a labor anal- cent of thromboembolisms occurring in the threats to maternal health during childbirth, not know about the long-term pain caused gesia are more likely to be afraid of a vagi- lungs are developed after a C-section. The but also leave a serious impact on wom- by an elective C-section (Faundes & Mi- nal delivery than women with knowledge of occurrence of pulmonary thromboembo- en’s future pregnancies and fetuses’ health. randa, 2020). Therefore, despite choosing a a labor analgesia (Aksoy et al., 2014). There lism caused by a C-section is about 22 times planned cesarean section to avoid pain, some is also data that shows about two-thirds of The disadvantages of vaginal delivery higher when compared to a vaginal delivery. women feel that the long-term pain caused those who desired to have an elective C-sec- in terms of pain Therefore, C-sections have a higher risk of by a planned cesarean section is more pain- tion because of the fear for the pain caused threatening the mother’s life in a short peri- According to Shaaban et al. (2017) ful than the short-term pain during and af- by a vaginal delivery stopped requesting od after a parturition than a vaginal delivery. more than half of the maternal requests for ter vaginal delivery. In fact, the majority of a planned C-section and preferred a vagi- A planned C-section also carries long- elective C-sections are performed to avoid women who have experienced both a vaginal nal delivery after gaining knowledge about term risks of having negative consequenc- the pain of delivery. The pain of the delivery delivery and an elective C-section feel that a painless delivery (Aksoy et al., 2014) In es for future pregnancies. One of the typical refers specifcally to that of uterine contrac- the postoperative pain caused by an elective other words, the majority of maternal re- long-term risks of C-sections for future child- tions, which is caused by the expulsion of the C-section is more painful than the pain that quests for a planned C-section caused by the birth is placenta previa. Placenta previa is a fetus’s head through the vagina (Faundes & occurs during a vaginal delivery. Specif- fear of pain stemming from a lack of knowl- condition in which the placenta covers parts Miranda, 2020). In addition, if perineal lac- cally, according to Osis et al. (2001), when edge about other painless delivery methods. or all of the internal uterine ostium that can eration occurs when a fetus passes through asked about preferred delivery methods for Women should be well informed and heath cause massive bleeding during childbirth. A the birth canal, the pain in the maternal per- women who had experienced both a vaginal care providers should be required by law to study indicates that placenta previa tends to ineal area would last for the frst few weeks delivery and an elective C-section, 90.4% of explain all birthing methods to the moth- be caused by the scar of the uterus because of after the delivery. However, in fact, wom- them answered that they preferred a vaginal er prior to deciding on how to give birth. the previous C-section surgery. According to en undergoing C-sections do not experience delivery, and 45% of them said their main Majeed et al. (2015), the incidence of placen- these pains during delivery because they reason was that a vaginal delivery caused ta previa in a non-scarred uterus is 2.45 are anesthetized. Furthermore, in an elec- less pain than a planned C-section (Faundes percent, whereas the incidence of a placenta tive C-section, since the child does not pass & Miranda, 2020). Therefore, it is not rea-

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Conclusion mortality complications, such as thrombo- Evangelista, Matheus Schimidt, Slompo, Karina, & Timi, Jorge Rufno Ribas. (2018). Venous Thromboembolism and Route of Delivery - Review of the Literature. In conclusion, women should have embolism, within a short period after sur- gery. In terms of pain, an elective C-section Revista Brasileira de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia, 40(3), 156-162. https://dx.doi. more information if they are planning a org/10.1055/s-0037-1621742 C-section with no medical justifcation. In re- is perceived as a childbirth method that can Faundes, A & Miranda, L. (2020). Elective Cesarean Section for the Prevention of Pain cent years, the number of maternal requests avoid pain, because it uses anesthesia during childbirth. However, women suffer long- during Labor and Delivery: Is it based on Evidence? The Open Public Health Journal, for an elective C-section has increased due 13, 399-403. to the misbelief that an elective C-section is term pain that lasts for months to a year af- Hannah, M. E., Whyte, H., Hannah, W. J., Hewson, S., Amankwah, K., Cheng, M., Gafni, healthier and painless, but in reality, there ter cesarean section surgery. Knowledge of means of pain relief during childbirth other A., Guselle, P., Helewa, M., Hodnett, E. D., Hutton, E., Kung, R., McKay, D., Ross, are more disadvantages to an elective C-sec- S., Saigal, S., Willan, A., & Term Breech Trial Collaborative Group (2004). Maternal than an elective C-section would signifcant- tion compared to a vaginal delivery, both in outcomes at 2 years after planned cesarean section versus planned vaginal birth for terms of health and pain. Most women are ly reduce the number of women seeking for breech presentation at term: the international randomized Term Breech Trial. Ameri- afraid of the risk of an emergent C-section less painful deliveries. Therefore, the ma- can journal of obstetrics and gynecology, 191(3), 917–927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ajog.2004.08.004 during a vaginal delivery leading to pelvic ternal demand for an elective C-section can disorders and a sexual dysfunctions. There- be attributed to the maternal lack of knowl- Kobayashi, T. & Kawabata, M. (2009). 2. Kessensokusensho yosuisokusensho (sanka-teki fore, an elective C-section without these risks edge about the disadvantages of an elective sokusen) [Thromboembolism / amniotic fuid embolism (obstetric embolus)]. Nissan- fu-shi, 16(9), 1-8. is considered a healthier delivery method C-section. Raising maternal awareness of than a vaginal delivery. However, compared the disadvantages of an elective C-section Kobayashi, T., Nakamura, M., Ishikawa, R., Ikenouchi, K., Adachi, S., Obashi, G.,& Maeda, to a vaginal delivery, an elective C-section may curb the continuous and unprecedent- S. (2005). Sanfujinka ryoiki ni okeru shinbu jomyaku kessen-sho haikessensokusen- sho - 1991-nen kara 2000-nen made no chosa seiseki – [Deep Vein Thrombosis / Pul- has a much higher risk of developing high edly rapid increase in the number of med- ically unft C-sections in recent decades. monary Thromboembolism in Obstetrics and Gynecology --Results of Survey from 1991 to 2000--]. Nihon sanfujinka shinseiji chi-shi-shi, 14(2), 1-24. Kolås, T., Hofoss, D., Daltveit, A. K., Nilsen, S. T., Henriksen, T., Häger, R., Ingemarsson, I., References & Øian, P. (2003). Indications for cesarean deliveries in Norway. American journal of Aksoy, M., Aksoy, A. N., Dostbil, A., Celik, M. G., & Ince, I. (2014). The Relationship be- obstetrics and gynecology, 188(4), 864–870. https://doi.org/10.1067/mob.2003.217 tween Fear of Childbirth and Women’s Knowledge about Painless Childbirth. Obstet- Majeed, T., Waheed, F., Mahmood, Z., Saba, K., Mahmood, H., & Bukhari, M. H. (2015). rics and gynecology international. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/274303 Frequency of placenta previa in previously scarred and non-scarred uterus. Pakistan Armson B. A. (2007). Is planned cesarean childbirth a safe alternative?. CMAJ : Canadian journal of medical sciences, 31(2), 360–363. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.312.6509 Medical Association journal = journal de l’Association medicale canadienne, 176(4), Marshall, N. E., Fu, R., & Guise, J. M. (2011). Impact of multiple cesarean deliveries on ma- 475–476. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.061724 ternal morbidity: a systematic review. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology, Buhling, K. J., Schmidt, S., Robinson, J. N., Klapp, C., Siebert, G., & Dudenhausen, J. W. 205(3), 262.e1–262.e2628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2011.06.035 (2006). Rate of dyspareunia after delivery in primiparae according to mode of deliv- Black M, Bhattacharya S, Philip S, Norman JE, McLernon DJ. (2015). Planned Cesarean ery. European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology, 124(1), Delivery at Term and Adverse Outcomes in Childhood Health. JAMA, 314(21):2271– 42–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2005.04.008 2279.http://doi:10.1001/jama.2015.16176 Chang, S. R., Chen, K. H., Ho, H. N., Lai, Y. H., Lin, M. I., Lee, C. N., & Lin, W. A. (2015). Noorozi, M., Bashardoost, N., & Farmahini, F, M. (2005). Postpartum physico sexual prob- Depressive symptoms, pain, and sexual dysfunction over the frst year following lems and related factors. Journal of Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences,7 (3) vaginal or cesarean delivery: A prospective longitudinal study. International journal of :28-32 nursing studies, 52(9), 1433–1444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2015.04.019 Dabiri, F., Yabandeh, A. P., Shahi, A., Kamjoo, A., & Teshnizi, S. H. (2014). The effect of mode of delivery on postpartum sexual functioning in primiparous women. Oman medical journal, 29(4), 276–279. https://doi.org/10.5001/omj.2014.72

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Osis, M. J., Pádua, K. S., Duarte, G. A., Souza, T. R., & Faúndes, A. (2001). The opinion of Brazilian women regarding vaginal labor and cesarean section. International journal of gynaecology and obstetrics: the offcial organ of the International Federation of Religion and Children Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 75 Suppl 1, S59–S66. Panda, S., Begley, C., Daly, D. (2020). Infuence of women’s request and preference on the Miyu Ota rising rate of caesarean section – a comparison of reviews. Midwifery, 88. Miyu Ota is a sophomore student planning to major in Global Studies. Her es- Shaaban, O. M., Abbas, A. M., Mohamed, R. A., & Hafz, H. (2017). Lack of pain relief say, “Religion and Children,” was submitted in Composition 1 under the supervision during labor is blamable for the increase in the women demands towards cesarean of Professor Naoko Araki. Miyu has had a strong interest in religion and how that af- delivery: a cross-sectional study. Facts, views & vision in ObGyn, 9(4), 175–180. fects people’s life. As for Miyu’s future research endeavors, she would like to in- Signorello, L. B., Harlow, B. L., Chekos, A. K., & Repke, J. T. (2001). Postpartum sexual vestigate how various cultures and religions infuence contemporary issues we face. functioning and its relationship to perineal trauma: a retrospective cohort study of primiparous women. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology, 184(5), 881–890. https://doi.org/10.1067/mob.2001.113855 Parents often control their children’s at an early stage. This does not imply to ban Tatar, M., Günalp, S., Somunoğlu, S., & Demirol, A. (2000). Women’s perceptions of caesar- choice of religion. In the United States, “the young people from believing in religion ul- ean section: refections from a Turkish teaching hospital. Social science & medicine rates of intergenerational transmission of re- timately, but to provide youths the ability to (1982), 50(9), 1227–1233. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(99)00315-9 ligious affliation were 82 percent in Jews, 85 think critically, time to consider religion, Wolf J. H. (2018). Risk and Reputation: Obstetricians, Cesareans, and Consent. Journal of the percent in Muslims… and 43 percent in Cath- and to let them choose their suitable reli- history of medicine and allied sciences, 73(1), 7–28. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhmas/ olics” (Chen et al., 2018, p. 2355). Accord- gious affliation when they turn to adult age. jrx053 ing to Sherwood (2018), 84 percent of the People believing in religion might not be World Health Organization. (2018). WHO recommendations non-clinical interventions to global population, moreover, has a belief in able to realize the negative aspects of reli- reduce unnecessary caesarean sections. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/1066 a particular religion. These data demonstrate gion, which non-religious people can recog- 5/275377/9789241550338-eng.pdf?ua=1 how common it is to believe in religion and to nize. I was still six when I was frst exposed Zakerihamidi, M., Roudsari, R. L., Khoei, E. M., & Kazemnejad, A. (2014). Decision-making transmit beliefs through generations. Believ- to religion. I went to an Indian International for vaginal delivery in the North of Iran: A focused ethnography. Iranian journal of ing in religion means parents might consider school in Japan, where the majority of the nursing and midwifery research, 19(7 Suppl 1), S37–S44. religion as faith and/or ‘guiding light’ of their students were Indian people who believed Zimmo, M., Laine, K., Hassan, S., Fosse, E., Lieng, M., Ali-Masri, H., Zimmo, K., Anti, M., life. They often regard that religion as play- in Hinduism. There, most students could not Bottcher, B., Sørum Falk, R., & Vikanes, Å. (2018). Differences in rates and odds for ing a signifcant role in children’s lives, and eat meat due to vegetarianism and due to the emergency caesarean section in six Palestinian hospitals: a population-based birth co- at the same time, some parents may rely on idea of Hinduism that a cow is considered a hort study. BMJ open, 8(3), e019509. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019509 spiritual support from religion for their par- holy animal, not for consumption. Anoth- enting. Although it might be convincing that er Indian religion, called Jainism, was also religion can improve a child’s well-being, it common in the school, and people who be- might also hinder their physical conditions lieve in that religion could not eat root veg- due to religious misbeliefs of science. There- etables and meat. This means that they can fore, passing on a particular religious belief only eat vegetables that grow on the ground. to descendants might sometimes be inappro- Their diet is mostly distinct from the diet of priate. To make people consciously judge non-religious groups. Other than the strict between what is ethical and what is not, they diet regulation, students were educated about should be set free from the strain of religion a rigid caste system coming from Hinduism.

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People believing in Hinduism accept their lower vulnerability to drug use and sexu- why misfortune falls on them. In that case, an immunization injection (Rebekah et al., low caste as ‘karma’ and believe in reincar- al activities than children who do not par- religion can serve as their lifeline. As reli- 2019). When considering these illustrations nation. Karma refers to the results of what ticipate in religious matters. The authors gion can teach people the purpose of defn- of parents’ decisions on denying medical people have done in past lives (Khan Acad- assume that religion plays a vital role in ing moments in life, children might be able to assistance, it becomes apparent that people emy, n.d.). The lowest level in the caste sys- educating children on what is considered grow up to be a person who can fnd hope for believing in a particular religion treasures re- tem is called “untouchables,” and there are ethical and promoting how to meditate to the future rather than lingering depression. ligious belief instead of their children’s life. more than 160 million Indian people who cope with the diffculties they face in life Despite the positive aspects of religious From the perspective of a non-religious per- are considered as “untouchables” (Mayell, (Chen et al., 2018). Statistically, accord- infuence on children, some religious be- son, one might fnd it diffcult to understand 2003). Mayell (2003) adds that they are “pub- ing to a research study done by Chiswick liefs might evoke misinterpretations of sci- why people affliated with religious belief licly humiliated, paraded naked, beaten, and (2013), 85 percent of religious children ence, which might hinder children’s physical choose to reject medical treatment that is raped.” Although they are treated brutally had a higher standard of overall quality of health. A particular Christian group, Jeho- proven to be life-saving. Still, from the per- and unfairly, people believing in Hinduism health than nonreligious children, with only vah’s Witnesses, can represent the issue. It spective of religious people, they might consider that they should accept their fate 79 percent of children having a healthy life. is a religion that was separated from ortho- think that they are rational enough to justify and put effort into living morally justifable Religious people can also fnd a purpose dox Christianity in the late 1800s, and one their decisions. The research being conduct- so that they will be allowed to leave from the in life and help fnd the meaning of why peo- of the controversial beliefs is the idea of re- ed by Friedman et al. (2018) has concluded recantation cycle. The wretched condition ple experience defning moments in life (Vil- jecting blood transfusion [even though the that religious people prefer to rely on reli- here is that newly born babies, who are inev- lani et al., 2019; Krok, 2015). This process is treatment can save one’s life] as they believe gious belief rather than evidence that is sci- itably affliated with Hinduism by their par- called “religious coping [meaning that reli- it is against God’s will (Neffnger, 2018). In entifcally proven. According to Friedman et ents, have no choice but to accept their fate gion can serve as a] process of understanding fact, the treatment of blood transfusion is al. (2018), religious individuals, including of following Hinduism. Depending on the and dealing with critical life events” (Krok, commonly used for medical purposes, in- Christian, Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, feel caste level they are born at, children might 2015). To be more specifc, Villani et al. cluding cancer treatment, fghting anemia, confdent about their beliefs, although it con- face a tragic destiny, including being labeled (2019) and Holmgaard (2018, p. 311) elab- cell disease, and more, so it is life-saving tradicts science because religious ideas are as “untouchables” due to the caste system in orate on the idea claiming that religion can (National Heart, n.d.). As for parental con- frmly rooted in their emotions. On the con- Hinduism. In fact, this is only one of many give meaning to life events, such as natural sent, in most states in the United States, chil- trary, atheists instead rely on empirical ev- examples of how religion strongly impacts disasters. For instance, in the New Testament dren under 18 have to have parental consent idence rather than their emotional feelings a child’s life both positively and negatively. of the Christian bible, it is scribed that food when having medical aid (McNary, 2018). (Friedman et al., 2018). Based on these out- On one side, children’s participation occurs due to God’s retribution for human sin This regulation of parental consent might be comes, it can be inferred that religious peo- in religious rituals might be benefcial to (Schmalz, 2017). Suppose religious people applicable to most countries. If parents be- ple might lack the ability to make a quick their well-being and psychological health. believe that natural disasters are a punish- lieve in Jehovah’s Witnesses and their chil- and correct judgment when it comes to med- A renowned neurologist, Sigmund Freud, ment from God. In that case, people might dren require immediate medical attention ical matters. Generally thinking, deciding referred to religion as an illusion that chil- be able to deserve the tragedy as a positive of blood transfusion, their life might be in a child’s fate based on the parent’s religious dren can have security and forgiveness opportunity to look back on what they have danger. For instance, there is a case that the beliefs is not ethical, since it can result in (Perham, 2018). His saying implies that re- done in their life. Returning to the issue, most parents’ decision of rejecting their daugh- the disregard of children’s will and freedom. ligion gives children a place to ease them- children might be more sentimental to sud- ter’s blood transfusion treatment for be- Taking the negative and positive aspects selves and a chance to exonerate their sins. den catastrophic events than adults (Children ta-thalassemia major ended up in her death of religious infuence on children into consid- A study, in addition, conducted by Chen et and Disasters, 2016). Throughout experienc- (Conti et al., 2018, p. 103). To a broader ex- eration, a suggestion of parents waiting for al. (2018), demonstrates that children at- ing events such as parents’ divorce, parents’ tent, Muslims often misinterpret that they their children to be mature enough to make tending religious affairs often have a stron- death, and others, children might need some- are immune to diseases such as cervical can- their decision of religious affliation sounds ger sense of volunteering, forgiveness and thing to rely on and might be curious about cer, so they reject HPV vaccination, which is reasonable. It would be ideal if parents can

99 100 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 teach children about the religion they be- critically are unlikely to believe in God (Ger- dominant role in people’s lives. As in Hin- they might be able to realize that religious lieve in and other religions available, and vais et al., 2012). Presumably, if a child be- duism, through parents’ transmission of practices can be both ethical and unethical. they avoid forcefully brainwashing a specif- comes one who can think critically, they can the concept of caste system to descendants, When children grow up to the age they can ic belief to their children. Parents can more- make their fnest choice of religious afflia- they need to live in a specifed social class make a conscious judgment, parents need to over raise their children by teaching how re- tion when they become grownups. Although all their lives. In order to eliminate these leave the decision of religious affliation to ligion plays a signifcant role in society and some parents might think that it is a part of issues, people and institutions surround- them. Regardless of age, ethnicity, and reli- its greatness and darkness (Diab, 2009). If a their parental guardian to associate children ing children might need to encourage chil- gion, people should have the right to choose child acknowledges a religion is worth think- with religious beliefs, it might be better if dren to think outside of the box. Eventually, how they want to live their one-time life. ing of, they can choose to believe, but if not, parents understand that children also have they can have choices either to be non-reli- the right to choose and shape their own lives. References gious or choose another religion to believe In conclusion, affliating children with in. Despite the idea, it might be unrealistic religion can be advantageous, but can also be Barro, R. J., & Rachel, M. M. (2005). Which countries have state religion? Quarterly Journal of Economics, 120(4), 1331-1337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/003355305775097515 to universally avoid parents from transmit- disadvantageous to children. On one prem- ting their beliefs due to state religion. The ise, religion can be valuable in terms of a Chen, Y., & VanderWelee, J. T. (2018, September 10). Associations of religious upbring- state religion is the religion that is endorsed child’s psychological health, as religion can ing with subsequent health and well-being from adolescence to young adulthood: an outcome-wide analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology, 187(11). https://doi. and favored to believe in by a country (Bar- teach children how to cope with challenges org/10.1093/aje/kwy142 ro et al., 2005, p.1331). It is estimated that and give meaning to why critical life events there are around 20 percent of the countries in occur. Religion can, however, negatively in- Children and Disasters. (2016). EDENOTES. https://edenotes.extension.org/category/fami- lies-communities/children-and-disasters/#:~:text=Children%20are%20more%20sus- the world, where it endorses a particular re- fuence the parent’s decision-making pro- ceptible%20to,their%20underdeveloped%20bodies%20and%20brains.&text=In%20 ligion, and Islam is the religion that is advo- cess in an urgent situation. The fact that they addition%2C%20their%20brains%20are,possible%20prolonged%20mental%20 cated by governments the most (Sherwood, rely on religious ethics rather than doctors’ health%20issues 2017). Sherwood (2017) further explains that advice based on scientifc studies may put a Conti, A., Capasso, E., Casella, C., Fedeli, P., Salzano, A. F., Policino, F., Terracciano, L., & most countries in Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, child’s health in danger. Thus, compelling Delbon, P. (2018, April 18). Blood transfusion in children: the refusal of Jehovah’s North Africa, and the Middle East have Is- children to practice their devotion to a par- Witness parents. Open Medicine, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/med-2018-0016 lam as an offcial state religion. As countries ticular religion can sometimes be unprin- Diab, K. (2009, November 26). The child’s right to choose its faith. The Guardian. https:// with state religion enforce public schools to cipled. It might be preferable for religious www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/nov/26/children-religion-posters teach a designated religion and prohibit peo- people to fnd ways to make benefts and Friedman, J. P., & Jack, A.I. (2018). What Makes You So Sure? Dogmatism, Fundamen- ple from believing other religions, it might eliminate the non-benefts of faith. Nonethe- talism, Analytic Thinking, Perspective Taking, and Moral Concern in the Religious put a heavy strain on people’s freedom of less, some concerns might arise. One is the and Nonreligious. Journal of Religion and Health, 57(1), 157-190. http://dx.doi. choice of religious affliation. Accordingly, state religion promoting civilians to believe org/10.1007/s10943-017-0433-x there are cases when parents cannot do any- in a specifed religion. This makes people Gervais, M. W., & Norenzayan, A. (2012, April 12). Analytic thinking promotes religious thing to pull their children apart from reli- diffcult to expose to concepts of other reli- disbelief. Science, 336(6080), 493-496. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1215647 gion. In that situation, guardians can nurture gions. Then the other troublesome factor is Holmaard, B. S. (2019). The role of religion in local perceptions of disasters : the case of children’s critical thinking ability until they the confict between the parental guardian post-tsunami religious and social change in samoa. Environmental Hazards, 18(4), become adult age. Shenhav et al. (2011), and the children’s right to choose their be- 311-325. https://doi.org/10.1080/17477891.2018.1546664 based on their study, assumes that teaching liefs. While parents try to protect and edu- Krok, D. (2015). The role of meaning in life within the meaning of religious coping and psy- people to think intuitively makes them like- cate children by using religion, at the same chological well-being. Journal of Religion and Health, 54(6), 2292–2308. https://doi. ly to believe in God. On the other hand, chil- time, parents should respect their children’s org/10.1007/s10943-014-9983-3 dren who are taught to think logically and choice of religion as religion plays a pre-

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Mayell, H. (2003, June 2). India’s “Untouchables” face violence, discrimination. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/6/indias-untouch- ables-face-violence-discrimination/ Textile Waste Management: McNary, A. (2014). Consent to treatment of minors. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 11(3-4), 43-45. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4008301/ Cradle-to-cradle Design National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (n.d.). Blood Transfusion. https://www.nhlbi. nih.gov/health-topics/blood-transfusion#:~:text=Your%20blood%20carries%20oxy- Satoshi Nakao gen%20and,such%20as%20hemophilia%2C%20or%20cancer Satoshi Nakao is a junior student majoring in Global Studies. His essay “Textile Waste Neffnger, V. (2018). 10 things everyone should know about Jehovah’s Witnesses and Management: Cradle-to-Cradle Design” was submitted in the Advanced Research Writ- their beliefs. Christianity.com. https://www.christianity.com/church/denomina- ing under the supervision of Professor Mark de Boer. As the concept of sustainability has tions/10-things-everyone-should-know-about-jehovah-s-witnesses-and-their-beliefs. html recently become common, Nakao got more interested in the feld and decided to have re- search with an approach from a daily life point of view. He focused on the sustainabili- Perham, N. (2018, December 31). Why people are religious, according to a psychology ex- ty issue in the fashion industry, highlighting the management of increasing textile waste. pert. Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/why-believe-god-reli- gion-cognitive-psychology-sigmund-freud-a8691221.html Pratt, R., Njau, S. W., Ndagire, C., Chaisson, N., Toor, S., Ahmed, N., Saida, M., & Dirks, J. Abstranct (2019). “We are Muslims and these diseases don’t happen to us”: A qualitative study This paper investigates sustainable textile waste management to address environmental prob- of the views of young Somali men and women concerning HPV immunization. Vac- lems. In this paper, textile waste refers to unwanted garments disposed of by the users after cine, 37(15), 2043-2050. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.006 consumption. Textile waste is rapidly increasing and causing environmental impacts due Schmalz, M. (2017, September 7). Christian faith doesn’t just say disasters are God’s retribu- to the recent trend of mass production and mass consumption in the fashion industry, as the tion. The Conversation. https://docs.google.com/document/d/1DpBaRJLdBkUf8533_ fast-fashion business model represents. To address this issue, this paper focuses on the fea- IlcDyFmaYshnA7lLVVlXUWO3vc/edit sibility of developing an infnite recycling model of textile waste based on Cradle-to-cradle Shenhav, A., Rand, D. G., & Greene, J. D. (2012). Divine intuition: Cognitive style infuences design. Cradle-to-cradle design, advocated by McDonough (2005), takes a biomimetic ap- belief in God. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(3), 423-428. https:// proach to design and aims to create a society where every material used in any products and doi.org/10.1037/a0025391 services is in infnite circulation without causing environmental impacts. As the primary re- Sherwood, H. (2018, August 27). Religion: why faith is becoming more and more popular. search, this paper looked for technological issues for recycling textile waste from the inter- The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/aug/27/religion-why-is-faith- view with a recycling venture company, JEPLAN, and the possibility of manufacturers' con- growing-and-what-happens-next tributions to establish the system from observation into UNIQLO’s sustainable campaign. Sherwood, H. (2017, October 3). More than 20 percent of countries have offcial state reli- The primary research revealed that recycling technology is developing, and manufacturers gions - survey. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/03/more- have the potential to engage in the infnite recycling system based on Cradle-to-cradle design than-20-percent-countries-have-offcial-state-religions-pew-survey through sustainable manufacturing. The most important fnding was the necessity to build a Villani, D., Sorgente, A., Iannello, P., & Antoniettie, A. (2019, July 9). A role of spirituality trilateral cooperation among recycling companies, manufacturers, and consumers and for and religiosity in subjective well-being of individuals with different religious status. them to work collaboratively. This paper suggests concrete roles each of the three actors can Frontiers in Psychology, 10. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01525 do and how they can cooperate. Even though recycling alone cannot solve the whole prob- lem of increasing textile waste, this recycling innovation can convey greater societal and environmental value to society as a new paradigm to cope with environmental problems.

Key words: textile waste, textile industry, cradle to cradle, recycling, fast fashion

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Introduction waste from unsold clothing. In this paper, average number of times a garment is worn Recycling: Method to Cope with Textile Clothing is indispensable, but peo- however, textile waste refers to unwanted before being thrown away has decreased by Waste Problems ple constantly consume and dispose of it at garments, being disposed of by consumers. 36% in the last 15 years due to the populari- Recycling can reduce textile waste and some point. However, the amount of cloth- Benefts of Fast-fashion ty of fast fashion ("Ellen MacArthur", 2017, its environmental costs. The term recy- as cited in Leonard, 2019). The fast fashion ing people consume has been on the rise for In this paper, the term fast fashion re- cling is defned as "the process collecting industry contributes to increasing textile decades, coupled with the popularity of the fers to "inexpensive clothing produced by and processing materials that would oth- waste by its mass production, mass con- fast-fashion industry (Cooper, 2018). Due to mass-market retailers in response to the erwise be thrown away as trash and turn- 1 sumption, and people’s throwaway culture. the increasing consumption, textile waste latest trends", following the defnition by ing them into new products" by the United Increasing textile waste is causing en- is also increasing. According to the Unit- LEXICO dictionary (n.d.). The fast-fash- States Environmental Protection Agency vironmental problems. Textile waste is ed States Environmental Protection Agen- ion industry has evolved since around the (n.d.). Reducing textile waste has the poten- most likely to be burned and turned into cy report (2015), textile waste has increased mid-2000s, responding to increasing glob- tial to save energy; reducing 1 kilogram of a landfll (Leonard, 2019). Burning tex- by 811% since 1960, and almost all of it has al demand, especially in emerging mar- textile waste can cut carbon dioxide emis- tile wastes requires much energy, such as gone into a landfll. Textile waste has harm- kets such as Asia and Africa (Kock, 2020; sions by 3.6 kilograms and save 6000 li- coal and electric power, and produces large ful effects on the environment when buried Assoune, n.d.). Fast fashion makes cloth- ters of water (International Recovery Bu- amounts of pollutants as emissions. Ac- underground as landfll, thus problemat- ing more affordable and accessible to the reau, 2008, as cited in Xue et al., 2014). cording to the United Nations Environ- ic from environmental perspectives. Even public (Lloyd, 2018). Lloyd (2018) ex- There is an underlying concept of re- mental Program, the fast-fashion industry though recycling contributes to reducing plains that many retailers and brands offer cycling, called "Cradle-to-cradle design". is responsible for 20 percent of the global the amount of textile waste, the current re- fast fashion clothing at inexpensive pric- The idea was introduced by McDonough wastewater and 10 percent of global car- cycling system is ineffective, and the recy- es, so it became easier for people to obtain. (2005), which takes a biomimetic approach cling rate is very low (Beall, 2020). Since bon dioxide emissions (Koch, 2020). Data to the design. Cradle-to-cradle design con- Environmental Problems of Fast-fashion environmental problems caused by textile of McKinsey in 2016 estimate that CO2 siders that all materials should be recyclable Industry waste are global issues, seeking solutions emissions by the fast fashion industry will in potentially infnite circulation and aims to for reducing textile waste to diminish en- While the fast-fashion industry has rise by 77% and water consumption by create a society where every material used vironmental effects seems worth research- evolved and met the global clothing demand, 20% from 2015 to 2025 (Assoune, n.d.). in any products and services is in infnite ing. This paper investigates the background it produces a lot of textile waste. The busi- Furthermore, textile waste has envi- circulation without causing environmental for the increase in textile waste, environ- ness model of fast fashion is designed to sell ronmental effects when they become a harm. Once material is excluded from re- mental effects of textile waste, and current cheap clothing that is disposable by mass landfll, depending on the fbers' materials cycling circulations, it can be non-reusable situations and the possibility of innova- production and encourage consumers to fre- used in clothing. While natural fbers and waste and can harm the environment. Recy- tions of recycling to reduce textile waste. quently purchase new clothing to stimulate animal fbers are biodegradable, synthet- cling textile waste based on Cradle-to-cra- more consumption (Kalkat, 2020; "MPs to ic fbers, such as polyester and nylon made dle design concept formulates circulations Literature Review investigate", 2018). Research by the Ellen from petroleum that are often used in fast of resources and prevents the increase of This paper illustrates the discussions MacArthur Foundation in 2017 says that fashion garments, do not biodegrade and a landfll, which is not reusable anymore. about the fast-fashion industry, which con- global clothing production has doubled in remain intact underground forever (Eber- Diffculties of Recycling tributes to an increase in textile waste, the last 15 years (as cited in Cooper, 2018). le, 2004, as cited in Weber, 2015). Plas- and the current recycling system of textile On the other hand, the industry largely con- tic remaining underground has a risk of Despite the benefts, the recycling rate waste to cope with environmental issues. tributed to increasing textile waste; textile leaching harmful chemical substances that remains very low at the current situation. The term textile waste has extensive def- waste produced in a year reached 100 bil- spread into groundwater (Knoblauch, 2020). According to a report from the United States nitions, ranging from textile waste gener- lion garments, coupled with quick turnover Environmental Protection Agency (2015), ated in the manufacturing process to textile of fast-fashion clothing (Lloyd, 2018). The only 2.63 million tons out of 16.22 million

105 106 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 tons of textile waste produced in a year in a brand-new clothing product. If technol- system of textile waste and efforts by about their effectiveness. Considering efforts the United States was recycled. Beall (2020) ogy advances and recycling circulation, manufacturers as outlined in the follow- and possible efforts manufacturers can make explains technical reasons for low recycling as mentioned in Cradle-to-cradle design ing section. I will conduct an interview for an infnite recycling program will give a rates as; complex combinations of differ- by McDonough, is established, it direct- with a recycling company and an observa- new insight into the problem of increasing ent fbers, accessories, plastics, and metals ly contributes to decreasing textile waste. tion on a recycling campaign initiated by a textile waste from the manufacturers' side. used in clothing make it diffcult to separate Research Questions fast-fashion company as primary research. I set the target audiences to JEPLAN and them for effective recycling. Sorting tex- UNIQLO. JEPLAN is a Japanese venture The fast-fashion industry has popularity Methodology tile waste into various fbers and materi- company, which is developing a cutting-edge in affordability and accessibility of clothing als by machines is complicated and needs Based on my research questions, I technology of recycling textile waste into products, but the industry has the structure an intensive, slow process by hand (Beall, seek the feasibility of formulating in- new clothing and fuels for cars. I will ask JE- of mass production and mass consumption, 2020). Only less than 1% of textile waste is fnite recycling programs of clothing and PLAN about the technical issues of realizing contributing to the massive increase in textile ultimately recycled and turned into new gar- the possibility of contributions manu- the infnite recycling system and prospects of waste. Most textile waste turns into a landfll, ments because of complexity (Cooper, 2018). facturers can make to realize this model. this since JEPLAN has knowledge and exper- and it has harmful environmental effects. Re- Moreover, some researchers cast doubts To address the question regarding its tise on recycling technology of clothing. On cycling of textile waste is conducted to cope on recycling, claiming that recycling is feasibility, I need the information on the ob- the other hand, UNIQLO is the suitable target with these environmental issues, but the recy- not the fundamental solution for the envi- stacles to realize this recycling model and audience to get information from the manu- cling rate remains low due to technical prob- ronmental problems of increasing textile possible solutions to them. Currently, the facturer’s perspective. UNIQLO is a leading lems. Assoune (2018) argues that the current waste. Ekström and Salomonson (2014) technology of infnite recycling system of and infuential company in the fast-fashion fast fashion industry is not sustainable and explains that "even though reuse and re- clothing has not been established yet, so iden- industry and currently initiating its original claims the necessity of implementing new cycle are important actions to reduce tex- tifying the technological and non-techno- recycling program. I can obtain informa- technologies and innovation in business mod- tile waste, they still are not suffcient for logical barriers is the frst step. For example, tion on the program's effectiveness and how els, manufacturing, and waste management dealing with the detrimental effects that the cost of establishing and running might be UNIQLO is contributing to the recycling to deliver greater economic, societal, and increased consumption has on the environ- one of the non-technological barriers. On the system as a manufacturer. For these reasons, environmental value. The recycling system ment" (p.394). Coverly et al. (2008) say that other hand, I need to get information on the JEPLAN and UNIQLO seem the most ap- based on Cradle-to-cradle design proposed "strategies such as ‘Reduce, Reuse, Recy- latest technology that can overcome the cur- propriate target audiences for my research. by McDonough has the potential to contrib- cle’ are essential but only partial solutions rent obstacles and can help realize sustain- I will conduct online interviews with ute to reducing a landfll by formulating sus- to the growing waste mountain, since they able recycling models of clothing; it can give JEPLAN and UNIQLO. Interviews allow tainable circulation of resources. Therefore, tackle the symptoms, not the cause" (p.299). me clear insights into the prospect of how the asking different questions spontaneous- I reached the following research questions: However, the technology of recycling infnite recycling model can be established. ly, depending on the companies' responses. based on Cradle-to-cradle design is gradu- 1. What kinds of technologies are nec- I also need information about manufac- Online interviews have merits in conve- ally advancing; there are companies trying essary to formulate an infnite re- turers' current efforts and possible efforts nience since distance does not matter. Tak- to cope with the environmental problems of cycling model of clothing based they can make in the near future to help for- ing account of the current situation of the textile waste by technological innovations on Cradle-to-cradle design? mulating an endless recycling program of Covid-19, having interviews online seem of recycling. An article issued by the Pub- 2. What can manufacturers of the fast clothing based on Cradle-to-cradle design. safe and convenient. Synthesizing the results lic Relations Offce of Japan (2020) reports fashion industry do to contribute to re- For example, information on the potential to from the two interviews will give insights that JEPLAN, a venture company in Japan, alizing the infnite recycling model? utilize recyclable materials in producing new into the answers for the research questions. succeeded in formulating "material to ma- In order to answer these questions, I clothing will be helpful. Some companies in terial" recycling; turning used polyester will be examining the technological fea- the fashion industry have their original recy- into quality clothing product equivalent to sibility of forming an infnite recycling cling programs, and I might get information

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Results recycled polyester after removing impurities. UNIQLO is trying to be a frontier company Discussion I conducted an online interview with JE- It does not require a process of removing im- that tackles with environmental sustainabili- In this research, I have sought to fnd PLAN on November 26, 2020. It lasted for purities perfectly before recycling by hand, ty in the fast fashion industry. UNIQLO ini- out the kinds of technologies that are nec- 30 minutes and Zoom, an online meeting so it is more effcient. Chemical recycling tiated Re:UNIQLO campaign; UNIQLO essary to formulate an infnite recycling system, was used. On the other hand, I could system is relatively new technology, but it gathers used clothing at shops and reuse system of clothing based on Cradle-to-cra- not have an online interview with UNIQLO enables recycling without losing a quality of for refugee support and recycle for produc- dle design and what manufacturers can do due to declination for the interview. Instead, original substances. Mechanical recycling, ing recycled materials. UNIQLO embarked to contribute to realizing the system. This I conducted an observation of a TV program the conventional way of recycling, heats ma- on producing 100% recycled down jackets section addresses the feasibility of an in- that I found, “Gaia no yoake”, which focused terials and change them into new forms, but it by collecting and recycling used UNIQLO fnite recycling system of clothing based on the sustainable campaign by UNIQLO. downgrades the quality of materials after re- down jackets from customers. UNIQLO has on Cradle-to-cradle design and what is re- The TV program was broadcasted on Novem- cycling in many cases. JEPLAN succeeded in a partnership with TORAY, a textile com- quired for this achievement in the future. developing chemical recycling of polyester, pany in Japan to facilitate recycling feather ber 10, 2020 from TV TOKYO Corporation. Cradle-to-cradle Design: Importance producing recycled polyester in high qual- used in down jackets. UNIQLO tries to adopt Technological Barriers ity, and diminishing environmental effects. recycled materials into other products as McDonough (2005) introduced Cra- There are technological barriers, which dle-to-cradle design: all materials used in Non-technological Barrier: Cost Issue well, utilizing its original collecting project. has not been overcome yet to realize an ide- products should be safely recyclable and Need to Formulate Recycling System al infnite recycling model. According to Recycling costs money since there are potentially infnite circulations. An infnite the interview with JEPLAN, it is impos- complex procedures to recycle. According In the interview, JEPLAN pointed out recycling system of clothing is one model sible to cover every material in one recy- to the interview with JEPLAN, recycled ma- the importance of formulating recycling of Cradle-to-cradle design. It enables circu- cling facility. Also, before recycling, the terials tend to be more expensive than new system connecting recycling companies, lating resources, saving energy, and reduc- process of separating clothing depending materials made by oil. Producing clothing manufacturers, and consumers. Developing ing textile waste, which turns into a landfll. on materials is required. This process re- exclusively from recycled materials is ex- technology is important, but involving more Therefore, it has the potential to diminish en- quires human tasks since the machines can- pensive and not attractive for customers manufacturers and consumers in recycling vironmental impacts. Assoune (2018) argues not sort clothing into categories currently. in terms of the price. Trying to seek more is more important, according to JEPLAN. the necessity of implementing innovation in manufacturers that consent to use recycled Even if recycling technology is developed Advance of Recycling Technology manufacturing and waste management to polyester to some extent for sustainability alone, it does not bring full advantages of create economic, societal, and environmen- According to the interview with JE- in their products is important. The CEO of recycling. More manufacturers that adopt tal value. An infnite recycling system of tex- PLAN, recycling technology is advancing. UNIQLO says that it is worthless to tackle recycled and recyclable materials, and more tile waste based on Cradle-to-cradle design JEPLAN has developed the technology of with sustainability by merely raising pric- consumers who contribute to recycling their could be a challenge to realize the innovation. recycling clothing made by polyester, which es. The sustainable campaign should also used clothing are essential. Admittingly, Technological Development for Infnite Recy- used to be diffcult to recycle. Polyester is be well-balanced with business. Otherwise, there is a limit of recycling to address with cling System widely used and its need is on the rise, but it the sustainable campaign does not last long. the problem of increasing textile waste due has more environmental burden. It produces There are still technological obstacles Efforts by Manufacturers to mass production and mass consumption. more carbon dioxide compared to other mate- However, JEPLAN hopes that establish- for constructing an infnite recycling model. In the interview, JEPLAN pointed out rials, but recycling polyester will be helpful. ing the infnite recycling system can spread As Beall (2020) argues, clothing is made of that manufacturers can contribute to recy- JEPLAN succeeded in developing chemical the value of recycled products and inspire complex combinations of different fbers and cling by using recycled materials and recy- recycling system. Chemical recycling utilizes the society to tackle with sustainable issues. materials, so the process of sorting clothing chemical reactions and breaks down polyes- clable materials as responsibilities of man- depending on materials has been an obstacle ter fbers into monomer, the smallest compo- ufacturers. The TV program introduced for effcient recycling. An interview with JE- nent molecule, then returning monomer into the sustainable campaign led by UNIQLO. PLAN revealed that currently, this process

109 110 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 cannot be conducted without human tasks. the environmental problems due to increas- products and diminishes the environmen- For example, notifying consumers by stating Therefore, developing the technology of ing textile waste. Researchers admit that re- tal impacts arising from increasing textile that "the product is made from recycled and sorting clothing automatically based on ma- cycling is a benefcial action, but it is not waste. As the interview with JEPLAN illus- recyclable materials, and this is also recycla- terials can make this process smoother and enough to address the detrimental effects trates, the technology of recycling is grad- ble. Please turn back to the recycling box af- facilitate more recycling in the near future. of increasing textile waste due to mass pro- ually advancing and can potentially over- ter using up" will be possible. It can stimulate On the other hand, JEPLAN stressed in duction and mass consumption in the fash- come the current technical obstacles soon. the customer's awareness of sustainability is- the interview that the technology of recy- ion industry (Ekström & Salomonson, 2014; Therefore, constructing the infnite recy- sues and encourage them to engage in recy- cling textile waste is gradually developing. Coverly et al., 2008). The interview with JE- cling system in society will be more critical. cling, thus connecting consumers with recy- JEPLAN established the recycling technol- PLAN also mentioned the limitation of the To formulate the system, it is necessary cling companies. Once a cooperation system ogy of polyester clothing by developing a recycling system to address the enormous for recycling companies, consumers, and among the three key players is established, chemical recycling system that is different problem. Kock (2020) argues the growth of manufacturers to understand their role and it will help facilitate an infnite recycling from mechanical recycling, which is con- the fast-fashion industry coupled with the in- work collaboratively. Regarding recycling system based on Cradle-to-cradle society. ventionally used. JEPLAN successfully re- creasing demand for inexpensive clothing, so companies, they can contribute to the sys- As Ekström & Salomonson (2014) ar- cycled polyester used in clothing and turned the trend in the structure of mass production tem by recycling technology; they can re- gue, recycling alone cannot instantly solve it into new clothing with high-quality thanks and mass consumption can be here to stay. cycle collected textile waste and turn it into the problem of increasing textile waste due to this technology. The technology has the Therefore, trilateral cooperation among valuable materials and products. They need to mass production and consumption. How- importance since polyester is created by oil recycling companies, manufacturers, and to fnd more manufacturers that consent to ever, the importance of constructing the in- and has more environmental impacts than customers is indispensable to cope with adopt recycled materials and put the cost of fnite recycling system of textile waste po- other materials. As this case illustrates, tech- the enormous problem and to achieve Cra- producing recycled materials lower by hav- tentially goes beyond the practical effects of nology is developing, and technological ad- dle-to-cradle design in the fashion industry. ing more partnerships, thus encouraging the recycling. The recycling system's innovation vance can potentially remove the current Only efforts by recycling companies and few recycling system. Regarding manufacturers, can diminish environmental impacts by sav- technological barriers and help realize the manufacturers do not have signifcant im- more manufacturers should contribute to the ing energy and resources and convey greater infnite recycling system of textile waste. pacts on society and cannot realize the mod- system by adopting recycled and recycla- societal and environmental value as a new Necessity for Trilateral Cooperation el. Recycling companies, manufacturers, and ble materials into their products as much as paradigm. This paradigm can work in the consumers each need to clarify their role in possible. According to observation into the long run and change the current structure of However, the issue of cost exists as a the cooperation system, which consequent- TV program, UNIQLO is producing 100% the fashion industry of mass production and barrier to realize the infnite recycling sys- ly encourages more engagement of the three recycled down jackets and trying to adopt re- mass consumption in the future when the so- tem based on Cradle-to-cradle design. The actors in facilitating the infnite recycling cycled materials into their products as a pio- cietal view is changed towards sustainability. interview with JEPLAN revealed that recy- system based on Cradle-to-cradle design. neering company in the fast-fashion industry. cling requires cost and recycled materials Conclusion Also, retailing stores of manufacturers can set tend to be expensive, and customers might Sustainable Society: Cradle-to-cradle in Increasing textile waste has enormous more collecting stations of textile waste for not choose the products made by recycled Fashion Industry impacts on the environment. The research recycling. Consumers can take their textile materials if it is expensive. For both recy- It seems worth tackling to realize an found out that formulating an infnite recy- waste to the collecting stations for recycling, cling companies and manufacturers, keeping infnite recycling system based on Cra- cling system of textile waste based on Cra- not the garbage. There seems much room to the balance between sustainability actions dle-to-cradle design, considering the possi- dle-to-cradle design is crucial to cope with improve engagement not only from manufac- and their business is an essential but diff- bilities of diminishing environmental impacts the problem. To achieve this goal, build- turers and but also from consumers. I suggest cult issue; neither the business nor the sus- and the value it can convey to society. The in- ing a trilateral cooperation system among that manufacturers appeal the value of recy- tainable projects will last long otherwise. fnite recycling system can turn textile waste recycling companies, manufacturers, and cling actions and their recycled products to Moreover, recycling alone cannot solve into reusable recycled materials and new consumers is necessary in addition to tech- the customers when selling their products.

111 112 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 nological development of recycling. The pri- as fnding out the effectiveness of the im- MPs to investigate 'fast fashion' impact. (2018, June 22). BBC News. Retrieved from https:// mary research focused on the perspectives plemented system, it is essential to focus on www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-44565755 of manufacturers and recycling companies, how the consumers can contribute to the pro- Public Relations Offce. (2020, August). New technology for recycling used clothes. Tokyo, and thus this research has limitations in the motion of recycling and the solution for the Japan: Author. Retrieved from https://www.gov-online.go.jp/eng/publicity/book/hlj/ extent to which the consumers’ viewpoints environmental problems of textile waste. html/202008/202008_03_en.html are refected. In the future research, as well Sato, M. (Director). (2020, November 10). Yunikuro sekai hatsu heno chousen [Ground-breaking challenge by UNIQLO]. [Television series episode] In Shimizu, N (Producer), Gaia no yoake. Tokyo: TV TOKYO Corporation. References United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2015). Facts and fgures about materials, Assoune, A. (n.d.). How does fast fashion affect the economy. Retrieved from https://www. waste, and recycling. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/ panaprium.com/blogs/i/how-does-fast-fashion-affect-the-economy facts-and-fgures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/textiles-material-specifc-data Beall, A. (2020, July 13). Recycling: Why clothes are so hard to recycle. BBC News. Re- United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Recycling basics. Retrieved from trieved from https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200710-why-clothes-are-so-hard- https://www.epa.gov/recycle/recycling-basics to-recycle Weber, S. (2015). How consumers manage textile waste (Master's thesis, University of Wa- Cooper, K. (2018, July 31). Fast fashion: Inside the fght to end the silence on waste. BBC terloo, Ontario, Canada). Retrieved from https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/bitstream/han- News. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-44968561 dle/10012/ 9604/Weber_Sabine.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Coverly, E., McDonagh, P., O’Malley, L., & Patterson, M. (2008, September). Hidden moun- Xue, H. Y., Zhang, X. J., & Wang, Y. Q. (2014). Research on the disposal strategy of waste tain: the social avoidance of waste. Journal of Macromarketing, 28(3), 289-303. textiles. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 817–820. https://doi.org/10.4028/www. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276146708320442 scientifc.net/amm.522-524.817 Ekström, K. M. and Salomonson, N. (2014). Reuse and recycling of clothing and tex- tiles – A network approach. Journal of Macromarketing, 34 (3), pp. 383-399. doi:10.1177/0276146714529658 Knoblauch, J. (2020, April 20). The environmental toll of plastics. Environmental Health News. Retrieved from https://www.ehn.org/plastic-environmental-im- pact-2501923191.html Kock, C. (2020, February 23). Opinion: Fast fashion is so last generation. The DEPAULIA. Retrieved from https://depauliaonline.com/46686/opinions/opinion-fast-fashion-is-so- last-generation/

Leonard, M. (2019, July 23). Textile waste has increased 811% since 1960. Supply chain dive. Retrieved from https://www.supplychaindive.com/news/textile-waste-increased- 811-since-1960/559297/ LEXICO. (n.d.). Fast Fashion. In Lexico.com dictionary. Retrieved from https://www.lexico. com/defnition/fast_fashion Lloyd, D. (2018, November 19). Fast Fashion pros and cons. Baggy Boys Co. Retrieved from https://baggyboysco.com/blogs/baggy-blog/fast-fashion-pros-and-cons McDonough, W. (2005, February). Cradle to cradle design [Video]. TED Conferences. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/william_mcdonough_cradle_to_cradle_ design?language=en

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is the following; exacting muscle cells from disagree. I believe that insects are the most cows, causing the same process as mus- promising as a meat alternative. Firstly, in- Meet and Eat new Meat: Insects cle’s creating new muscle in cows’ bodies, sects are eco-friendly in that they emit few- Sae Tomiyama and arranging the appearances into patties er greenhouses and save natural resources, (Mosa Meat, n.d.). Thirdly, insects are the including land, water, and feed. Secondly, Sae Tomiyama is a sophomore student. Her essay “Meet and Eat new Meat: Insects” exact bugs we know, for example, grass- insects do not contain unhealthy and harmful was submitted ENG100, Composition I, under the supervision of professor Joel Fried- hoppers, caterpillars, beetles (Huis et al, substances; rather they are rich in nutrition. erich. Thanks to the instructor who loves poetry, she came up with the rhymed title. She is 2013). They do not look and taste like meat; From the viewpoint of environmental interested in food, and she came up with this topic because restaurants and supermar- however, they can be a source of protein. impacts, more specifcally, greenhouse emis- kets have started to offer food that substitutes meat and protein, such as, soy meat, artif- Now, plant-based meat and cultivated sion, and the use of natural resources, water, cial meat, and insects. As for Tomiyama’s future research, she wants to study about the psy- meat attracts attention as a promising busi- land, and feed, insects have many advantag- chological and marketing approaches to spread such novel foods for the next generation. ness. Many major food companies have es. In the frst place, animal meat imposes a launched plant-based meat businesses. Bruce heavy burden on the environment because Friedrich, who runs the Good Food Institute, not only does it emit a large amount of green- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate crease in population and the change in food an organization that advocates plant-based house gases as I have shown above but also Change announced that global average sur- preferences. For example, in China, one of substitutes, says in The New York Times ar- uses a signifcant amount of water and land. face temperature would increase by approx- the developing countries, meat consump- ticle, that “When companies like Tyson and For 1 g of protein, cows use 112 L of water, imately 2.0 by 2050 and 4.8 by 2100 in the tion has been increasing rapidly (Ritchie, Smithfeld launch plant-based meat products, and 254 m of land, including land for feed worst case. The temperature rise has count- 2017). Therefore, we have to consider ways that transforms the plant-based meat sector production and animal rearing (Miglietta, De less impacts; destruction of the ecosystem, to shift the demand for meat or protein away from niche to mainstream,” and “They have Leo, Ruberti & Massari, 2015; Hinder, 2016). abnormal climate, and risks for diseases, from animal meat, and to supply enough massive distribution channels, they have en- Therefore, to gain a substitute position for an- including malaria and dengue fever (Mas- protein while reducing the environmental thusiastic consumer bases, and they know imal meat, the alternatives should emit few- son-Delmotte et al., 2018). Around 2050, impacts. In other words, we have to con- what meat needs to do to satisfy consumers” er greenhouse gases, and use less water and some current university students would build sider substituting meat with other foods. (Yaffe-Bellan, 2019). In other words, thanks land. At a glance, all the three alternatives their careers, and others would raise their In response to such a situation, there are to giant meat companies’ entering into plant- look to meet the requirements because plant- children. In 80 years, in 2100, our descen- three potential alternatives; plant-based meat, based meat markets, plant-based meat would based meat and breeding insects do not deal dants would follow such life plans. To avoid cultivated meat, and insects. Firstly, plant- gain a popular position. Also, since Dr. Mark with livestock and cultivated meat requires the worst scenario and protect the earth for based meat is food that looks and tastes like Post of Maastricht University created the frst muscle cells instead of cows themselves. the next generation, it is time to change our real meat without any animal-based ingredi- cell cultivated meat, many researchers and However, unfortunately, plant-based and habits. The easiest means is changing our ents. For example, Beyond Meat, a famous companies have started to work on the proj- cultivated meat does not meet the expecta- eating habits, especially meat consumption. plant-based meat company in the United ect. In “Five companies at the forefront of tions because the former needs soybeans, Meat is an essential ingredient for everyday States, uses soybeans and brown grains for the cultured meat revolution”, Michael Dent whose production is one of the causes of de- meals, and a source of protein; however, proteins, cacao, coconut, and canola for fats. (2020) stated that “Over the last few years, forestation, and the latter requires a large livestock emits methane and nitrous oxide, Beyond Meat sells various types of plant- start-ups around the world have been rac- amount of plastic materials in the process. harmful substances for global warming. The based meat products, sausages, beef crum- ing to bring the frst cultured meat products Growing beans for plant-based meat would emission of those greenhouse gases by live- bles, and patties for hamburgers (Beyond to market”. To his point, the competition for lead to accelerating deforestation. Accord- stock accounts for 14.5 % of the total (Ger- Meat, n.d.). Secondly, cultivated meat is cultivated meat is so ferce that rapid growth ing to WWF (2014), from 2000 to 2010, ber et al., 2013). Nevertheless, the demand food that looks and tastes like meat; howev- is expected. Therefore, plant-based meat and 24 million ha area in South America were for meat has been increasing due to the in- er, it is grown in laboratories. The process cultivated meat are dominant. However, I converted into cultivation, of which soy-

115 116 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 bean accounts for 20 million ha. Further- ly fewer gases, requiring less water and land. ing Salmonella or E.coli infection, because cerns for diseases can be solved by tradition- more, it would be almost impossible to in- For 1 kg mass gain, mealworms and crick- plant-based meat has already been cooked al practice of eating insects. Because insects crease the production of soybeans because ets emit one-hundredth of CO2 beef cattle and heated. On the other hand, she is con- are natural organisms, they do not contain there are already demands for soybeans do (Huis et al, 2013). Moreover, mealworms cerned about extra nutrition in plant-based unhealthy and harmful components as two from food and fuel. If plant-based meat re- use 23 L of water for 1 g protein, one-ffth meat. Plant-based meat contains a large authors above concerns for. According to quires more soybeans, it will drive defor- the amount of water cows require, and crick- amount of sodium. For example, per 100g, Huis et al (2013), dried grasshoppers have estation. Therefore, plant-based meat can- ets use 8 m2 of land, one-thirty the land cows ground beef contains 75 mg of sodium, while approximately twice the amount of protein not be a potential alternative because it has require (Miglietta, De Leo, Ruberti & Mas- one famous plant-based meat, Beyond Meat, of maize. Furthermore, insects contain plen- an unfavorable impact on the ecosystem. sari, 2015; Hinder, 2016). Furthermore, in- includes as much as 398 mg per 100 g. In ty of copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, Also, Eric Muraille, a biologist, Immu- sects have a high feed conversion effciency. other words, plant-based meat contains ap- phosphorus, selenium, and zinc; therefore, nologist Maître de researcher au FNRS, Uni- To produce insects that are equivalent to 1 proximately fve times the amount of sodium. they supplement various nutrients. In regards versité Libre de Bruxelles in “Cultured meat kg, it requires one-eighth the amount cows Excessive intake of sodium could increase to a risk of diseases, people do not have to could create more problems than it solves” in require (Huis, 2013). A high feed conver- blood pressure and cholesterol levels, which care about it. Huis et al (2013) mentioned that The Conversation (2019) reveals that culti- sion effciency contributes to reducing the trigger heart disease or stroke. Therefore, under the same sanitary condition as other vated meat uses a signifcant amount of plas- use of energy and CO2 emission on trading. because plant-based has risks for lifestyle foods, there are not cases of transmission of tic materials. Cultivated meat needs plastic The production of animal feed relies on par- disease, it cannot be a promising alternative. diseases or being parasitized. This suggestion materials by nature because it does not have ticular countries, and many countries import Along with McGee, Muraille, the same would be supported by the traditional habits the immune systems that normal animal cells feed from them. For example, Japan imports biologist introduced earlier in the same ar- of eating insects, entomophagy. For example, have. To make highly sanitary environments 30 million tons of grass hay, corn, and barley, ticle, warns of more serious health impacts Asian, South American, and African coun- for cultivated meat production, disposable for livestock feed (Fujinosan, n.d.). There- of cultivated meat. He argues that cultivat- tries have been familiar with insects as food plastic materials are indispensable. Recent- fore, if we can reduce the amount of animal ed meat can trigger endocrine disruptors. for a long time (Holland, 2013). Considering ly, the global community asks to refrain from feed, we can also reduce CO2 emission in In his view, “Unless the use of plastic in the these facts, insects are worth eating because using plastic materials because of the envi- this viewpoint. In these ways, insects can production of meat by cell culture is tight- they are natural stuff, rich in nutrition, and ronmental impacts, for example, releasing solve many environmental concerns that an- ly controlled, the meat could be contami- the safety is proven by traditional practice. harmful substances into the air on disposal imal meat and other alternative meat have. nated with endocrine disruptors and other Although I strongly praise insects as al- and marine pollution (Ujeh, 2020). There- Moreover, insects are superior to the oth- substances before it is even packaged.” His ternative meat in terms of environmental fore, the shift to cultivated meat means go- er two alternatives because insects do not point is that cultivated meat involves risks and health impacts, insects have a fatal faw; ing against the recent eco-friendly trend. contain unhealthy and harmful components, for disturbing human bodies’ growth, devel- disgust. Castro and Chambers, researchers Both sources point out the environmental rather they are rich in nutrients. Jessica Mc- opment, and condition because cultivated on sensory analysis and consumer behav- effects of plant-based meat and cultivated Gee, the Food and Nutrition Services Clini- meat is exposed to plastic materials not only ior in Kansas State University, (2019) re- meat. However, they show the impacts from cal Nutrition Manager at Children’s National, in packing but also in production. Both Mc- vealed that for people who are not willing different viewpoints; plant-based meat re- (2020) points out the positive and negative Gee and Muraille mention the adverse ef- to eat insects, the two most vital reasons are quires land for farming, which causes de- effects of plant-based meat in “Is fake meat fects caused by the common point that plant- the appearance and negative image that in- forestation, while cultivated meat requires good or bad for kids?”. Because plant-based based meat and cultivated meat are artifcial. sects make them sick. However, those bar- plastic materials. Therefore, those alterna- meat is made from beans and grains, it con- From the viewpoints of health impacts riers can be eliminated with familiar cuisine tives have environmental effects equiva- tains antioxidants and fber compared with as well, insects prevail over the two alterna- using insects. These days, some companies lent to the conventional meat industry, and other alternative meats and even animal meat. tives because they do not contain unhealthy and restaurants offer products and cuisine they are not likely to replace animal meat. Furthermore, plant-based meat has a low- and harmful ingredients, rather insects con- derived from insects. For example, Ryohin On the contrary, insects emit signifcant- risk of diseases caused by raw food, includ- tain multiple nutrients. And also, the con- Keikaku Co., Ltd has sold Cricket Crackers,

117 118 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 and one ramen shop in Tokyo sells ramen tribute to making insects familiar in society. Don Bugito. [@doonobugitosf]. (2018, May 3). A taste of edible insects [Event]. Facebook. with cricket powders and fried crickets on In conclusion, the young generation https://www.facebook.com/events/2042951425937073/ the surface (Ryohin Keikaku Co., Ltd, 2020; should consider insects as the most promis- Feng, H. C. (2012). The tale of sushi: History and regulations. Comprehensive Reviews in Ozawa, 2020). As these examples show, there ing substitute for meat because it emits few Food Science and Food Safety, 11(2), 205-220. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ are many opportunities to try to eat insects greenhouse gases, requires little water, land, pdf/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2011.00180.x with processed forms and familiar cuisine. and feed. Moreover, insects contain multiple Fujinosan. (n.d.). From suppliers to users. http://www.fujinohsan.co.jp/e-business.html Furthermore, throughout those experi- nutrients and do not have risk for diseases. Gerber, P.J., Steinfeld, H., Henderson, B., Mottet, A., Opio, C., Dijkman, J., ... Tempio, G. ences, insects can take root in people who do Even though I support insects, I do not sup- (2013). Tackling climate change through livestock: A global assessment of emissions not eat insects now and in their culture even- port insects only, and I also recognize that and mitigation opportunities. FAO. http://www.fao.org/3/i3437e/i3437e.pdf tually. Massimo Reverberi, a Bangkok-based some people are not willing to eat insects Hinder, J. (2016). Overcoming the “yuck factor:” The potential of entomophagy to provide a expert of edible insects (2018), argued that it right now. Instead, my present proposal is more environmentally sustainable protein source. https://www.researchgate.net/pub- is possible to make insects familiar as time that people should intake proteins from var- lication/302925151_Overcoming_the_Yuck_Factor_The_Potential_of_Entomopha- goes because human behavior depends on the ious kinds of food, including animal meat, gy_to_Provide_a_More_Environmentally_Sustainable_Protein_Source behavior around them, called a social proof plant-based meat, cultivated meat, and in- Holland, S. J. (2013). U.N. urges eating insects; 8 popular bugs to try. National Geographic. theory. In other words, with the movement of sects, in a good balance, and be open-mind- https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/5/130514-edible-insects-entomopha- eating insects, the trend would spread. Also, ed to eating insects. To make insects more gy-science-food-bugs-beetles/ historically, people have been adapting to familiar, I propose that schools and univer- Huis, A. V., Itterbeeck, V. J., Klunder, H., Mertens, E., Halloran, A., Muir, G., & Vantomme, new ingredients. Raw fsh in western coun- sities serve optional lunch meals using in- P. (2013). Edible insects: Future prospects for food and feed security. FAO. https:// tries is a good example. In Western culture, sects and students hold and participate in library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/fulltext/258042 people did not have a custom of eating raw insect food fairs. For example, Don Bigito Masson-Delmotte, V. P. Zhai. P., Pörtner, H.-O., Roberts, D, Skea, J., Shukla, R.P., ... T. Wa- fsh; however, after introducing sushi, they held events that serve fve-course edible in- terfeld, T. (2018) Global Warming of 1.5 : An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of have started law fsh (Feng, 2011). The two sect meals (Don Bigito, 2018). Through- global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas sources suggest the possibility of acceptance out these events, students who hesitate to emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of insects as food from human behavioral eat insects can be motivated by their friends of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. IPPC. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res. and historical viewpoints. Therefore, trying to eat insects. With such opportunities, the pdf to eat insects in familiar ways would dis- day will come when people eat and enjoy pel disgust, and such movement would con- meals using insects around the dinner table. McGee, J. (2020, January 23). Is fake meat good or bad for kids?. Rise and Shine. https://rise- andshine.childrensnational.org/subscribe/ Miglietta, P. P., De Leo, F., Ruberti, M., & Massari, S. (2015). Mealworms for food: a water References footprint perspective. Water, 7(11), 6190-6203. Beyond Meat. (n.d.). How we make meat from plants. https://www.beyondmeat.com/about/ Mosa Meat. (n.d.). How it’s made. https://www.mosameat.com/technology our-ingredients/ Muraille, E. (2019, November 28). Cultured’ meat could create more problems than it solves. Castro, M. & Chambers, E. (2019). Consumer avoidance of insect containing foods: Primary The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/cultured-meat-could-create-more- emotions, perceptions and sensory characteristics driving consumers considerations. problems-than-it-solves-127702 Foods, 8(8), 351. https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/8/8/351#cite Ozawa, H. (2020, May 26). A Tokyo ramen restaurant with a twist: Broth made from crickets. Dent, M. (2020, September 17). Five companies at the forefront of the cultured meat revolu- The Japan Times. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2020/05/26/food/insects-tokyo-ra- tion. IDTechEx. https://www.idtechex.com/ja/research-article/fve-companies-at-the- men-restaurant/ forefront-of-the-cultured-meat-revolution/21677

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Reverberi, M. (2018, January 11). Understading the ‘yuck factor’ is cricial to increasing so- ciety’s acceptance of insect protein. William Reed Business Media Ltd. https://www. foodnavigator-asia.com/Article/2018/01/11/Understanding-the-yuck-factor-is-cru- The Infuence of Discounts, cial-to-increasing-society-s-acceptance-of-insect-protein Ritchie, H. (2017). Meat and Dairy Production. OurWorldInData.org. https://ourworldindata. Reviews, and Ratings org/meat-production Ryohin Keikaku Co., Ltd. (2020, May 19). Cricket cracker on presale at MUJI's online store. in Hotel Booking https://ryohin-keikaku.jp/eng/topics/034053.html Rin Saito Ujeh, K. H. (2020. October 21). The negative environmental effects of plastic shopping bags. International Bar Association. Rin Saito is a graduate of the year 2020/2021, who was majoring in Global Business. Her WWF. (2014). The Growth of Soy: Impacts & Solutions. WWF International. https://issuu. essay “The Infuence of Discounts, Reviews, and Ratings in Hotel Booking” was submitted com/wwfsoyreport/docs/wwf_soy_report_fnal_jan_19 in the Global Business Capstone Seminar under the supervision of Professor Sungkyu Lee. Yaffe-Bellany, D. (2019, October 14). The New Makers of Plant-Based Meat? Big Meat Saito has had a strong interest in digital marketing in tourism. She specifcally became in- Companies. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/14/business/ trigued with the consumers’ decision-making process on hotel booking sites because she has the-new-makers-of-plant-based-meat-big-meat-companies.html questioned the design of hotel booking sites, which hotel operators have little control over. Her goal is to help small and mid-sized enterprises prosper in the competitive hotel industry with the minimum cost on the advertising budget because they usually have limited budgets. As for Saito’s future research endeavors, she would like to study the infuence of certain attributes on booking sites, especially ratings and reviews, with elaborated models and data collection.

Abstract Hotel booking has become a common tool for tourists due to technology development. During the decision-making process, consumers look at booking websites’ attributes to ensure the quality of rooms and services. Ratings and reviews, in particular, are the criteria that the tour- ists chiefy consider. Besides, the discount level is another vital factor that affects consumers’ booking intention. In this paper, the infuence and relationship of three attributes, ratings, re- view volume, and the discount level, were analyzed to understand how consumers build trust in a hotel, which ultimately leads to a booking. This paper mainly concerns why the attributes are the determinants of consumers’ booking intention. The effect of review volume and discount on the hotel rating’s trustworthiness is also discussed. A within-subject research design was used to compare eight combinations of the three attributes: 2 (high vs. low rating) x 2 (high vs. low number of reviews) x 2 (high vs. low discount rates). Fifty-one participants answered a survey via Google Form. The majority of participants were college students. This paper’s main fnding is that a high discount is ineffective when a hotel has a bad rating on a booking website. A high discount attracts consumers when a hotel is rated high regardless of the review volume.

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1. Introduction ies these days. Relatively old generations ers’ evaluation, hotel management needs to inally trusted by customers. Although the In light of globalization, the tourism in- prefer the traditional way to book hotels; for minimize this risk. Moreover, proper offer- defnition of trustworthiness varies in this dustry has been expanding as people are instance, visiting travel agents or making a ing of discounts is crucial because consum- context, Filieri (2016) defnes a trustworthy keen to encounter new cultural experiences, call directly to hotels. Meanwhile, on the oth- ers may associate a signifcant discount with review as “a review that is perceived by the which is caused by the emerging low-priced er hand, young people who are familiar with lower service quality (Hu & Yang, 2020). reader as the honest, sincere, truthful, and supplementary goods and services. Many new technologies prefer booking on the inter- Hotel management sectors should under- non-commercial opinion of a customer who countries have expected positive econom- net (Boto-García et al., 2021). Offine chan- stand the appropriate and practical range of has experienced a product or a service” (p. ic impacts from tourism for the last decades, nels are still in use. However, online travel discounts. To defne the relationship between 48). Given that evaluations are trustworthy, considering that tourism has positively con- agents (OTAs) have become viral thanks to consumers’ evaluation of hotels and the ef- consumers choose to purchase a product or tributed to their Gross Domestic Product technological development. Cazaubiel et al. fectiveness of discounts, this paper will dis- refuse to do so if the hotel lacks credibility. (GDP). Moreover, tourism’s business volume (2020) consider that once consumers utilize cuss the roles that discounts, review volume, 2.2. Ratings and Reviews OTA, they would choose to keep fnding ho- and ratings play in hotel booking by conduct- is now equally or even more than that of oil In the hotel industry’s OCR, the rating tels online. Even when their preferable hotels ing a survey and analyzing the correlation exports, food products, or automobiles (The is a useful evaluation for consumers using are absent, they would try another OTA in- of the research model’s primary constructs. World Tourism Organization, 2011). In 2019, online hotel booking systems. Gavilan et stead of switching to traditional direct chan- UNWTO reported that international tour- 2. Literature review and Hypothesis al. (2018) explain the decision-making pro- nels. The number of tourists reserving hotels ists increased by 5% in 2018; that is, 1.4 bil- cess in hotel booking. During the frst stage by telephone has declined by 44.1% between 2.1. Online Consumer Reviews and lion arrivals were recorded in total that year of the purchasing process, consumers look 2005 and 2016 (Boto-García et al., 2021). Trustworthiness (The World Tourism Organization, 2019). at the overall ratings to narrow down their To respond to the growing demand for It is not easy for consumers to ef- The reasons behind the expansion of tour- choices. At this moment, bad ratings are more OTA, online consumer behavior and deci- fectively fnd products that meet their ex- ism are “a growing middle class in emerg- trustworthy than good ratings because con- sion-making have been studied. Research- pectations because they need to deal with a ing economies, technological advances, new sumers unconsciously believe that deceitful ers have discussed how attributes on hotel tremendous amount of information on the business models, affordable travel costs and motivation is not involved in negative con- booking sites, such as price, room quality, internet (Gavilan et al., 2018). Thus, On- visa facilitation,” the report states (p. 2). tent. More specifcally, the review volume’s service, food quality, discounts, or brand fa- line Consumer Reviews (OCR) are a critical As the number of tourists rises, the hos- moderating effects exist in the relationship miliarity, may affect travelers’ purchase in- factor for consumers to consider (El-Said, pitality segment, which serves guests with between the number of ratings and its trust- tentions (Kim et al., 2020; Hu & Yang, 2020). 2020). OCR refers to former users’ “any pos- the provision of food, drink, and accom- worthiness. That is, low ratings would be A.R. Golmohammadi et al. (2012) claim itive, negative, or neutral comment, rating, modation (Slattery, 2002), needs a change trusted regardless of the number of reviews. that tourists’ online behavior is highly infu- ranking” of goods and services or brands, to adjust to new demands. Among the three On the other hand, consumers only trust high enced by perceived risks and Word-of-Mouth which are shared on any type of online plat- main hospitality venues, there are various ratings if there is a high number of them. (WOM). Consumers stop using certain web- forms (Filieri, 2016, p.47). Nowadays, OCR branched categories. Hotel is one kind of Reviews are needed as proof of the real sites if they fnd untrustworthy factors with- can easily be found on Social Network Ser- accommodations. Hotels can be classifed staying experiences, thus the same thing can in the system or public negative comments. vices, third-party’s websites, or online book- into different segments based on prices, lo- be said for review content. Negative evalu- There have been studies about the impor- ing sites. Lien et al. (2015) discuss that the cations, and management styles. The di- ations are trusted more than positive evalu- tance of hotels’ representation on third-par- key factor that leads consumers to book a versifcation of accommodation types has ations (Filieri, 2016: El-Said, 2020: Casa- ty websites, as written above. However, the hotel is the trustworthiness shown in either occurred due to various demands from con- lo, 2015: D. Gavilan et al., 2018). El-said relationship between discount rates and the verbal and numerical reviews. Accordingly, sumers who have different preferences or (2020) argues that consumers actively look customers’ evaluation has not been fully dis- the high credibility which consumers detect purposes for their trips, such as business for negative comments to understand possi- cussed yet. Considering the vulnerability of from OCR eventually enhances booking in- and leisure (Kim et al., 2020; Read, 2019) ble characteristics of a particular hotel that The process of selecting hotels also var- hotels due to the diffculty of controlling us- tention, especially when hotels are not orig-

123 124 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 they might dislike in advance. On the con- structure (45%, 30%, 15%) as a set of dis- p.782). In sum, discounts are generally used H3: If the number of reviews is high, trary, positive reviews are more likely to be counts. A build structure was found to raise to lure consumers to shopping, and the effec- signifcantly large discounts stimulate ignored because they bring a sense of mar- purchase intention. It boosts the effective- tiveness may differ depending on the level booking intention when the rating is good keting or promotion done by hotel managers. ness of discounts more than a lead structure and the way consumers perceive them. Be- because consumers associate high re- From the managers’ perspective, it is cru- because consumers’ expectations are broad sides, there is no “correct” discount level. view volume with high trustworthiness. cial to check reviews and ratings on online at the beginning of a shopping experience. 3. Hypothesis On the contrary, consumers perceive booking sites because consumers are sensi- By being exposed to different ranges of risks when a hotel is rated good yet did not Taking the previous studies into consider- tive to other users’ opinions (El-Said, 2020). discounts, consumers are gradually infu- receive an adequate number of reviews. ation, this paper set up hypotheses about how Although the negative reviews have a more enced to increase their purchase intention. In this case, a considerable discount may consumers select hotels based on three attri- substantial impact, consumers build trust Since consumers are skeptical about not work because consumers would al- butes: rating, the number of reviews, and the and sympathy for hotels if they fnd manag- whether the price they see is the lowest ready be skeptical of hotels’ quality, as magnitude of discounts. Hypothesis 1 and 2 ers answering negative comments to solve among shops or websites, they have a high Gavilan et al. (2018) discuss. Therefore, a problem (Casalo, 2015). However, most search intention to seek an even better dis- are designed to see if the study follows what H4: If the number of reviews is low, importantly, hotels need a good rating sup- count level. Moreover, search intention is the existing studies have discovered: con- signifcantly large discounts do not stimu- ported by a high number of reviews to at- higher for price-conscious consumers be- sumers prefer booking hotels with good rat- late booking intention even when the rating tract potential customers. Additionally, the cause they want a better deal regardless of ings, and hotels are perceived as more trust- is good because consumers associate low content of reviews should be positive. the discount level (Alford & Biswas, 2002). worthy when they are supported by many reviews (Gavilan et al., 2018). Therefore, review volume with low trustworthiness. 2.3 Discounts However, it is not effective to implement random high discounts. There are different H1: Hotels with good rat- Consumers prefer hotels with higher The hotel industry is vulnerable be- arguments about the practical discount lev- ings are more likely to be booked ratings. The number of reviews does not af- cause it feeds on tourism. The demand fuc- el. Hu & Yang (2020) state that discounts than hotels with bad ratings. fect hotel selection if ratings are generally tuates dynamically, especially during cri- do not always stimulate hotel bookings H2: Hotels with good ratings and a low because consumers trust low ratings re- ses. Even without such a severe condition, because it may urge consumers to doubt high number of reviews are more like- gardless of the volume of reviews (Gavilan hotels have less demand during off-peak. the hotels’ quality by associating signif- ly to be booked than hotels with good rat- et al., 2018). A considerable discount may Thus, hotels use discounts to offer the most cant discounts with lower service quality. ings but with a low number of reviews give hotels a “boomerang effect,” which satisfying experiences for customers and Similarly, Carlson & Kukar-Kinney because consumers associate high re- means that a high discount increases a ho- maximize the profts from the present de- (2018) found that hotels’ perceived credi- view volume with high trustworthiness. tel’s negative image when it has a lousy rat- mand (Hanks et al., 2002). There have been bility reduces as the magnitude of discounts ing rather than boosting the number of book- studies to understand how consumers react to Consumers are sensitive to a high lev- increases on an advertisement, which ulti- ings (Hu & Yang, 2020, p. 23). Therefore, individual discounts on a particular product. el of discount because they become skep- mately lowers consumers’ booking inten- H5: Signifcantly large discounts do Sheehan et al. (2019) studied how con- tical about the hotels’ credibility due to the tions. Hanks et al. (2002) also argue that not stimulate booking intention when the sumers respond to discounts throughout an perceived risk (Hu & Yang, 2020: Carlson discounts should be as deep as possible to rating and the review volume are low. entire shopping trip in an online environ- & Kukar-Kinney, 2018). Thus, consum- stimulate consumers but not so deep that ment to understand an overall optimal dis- ers may prefer having a signifcant discount 4. Methodology they lose the attraction to a particular ho- count structure. It found that consumers’ if ratings and the number of reviews as- tel. On the other hand, Alford and Biswas To test the infuence of the rating, the purchase intentions are not infuenced by sure the high quality of hotels because high (2002) state that “low price guarantee may number of reviews, and discounts on hotel discounts at the beginning of their shop- ratings can be trustworthy for consumers serve as a signal of a retailer’s confdence selection, this paper applied a within-sub- ping experience. The authors created a lead when supported by a high number of re- that their price is the lowest available for a ject research design for 2 (high vs. low rat- structure (15%, 30%, 45%) and a build views (Gavilan et al., 2018). Therefore, given product” (as cited in Urbany, 2002, ing) x 2 (high vs. low number of reviews) x

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2 (high vs. low discount rates) (refer to Fig- Original price: Average price for information, the location of the hotel and may evaluate it as LLL. However, Pattern ure 1). This model is partly derived from a double occupancy room in Rome is the room type are all the same. ” Then par- 1’s aggregated data purely represent a ho- Gavilian et al. (2018). A new independent €134 according to Budget Your Trav- ticipants were asked to answer how they tel that is perceived as HHH by participants. variable, the level of discount, was added. el (n.d.). Based on the exchange rate be- perceive ratings, review volume, and dis- Since the number of participants was limited tween Euro and Yen as of November 5th, count rates of eight hotels with three levels in the study, the sorting was done to analyze 3.1 Stimuli 2020, the original price is set up as ¥16381. of response: high, low, and neither of them. the attributes’ relationship with each other. Participants looked at a fctitious hotel Listed price: Calculated the They also evaluated the trustworthiness 4.2 Results of hypothesis booking site and were asked to rate attributes original price with discount rates. of ratings, quality expectation, and book- Each hypothesis was tested with inde- of eight stimuli. Its basic design imitates one The valence of rating: Ratings were ing intention with a scale of one to seven. pendent samples t-test to compare the means of the largest booking sites, Booking.com, made based on Gavilian et al. (2018). The At the end of the questionnaire, there were of patterns. Hypothesis 1 concerns only rat- because consumers consider the information authors calculated the average ratings questions about participants’ demograph- ings; thus, it aggregates the data of Pattern offered by well-known OTA as more useful from each of the frst and fourth quartiles ic characteristics, such as travel frequency, 1, 2, 3, and 4 for hotels that have high rat- and reliable (Casalo et al., 2015). Each stim- on an online booking website. To elabo- budget for a hotel, and leisure in general. ings. As for hotels with low ratings, the data ulus has the main three attributes, the valence rate the rating system, a 1-10 scale was 4. Results of Patterns 5, 6, 7, and 8 were aggregated. of ratings, review volume, and discount rate. adopted in their research. However, this Hypothesis 2 concerns high ratings and a Besides, four basic information are derived paper adopted a 1-5 scale because it is of- 4.1 Demographic characteristics and low number of reviews. Therefore, the ag- from an example of a hotel profle from Hu ten used among hotel booking sites. Thus, Analysis techniques gregated data of Patterns 1 and 2 were used & Yang (2020): a hotel’s photo, hotel’s name, their ratings are divided by 2. Therefore, Males accounted for 28%, while fe- to represent a hotel that is rated high and re- original price, and listed price. There is also a high rating is 4.6, and a low rating is 1.6. males accounted for 70% of the 51 partici- ceiving many reviews. For a hotel that is information about location, room type, and Review volume: A high number of re- pants. Others represented 2%. The average rated high and lacking reviews, the data free cancellation (refer to Figure 2). Since views, 1000, was derived from Hu & Yang age was 22.8. 33% of participants’ month- of Patterns 3 and 4 were also aggregated. this paper focuses on the valence of ratings, (2020). A low number of reviews is set as ly budget for leisure was up to 15,000 yen. Table 3 displays each test result (Abbre- review volume, and discount rate, all attri- 10 to differentiate from the former one. 27% of them set it up to 30,000 yen. The viation such as H/H/H refers to High rating butes except these three remain constant. Discount rate: To emphasize the maximum price of a hotel for one night was / High review volume / High discount lev- Each hotel represents a different combina- difference between high and low dis- 5,000 yen among 33% of participants, while el). In Hypothesis 1, the means of booking tions of the three attributes (refer to Table count rates, this paper selects 10% 45% answered up to 10,000 yen. Travel fre- intentions were statistically signifcant at 1). High is described as “H.” “L” represents as the low and 60% as the high. quency varied. However, the most popu- 1% between hotels rated high and hotels rat- low to simplify the display. For example, lar answer was three to four times a year 3.2 Data collection ed low (M = 4.612 vs. M hotel 1 is described as HHL, which means (31%). The average was 3.8 times a year. H/_ /_ /intention L/_ /_ /inten- Participants (N=51) voluntarily answered =1.936; p < 0.01). Although the means of the hotel has a high rating, high review vol- To analyze the impact of attributes, tion the questionnaire. The survey was conduct- trustworthiness were statistically insignif- ume, and a low discount rate. This abbrevi- pooled data (n=408; 8 stimuli x 51 partic- ed via Google Form and had a short descrip- icant, Hypothesis 1 was supported (M ation system is adapted in other tables too. ipants) was sorted by evaluations (high or H/_ /_ tion of a scenario. The scenario is “You are = 4.633 vs. M ). There Hotel’s photo: Derived from google. An low) of each attribute into eight patterns /trust L/_ /_ /trust= 4.396: t = -1.475 going to spend your holidays in Europe with was a signifcant difference between hotels illustration was used to prevent participants (refer to Table 2). The answers “neither of your friend/partner for seven days. Now you with high ratings and a high review volume from guessing the quality of hotels, which them” were excluded from the data analysis. are looking at a hotel booking site to book and hotels with high ratings and a low review eventually may affect the hotel selection. In this way, the result can refect the partici- a hotel in Rome for one night. You will see volume, in terms of booking intention and Hotel’s name: Named as fctitious- pants’ actual perception of the eight patterns. eight choices of hotels like the picture be- the trustworthiness of ratings at the 1% level ly as possible, so the reader’s famil- For instance, Hotel 5 is designed to represent low. Please look at them carefully. For your (M = 5.319 vs. MH/L/_ /intention= iarity with any hotel is not considered. HHH. However, some of the participants H/H/_ /intention

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3.92; p < 0.01: MH/H/_ /trust= 5.582 vs. MH/L/_ / ness showed that pattern 7 and 8 were sta- the off-season to attract new customers. a slightly better impression. Consumers may

trust= 3.73; p < 0.01). Therefore, Hypothesis tistically insignifcant (ML/L/H/intention= 2.052 Second, hotels rated high with low re- try to maximize their benefts by choosing

2 was supported. From Hypothesis 1 and 2, vs. ML/L/L/intention= 1.743; t = -1.439: ML/L/H/ view volume would beneft from setting the cheapest one if they want to save money.

the data collected for this survey followed trust= 3.690 vs. ML/L/L/trust= 3.743; t = 0.159). a high discount rate. The empirical result Price-sensitive customers may look into the the previous studies’ theories that consum- Therefore, a large discount may not increase shows that a high discount rate would in- potential to have a good experience at ho- ers prefer hotels with a good rating rather bookings when hotels lack many reviews. crease trustworthiness and booking intention. tels even if websites show low ratings which than the ones with a bad rating. Besides, the It is opposed to a theory that says signifcant are supported by a few comments. There- 5. Discussion review volume contributes to the trustwor- discounts are not effective if hotels lack cred- fore, the consumers’ expectations of hotels thiness of ratings (Gavilan et al., 2018). The result was consistent with the pre- ibility due to their few volumes (Carlson would decrease if little effort was made to Hypothesis 3, 4, and 5 were aimed to an- vious study where consumers prefer hotels & Kinney, 2018). However, as Alford and improve their business’ quality management. alyze the effectiveness of high discounts. rated high and supported by many reviews Biswas (2002) cited, a high discount level 6. Limitation The result had unexpected fndings. Hy- (Gavilan et al., 2018). Although the scale of can sometimes show a frm’s confdence. If pothesis 3 and 5 were supported, whereas ratings differs among hotel booking sites, ho- the result is accurate, hotels offering a good This paper has some limitations. The Hypothesis 4 was not. Hypothesis 3, which tels listed on these platforms should improve quality of rooms and services but are newly participants of the questionnaire were main- concerns how a high discount affect book- the ratings because they directly infuence opened can advertise a high discount to at- ly university students in Japan who are rel- ing intention when a hotel has a good rating consumers’ booking intentions. As El-Said tract customers. Since they lack guests with atively price-sensitive. Also, the data col- and many reviews, proved that Pattern 1 and (2020) discussed, consumer behavior is pos- staying experiences, they tend to have few- lection was done on Facebook. Therefore, itively affected by opinions from others. The most participants were students of Akita 2 were statistically signifcant (MH/H/H/intention= er comments. If hotels are in this situation, a trustworthiness of ratings is higher among International Students. Since the univer- 6.094 vs. MH/H/L/intention= 4.48; p < 0.01: MH/H/H/ high discount rate may work as an advertise- hotels with many reviews. Consumers tend sity requires one year of study abroad as trust= 5.79 vs. MH/H/L/trust= 5.16; p < 0.05). A ment on booking websites. Even if consum- high discount level is effective when the rat- to choose options that are recommended by ers do not expect these hotels to have a high a mandatory requirement for graduation, ing is good, and many reviews support it. others so that they can minimize the risks. quality, hotels can alter the consumers’ per- students have travel experiences abroad. Hypothesis 4, concerning Pattern 3 and 4, The effectiveness of high discount rates spective once they experience the services. Another demographic concern is an unbal- expected that high discount rates do not stim- was found to vary in this paper. First, sig- Thus, this paper recommends this type of anced gender ratio. Women would possibly ulate booking among consumers because the nifcant discounts are useful for hotels rat- hotels to implementing a signifcant discount prioritize safety and cleanliness; thus, the trustworthiness should be low due to its low ed high and received many reviews (H/H/_) to attract consumers who surf the internet. result might differ if the portion was bal- review volume. However, means of booking when trying to increase bookings. Howev- Third, hotels with low ratings and review anced. It would also be better if different intention and trustworthiness were statistical- er, this type of hotels have possibly already volume can hardly beneft from high dis- participants evaluated a couple of stimuli, gained credibility and popularity on the in- not eight of them. Because of its repetitive ly different between Pattern 3 and 4 (MH/L/H/ count rates (L/L/_). It is because hotels with ternet. For example, resort hotels near tourist questions, participants might be infuenced intention= 4.434 vs. MH/L/L/intention= 3.4; p < 0.01: low ratings are not chosen by consumers re- destinations or business hotels near stations by stimuli that they had seen previously. MH/L/H/trust= 4 vs. MH/L/L/trust= 3.267, p < 0.05). gardless of the number of reviews (Gavilan Thus, a high discount level possibly stimu- and airports may always have guests if their et al., 2018). One unexpected fnding is that This paper only concerns the vol- lates booking intention even if a good rating quality is acceptable. Assuming that these people’s expectations of the hotel are high- ume of reviews. However, the content of lacks a high number of reviews as reinforce- companies run their business well, signif- er when the discount level offered is high. reviews is highly infuential to custom- ments. Hypothesis 5, which was aimed to cant discounts may not be essential to boost Considering the survey participants’ features ers. A high discount rate, which was 60%, understand the effectiveness of a large dis- bookings. Besides, discount rates do not in this study, youngsters may prefer cheaper might have been excessive, although it count when the rating is low and the review infuence ratings’ trustworthiness if hotels hotels while traveling. Thus, high discount was employed to emphasize the signif- volume was low, was supported. The t-score have a good reputation. If needed, hoteliers rates could prove that business owners’ care cance. Therefore, future studies should of each booking intention and trustworthi- can implement signifcant discounts during for the hotel, which leads to consumers have look into the range of discount rates that

129 130 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 would show the same result or better. positively among low-rated hotels because El-said, O. A. (2020). Impact of online reviews on hotel booking intention: The method role price-sensitive consumers fnd it attractive. of brand image, star category, and price. Tourism Management Perspectives, 33. 7. Conclusion Lastly, what the hotels should do before set- ScienceDirect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2019.100604 To conclude, this paper analyzes the in- ting signifcant discounts is to improve the Filieri, R. (2016). What makes an online consumer review trustworthy? Annals of Tourism fuence of discounts, ratings, and reviews quality of rooms and services to receive good Reseach, 58, 46-64. ScienceDirect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2015.12.019 in hotel booking using an individual sample ratings on online booking websites. Also, it Gavilan, D., Avello, M., & Martinez-Navarro, G. (2018, June). The infuence of online ratings t-test to compare eight versions of hotels. would be effcient to provide incentives to and reviews on hotel booking consideration. Tourism Management, 66, 53-61. Sci- The main fnding is that a high discount rate users to write reviews on those platforms. eceDirect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.10.018 is useful for hotels with good ratings on hotel Although putting a considerable discount Golmohammadi, A. R., Jahandideh, B., & O’Gorman, K. D. (2012). Booking online or not: A booking sites. Therefore, popular hotels may level is a quick way to increase bookings in decision rule approach. Tourism Management Perspectives, 2-3, 85-88. ScienceDirect. use a high discount rate to increase booking the short run, it does not guarantee the busi- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2012.03.004 during the off-season. On the other hand, ho- ness owners’ long-term benefts. The dis- Hanks, R. D., Cross, R. G., & Noland, R. P. (2002, August). Discounting in the hotel indus- tels rated low and lacked reviews receive less count needs to be implemented strategically, try: a new approach. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, beneft from those rated highs. Newly opened not randomly. Hoteliers should consider how 43(4), 94- 103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-8804(02)80046-5 hotels that lack review volume can advertise their hotels’ evaluation on booking websites Hu, X., & Yang, Y. (2020, May). Determinants of consumers’ choices in hotel online search- themselves with a large discount to boost shapes the consumers’ booking intention es: a comparison of consideration and booking stages. International Journal of bookings. A high discount rate still works and how discount levels can contribute to it. Hospitality Management, 86. ReserchGate. 10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.102370 Kim, D., Hong, S., Park, B.-J., & Kim, I. (2020, December). Understanding heterogeneous Reference preferences of hotel choice attributes: do customer segments matter? Journal of Alford, B. L., & Biswas, A. (2002). The effects of discount level, price conscious and sale Hospitality and Tourism Management, 45, 330-337. ScienceDirect. Retrieved Octo- proneness on consumers' price perception and behavioral intention. Journal of ber 13, 2020, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ Business Research, 55, 775-783. ELSEVIER. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148- S1447677020302011?via%3Dihub 2963(00)00214-9 Lien, C.-H., Wen, M.-J., Huang, L.-C., & Wu, K.-L. (2015). Hotel booking: The effects of Boto-García, D., Zapico, E., Escalonilla, M., & Pino, J. F. B. (2021, January). Tourists' brand image, price, trust and value on purchase intentions. Asia Pacifc Management preferences for hotel booking. International Journal of Hospitality Management, Review, 20, 210-218. ScienceDirect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmrv.2015.03.005 92. ScienceDirect. Retrieved October 29, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Read, J. (2019, February 7). Different categories of hotels. USA TODAY. Retrieved October ijhm.2020.102726 29, 2020, from https://traveltips.usatoday.com/different-categories-hotels-104126. Budget Your Trip. (n.d.). How much does it cost to travel to Rome? Budget Your Trip. Re- html trieved November, 2020, from https://www.budgetyourtrip.com/italy/rome Sheeran, D., Hardesty, D. M., Ziegler, A. H., & Chen, H. A. (2019). Consumer reactions Carlson, J. R., & Kukar-Kinney, M. (2018). Investigating discounting of discounts in an on- to price discounts across online shopping experiences. Journal of Retailing and line context: The mediating effect of discount credibility and moderating effect Consumer Services, 51, 129-138. ScienceDirect. https://doi.ord/10,1016/j.jretcon- of online daily deal promotions. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, ser.2019.06.001 41, 153-160. ScienceDirect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2017.12.006 Slattery, P. (2002). Finding the Hospitality Industry. The Journal of Hospitality Leisure Sport Casaló, L. V., Flavián, C., Guinalíu, M., & Ekinci, Y. (2015). Do hotel rating schemes and Tourism, 1(1), 19-28. ResearchGate. 10.3794/johlste.11.7 infuence booking behaviors? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 49, The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2011). UNWTO Tourism Highlights, 2011 28- 36. ScienceDirect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.05.005 Edition. UNWTO. https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/book/10.18111/9789284413935 Cazaubiel, A., Cure, M., Johansen, B. O., & Vergé, T. (2020, March). Substitution between The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2019). International Tourism Highlights, 2019 online distribution channels: evidence from the Oslo hotel market. International Jour- Edition. UNWTO. : https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284421152 nal of Industrial Organization, 69. ScienceDirect. Retrieved October 29, 2020, from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijindorg.2019.102577

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Ellie Olstad Hah You can mock each other, in disdain Your contempt is shallow Anemoi Set side by side to the seas on which I feast I fy with the force of a thousand stallions. Beware sailors, I bite I will claim thee. tear I gobble and gulp beat No one can help bruise Unlike you, I bring no season, those who cannot face me As I am the storm. are feeble Unlike you, fragile I am ubiquitous. weak souls. What is the world without the strength I carry? So go ahead, I freeze time, continue your senseless squabble. the ground, I shake For while you bite in my wake Or sing winter breaks. Or ignite I will be soaring. Whereas, I release the fowers from their sedated slumber those whom you buried deep in cold yearn to reach the sun Benign beings brought back by my breath. For the children of spring I soothe I sing Heed my call For to thee I deliver The warmth for which thy essence aches

Now hush To you they shan’t listen For one is brutish the other brittle You can fy forcefully or sing softly Yet none can match the heat I bring, the water I carry, the crops I raise. In auburn and orange the world ablaze.

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whispers the remaining sand of his hour-glass. It was his eighth day of food deprivation. K. Kohno A wind carrying microscopic fragments of ice rushes across The King’s wild mane. As The King has been above the Earth’s surface for 1250 days, his grizzly colored beard, Rock Throne and Snow Dust mustache, and hair have grown like tentacles of an octopus, with pieces of ice coating instead of wax. The King feels the wind constantly; the 7500 meter point where he stands is quite turbulent. But this time, he senses something special. The sense keener than he view from the top was indeed magnifcent. ever in his life, through more than a month of mountain survival, and a week of being In a confned space barely enough for an oak tree to stand, human beings - barely trapped, he was able to assimilate himself to the nature he owns, the messengers have higher than two meters - stand on the head of the 8000-meter giant. Below are brought him a message: men are coming. Ƭ eight billion people, and a trillion species of animals, fsh, insects, and a dozen more categories. A handful of the brave ones are above all of those creatures. But how many kings are there Soon, he starts to hear sounds of shoving air, as obnoxious as the buzz of bees and in human history? Surely, no matter how high a man may climb, and whichever summit the whining of mosquitoes combined. Helicopters! He realized. People of the underworld one may conquer, the same throne had been seated thousands of times by thousands of have come to throw me down to the ground! Shove me of of my throne! people. As the helicopters come close enough to be seen by his naked eyes, the sound is so ‘I am the only King, and will always be!’ loud he can barely hear the shouting of its passengers. For The King, who had been standing with barely any sleep or food, and clutching onto a bulge of the mountain surface The roar of the lion echoes through the Himalayas, the voice soars through the for almost 200 hours, is seeing things. He sees two revolutionaries on a war machine morning breeze. attempting to seize the tyrant.

The man who calls himself The King has given out his words to all his inferiors “Get back fools, you will never get me alive!” far below. So far below that The King cannot see. In fact, a distinct border, a curtain of clouds, is a veil between the secular ground and the royal sky. King Whitman growls, yells, and cusses. Resisting the apprehension, he attempts to attack the hovering mechanical dragons by throwing his icy sculpture. The heartless iron The King faces the sun, which sprays His Highness with its golden beam as if raining cloud-cutters dissipated into the clouds below, along with the statue of his past glory. petals of yellow daisies. The warmth of the sunlight keeps The King’s fresh optimistic grin like the groom’s at a wedding. He wishes to expose his full nudity and absorb what the sun “You will never get me alive! This is my throne! The only man in history ever to rule has to ofer. However, the last time he did so, his body froze to an icy sculpture; he would this sovereignty!” rather be given a sculpture rather than becoming one. From around the third day of his captivation, he had started hearing voices whispering The tradeof for his personal throne was enlistment to death row. all the pity in his self-satisfaction. What a pity to declare success in conquering nature which could put him to death anytime it desires, to consider himself king of a land of After leaving his life as a Swiss banker, as well as his wife and kids, he has climbed nobody and to be alone abandoning everything to fulfll his hollow dreams. hundreds of steep mountains, sailed across the Atlantic, eaten foot-sized rabbits on the North Pole; just to shout ‘I have conquered nature’ at some point. But immediately afterward, They are just jealous of how I am The True King of history. I’ll prove it! Someday soon, he sees phantom images of numerous people who have made the same achievements and the people below would drag me down from the clif to retrieve my castle. howled the same words. This was certainly a disgrace for The King. He never hopes to become ‘a king’; he craves to become The King. Is this happiness? He asked the sky. The Sun shot a daytime spotlight right above his head. The maternal warmth after such a territorial dispute brushed down his dust-and- And he had fnally, albeit accidentally, found his own throne; where he can monopolize snow-covered skin, as if to say, If it isn’t, I don’t know what is. the sun’s fortune, where he can look down upon focks of birds, and where death constantly A middle-aged widow, a young adult man and a teenage girl were waiting in front of the heliport. As the crew brought in the looted mummifed body of an iceman, the man muttered “Yes, that’s him.”

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Ellie Olstad She was alone. Knock Knock The living room was dimly lit, shining on the little furniture she had. After saving up for several years, she fnally had her own space, albeit still a work in progress. Pulling her grey uniform from the small bag, she shook it out, snifng it to see whether she needed to wash it before tomorrow’s shift. Niamh shrugged and threw it over at the ramshackle ulling up in the driveway, the car came to a halt. It let out a loud croak as Niamh armchair in the corner; it croaked at the impact. She did not like to go home in her pulled the handbrake. She sat still, resting her head on the steering wheel. A 10 uniform, so she always changed in the back before leaving the petrol station, especially Ƥhour shift later, and she was fnally back home for the night. “I just really need a cup during night shifts. Maybe she was just paranoid, but she did not fancy hosting any of tea…maybe a whiskey.” A bundle of her red curly hair was coming undone from the unwanted crackhead. bun at the nape of her neck. Her skin pale, mapped with freckles, was more transparent than usual with dark grey circles creeping up under her hazel eyes. “Man, I need to stop She ran the shower, staring at herself in the mirror. She noticed the circles underneath taking these late shifts,” she mumbled into the steering wheel’s cold plastic. her eyes had become more pronounced, her face had sunken into itself. I really need to sleep more. The warm water made her feel rejuvenated. To drown out the silence she started The petrol station in town where she worked was run down and flthy, but the pay humming a song she did not remember the lyrics to. Carefully untangling her hair, she twisted was decent. Though occasionally the local crackheads’ over-the-top compliments were it into a big wet knot at the top of her head. Emerging from the bathroom, hair wet and worth more than her pay. The likes of “HOT MAMA! How you doin’ love?” and “If I in big fannel pyjamas, she made her way to the kitchen. had any money, like I mean any, I’d buy you a beer, but I spent my last one on one myself.” It did add some favour to the otherwise uneventful and stale job. As she passed the bay window in the living room, she stopped. Thick green curtains were drawn, a bay seat tucked away behind them. When Niamh frst moved in, she loved Niamh brought her pale slender fngers to her face, pushing the crows’ nest of her reading in the bay window, snuggling up with a good book watching the trees at the edge cinnamon hair back into its bun. She touched the smoky quartz pendant resting against of the forest. Now she usually kept the curtains drawn. A small shiver crawled down her her chest and let out a long breath. Grabbing the keys from the engine and the small spine. Setting her jaw, she turned to the kitchen. Kettle on, the feeling of unease did not bag from the passenger seat, she pushed the door open with her dirty combat boots and fade. Her fsts were clenched, knuckles white. hopped out of her car. Knock. Knock. She hurriedly made her way to the oak door, only the hollow sound of her boots flled the cool midnight air. Her house was at the end of the lane, all small brick She froze. The shiver was back, sending electric shocks up and down her body. Her cottages - thatch roof, white walls - unassuming and surprisingly normal. Key in lock, eyes watered, breath quickening. The loud whistle of the kettle made her jump, letting out Niamh glanced over her shoulder as she turned the key. Inside was dark, except for a dim an owl screech. Niamh scrambled to turn of the stove and silence settled once more. shine from the outdoor lamp next to the door. Rushing inside, she quickly locked the door and turned on the small light in the hallway. Knock. Knock.

She listened. Niamh turned around, hands shaking. The living room was empty, still lit only by the dim ceiling light. Her eyes scanned the room, fnally resting on the obscured bay window. Her relieved sigh was swallowed by silence. Her pale hand immediately went to the pendant around her neck. Mumbling to herself, she went over to the curtains. They were cold to her touch, yet she retracted her hand Niamh sank down at the door, her hand trembling at the lock. One breath. Two as if she had been burned. She shut her eyes tightly. Reaching for the curtain again, she breaths. She stood up, pushed her shoulders back to turn around. She fumbled to put her tore it aside. Expecting it empty, she opened her eyes. Shock possessed her, pushing her keys on the small shelf - they rattled when they hit the small dish, resting against a few backwards. She fell to the foor. “YOU CAN’T DO THAT!” Her scream bounced of the obsidian pebbles. Again, she listened. walls in the small room. In the bay seat sat a black cat. Salem swatted at his own refection in the window, an innocent act for an ominous sound. Exasperated, Niamh picked him up and hugged him tight to her chest.

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Kazuki Fujii “You stupid little cat. You almost gave me a heart attack.” The small creature struggled against her grip, but settled as she kissed his nose. Slowing her breath, she glanced from the window to a small table beside it. Scattered with candles, sage and small Kitchen stones - rose quartz, selenite and black tourmaline - it was a small altar; a protection altar. The god is greedy ready for tonight Knock. Knock. Sentence of death Snapping her head back to the window, she stared in horror. A loud hiss came from coerced with fear. Salem, alert in her arms. Holding her breath, her petrifed refection stared back at her. Pasta, boiled — Outside there was no one. Nothing. Only moonlit silhouettes of trees waving in the dark. Boosh! Niamh let Salem out of her embrace, his back arched to the ceiling with spikes of raven in an iron pot, fur. With her gaze fxed on the window, she quickly stood up, redrawing the thick curtains You writhe in blaze. in the process. Tearing her eyes away from the bay window, she glanced at the altar, letting out a panicked breath she reached over for an incense stick. Carefully, she lit the incense; Garlic, smashed — smoke rising in a thin stream. A bat Bang! Knock. Knock. Bam! Your minced belly reeks. The sound was louder now. Hollow. As the incense rose, the knocking intensifed. Niamh moved away from the window. Salem stood beside her, ready to pounce if he had Tomato, butchered — to. “Shhhh, it’s alright. We’re alright.” Her voice came out with a tremble, as if she could Bloody not quite convince herself it was true. The knocking continued as the incense snaked Gloppy upwards. Her breath hitched in her throat. Touching her pendant, she began to mumble Your organs splattered. again, trying hard to steady her breathing. With her eyes glued on the altar, she chanted through the knocking. Slowly the smoke began to disperse, becoming wide and free. Carrot, fayed — Skin skinned. Head be The knocking slowed. headed Your limbs dismembered. Knock. All fnished? - not yet. Her hair had come undone, dropping quietly toward the wooden foor. Pushing her Mix the corpses salt on wounds hair back, she whispered – “It’s alright. We’re alright.” Fumbling with her pendant, she Insult to injury made her way back to the kitchen. We’re alright. She picked up her headphones from the Heaps of corpses small kitchen table, turned on the noise cancellation and poured her tea. I’m alright. In the foat in a bubbled red ocean living room Salem settled in the armchair - laying on top of Niamh’s uniform - still cautiously watching the green curtains. She sat down on the couch, opened her laptop, With devil’s fork and turned on a movie. Her hand trembled slightly as she brought the warm cup to her bung lips; she was not going to get much sleep tonight. in the darkness of mouth munched. Knock. Knock. “Delicious” She let out a shaky sigh. says the voracious deity.

I wish the knocking would stop.

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Ayuna Yukihira Kazuki Fujii Blood Shade in Peace

hilly wind in the early morning of November hit the branches of a maple tree; Traces of red in devouring white autumn leaves came loose and danced in the foggy sky. Together with the leaves, Take two pills only to distract a pigeon appeared -- five others followed. They flew from the east and stopped I hear stage whispers Ȼ on electrical wires of telegraph poles high above the ground. Then another twelve. The of what she said and what he said of what you did and what I did flock came from the south, and landed next to the first group. Again thirty. A much bigger It’s a recurring cycle group arrived from the west. When the number got over a hundred, murmured voices I’ve seen this scene before grew larger and larger. Finally — one pigeon, whose wrinkles on his face and wings were as many as the hundreds of the gathering pigeons, flapped from the north and touched on Your graceful treachery leaves a stabbing pain the tip of the highest telegraph poll. The mass of birds looked up at the old pigeon. The A quick rush of anger, waves of distress Your words are sharp-edged stones whispers gradually diminished — hundreds to half, to dozens, to several, to three, and to Aimed to scar, never to kill none. Silence occupied the pigeons’ public meeting 15 meters higher than the ground of the human world. Looking over his beloved fellows, the old pigeon held his breath and Now you say I’ve gone insane puffed his chest --- then opened his dried beak: Paint me in blame just to save your face My head is pounding “Hello. My fellow birdkind. I appreciate every single one of you who brought me to Side efects of your lies So watch me as I pull this position. Without your support, I shall not be present. For a long time, we sufered a the knives from my back lot. A lot — from the crisis encroaching on our birds’ society. Our favorable relationship And I’ll carve a perfect jack-o’-lantern smile with human beings worsened rapidly due to the number of policies in the former regime. Deregulation on scavenging their garbage. Derogation from obeying our dropping spots. Give it some time Dereliction of duty to follow guidelines of nesting locations. The chaos stimulated hu- Watch it all fade away When the blood no longer mans’ anxiety and brought tension to our relationship with the living on the ground. This trickles down my skin is not good. Birds and humans are mutually dependent. From now on, we will regain our I’ll wait hopeful future — we will rebuild society.” for you to come around again When the ‘Liberty’ -- the leader of ‘Democratic Peace Pigeons (DPPs)’ (which recently won the election and also rose to the ruling party) -- concluded his passionate inauguration message, storms of excitement and applause by the pigeons pervaded through the gray sky of suburban London.

Watching from a distance on the opposite side of the telegraph polls, a young-journalist pigeon, Peter, also could not resist expressing pleasure. Although he was not such an enthusiastic supporter for the party, the list of unfavorable policies of the former regime led by the ‘Boss’ had made him gloomy for years. He had studied human relations (HR) at Lancaster National Park College and obtained the master degree there. Then he became a reporter at ‘Feather Times’ — the most renowned media institution among birds — and belonged to the ‘Human Afairs Department’ there. His main job was to observe and research about

141 142 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 Student Journal of International Liberal Arts Spring 2021 the forefront of humans’ impressions towards birds. He was happy with the assignment “Ping-pongs* are now happy with the election. The old coot of DPPs will lead us to because Peter’s dream was to better birds’ relationship with human beings. When he was the ‘better’ world.” a child, he was unable to fy well. Normally other pigeons could fy independently about a month after birth. Yet he could not. Seeing other pigeons in the sky that fapped their With a gaze far from the inauguration speech on the opposite side of telegraph polls, wings well, he felt disappointed with himself and sufered from inferiority on the ground. the crow said this in a deep voice with an emphasis on the word ‘better.’ Watching his Then an old man appeared in a park where Peter’s nest was. He sat on a bench, saw the glossy black face from the side, Peter felt that the crow looked around the same age as bird. Perhaps feeling sympathy, he took out a French bread from his cowhide bag, made him. it into pieces and gave the crackers to the pigeon. While Peter pecked them around, the old man loosened his wrinkled face and showed a smile softly. For most of Peter’s life, that “And you seemed not satisfed.” memory continued to occupy his mind. “How could I? Our ‘Boss’ had protected us from human beings for the past years. Now he was a journalist. While he kept researching, he noticed that growing cases They are not our friends. They are enemies. And now the old coot is saying we have to be- of scavenging garbage by crows afected negatively on human beings’ sentiment against come closer to them. What a beggar! Ping-pongs were all spoiled while they kept begging the birds. He wrote an article about it. Yet its publication was heavily criticized and con- bread crackers at the park from humans for so long. So long… that lost sense of wildness demned as ‘biased’ — by the supporters of the now-opposition party. since our old ancestors. We lived purely in bird society in the ancient times — without any harmful humans then. Yeah, you are happy since you ping-pongs are fattered now and Looking around, Peter found them. Black — about thirteen. The pigeon gazed at the brought up in a campaign of anti-war movements by them. Some people like you. We birds. Their sleek and dark wings were like dreadful nights. Their sharp beaks looked easi- crows are black and disdained as unfortunate, on the contrary … But you know they also ly able to pierce through newspapers he wrote. They stood on the electrical wires far from call you dirty, unsanitary, garbage dumper? … For us too. That’s very insane to become the ‘Liberty’ and his fellow pigeons. Compared with the energetic meeting by the hun- ‘friends’ with them.” dreds of pigeons, their atmosphere was flled with grumpiness. No wonder — considering ’Crows Defense for Independence (CDfI)’ lost seats and the election of choosing the leader When he mentioned ‘Boss,’ his black eyes widely opened. It must have been unexpected of birds. Most, or probably all, gave a hostile gaze to the speech. Among them, one crow’s — that the ‘Boss’ of CDfI lost against the ‘Liberty’ in the election. He was a very charismatic eyes met with Peter; one was grimacing and the other grinned. The crow then few toward fgure for the crows. His hostile elocution and frm attitude against human beings. Sometimes the pigeon. Peter’s grin turned into a grimace. In human worlds, the science of psycholo- his tone went quite radical, without hesitation to call the humans ‘destroyers of birds’ society.’ gy proved that negative feelings were more easily transmitted than positive. The same goes No leaders in the bird society ever stepped over the taboo. Because of such excessiveness, for birds. even some pigeons followed the ‘Boss’ — who felt unpleasant towards human beings.

“You must be happy, hah?” “I know some human beings don’t have favorable impressions of us. Yet it is also true that they are the ones who provide us with food. Even crows — you guys can’t survive The crow violently landed next to the pigeon on the electric wire, which swayed without scavenging their dumps. One research institution, called ‘Coo Research Centre’— heavily. Shook up and down, Peter began to fear while clenching his toes frmly. The showed that if we become excessively aggressive against them, as the ‘Boss’ did in the crow’s widely-opened black eyes were stern like a spear — piercing through Peter’s round previous period, they would get further cautious against us. Higher security. Then it would ‘ping-pongs’ of sight. Other pigeons were on the opposite sides. He was alone in the be more difcult for us to gain food from them.” distance. Yet — the same was for the crow. The black bird came alone. If Peter would try with full his strength to fy to the pigeons, there would be no harm. Thinking in that way, Peter decided to reply back to the crow.

“What’s the matter with you?” *Ping Pong: Derogatory term used by other birds for pigeons since their eyes and body looked as tiny and rounded as a ping-pong ball.

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But he just won because he was not the ‘Boss.’ the ‘Liberty?’ Hah, what did he ‘liberate’ “NO! Absolutely NOT! That research centre is always biased and we cannot trust in it. from humans! Compared with our ‘Boss’, that coot is just a shade — no one really expects First of all, why do we need to co-live together with the ‘invaders’? Their land was originally him to be the leader of the bird’s society. Moreover, none could stop human beings’ ours. But the humans came and transformed our forests into messy and miserable urban aggression against birds anymore. Like our ancestors lost their habitat of forests as areas. They crashed our ancestors’ habitat. And then they denigrate us. How could such driven away by humans, we would be eventually tossed away by them like fies. Hah inequality exist? Answer me pigeon, Answer me!” — I really feel poignant!“

When Peter opened his beak to rebut the crow, he noticed one thing — the crow’s left As soon as he left the words, he stood up with his right leg and began fying. Further foot was missing. It was sometimes seen that birds lost their limbs in the urban areas. That and further. The black body gradually turned into a dot in the sky. is because of human’s vehicles — trains and cars. Peter remembered one friend. He was a journalist colleague who had lost his life on the railway. The friend was just fying around “He was such a right-wing guy. I really cannot understand why he could be so pessimistic his nest near telegraph poles. Yet he did not notice that a train came closer — hit by the with humans.” giant metal that ran at 90km/h. When Peter arrived at the site, the friend’s corpse did not form the shape of the bird. Organs and blood were splattered around the stones of the “It was good for us that the ‘Boss’ of CDfI lost in the election — he was too bad with railway. human beings. He stirred up our fears a lot, and had negative infuences on birds’ perception of them.” Peter thought that trafc accidents were unfortunate but inevitable. Even some human beings experience that and lose their lives. But watching the crow’s missing limb made Peter The group of fve pigeons now started discussing the matter of human-bird recall the memory of the lost friend — a feeling of sorrow. When the crow landed onto relationships. We are protected by the Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law under the British the electrical wire, it swayed heavily. Peter felt that it was because of the crow’s violence — government. There shall not be any harm then. Yes, people in Britain are especially warmer but probably not. It must be quite hard for the crow to support his entire body with only than those of the continent. A country called ‘France’ across a strait has an old culture of one foot. He could not keep his balance well, and that is why the wire shook severely. eating pigeons’ meat. Here we are safe.

As Peter’s excitement suddenly toned down into calm, his opened beak could not Hearing the conversation, Peter’s attention was completely away — what kept occupying produce any sounds because of his shock. A state of static. While the silence occupied the his mind was the crow’s lost-left foot. Although Peter did not agree with him, the crow’s last two birds for a while, a fapping sound gradually came from the opposite side of the elec- words shook the pigeon’s mind. Division. He thought. I was happy with the victory of DPPs. trical wires. Other pigeons. Five. But to whom does justice belong? Is it to us, to them, or to both, or neither?

“Hey, why is a crow standing here? Did you come here to see the new leader of our Peter turned his face away from the group of pigeons. A television. From the window birds?” of a three-story house of human residents. He was able to see the screen from a distance. There, a young male news reporter was reporting feces damage by birds against historical “But crows were always supporting the ‘Boss’! No way he came here to congratulate Victorian buildings in London. the ‘Liberty’ --- our DPPs leader.”

The pigeons kept talking with each other, fve-meters away from the black bird. The crow seemed slightly puzzled; he was alone now among the six pigeons. Then he turne his face towards the group of his black fellows far in the distance. Taking a pause, he looked back and gave a gaze at each pigeon and lastly at Peter. The crow shouted.

“You think now our bird society would be better, with the old coot of DPPs as leader.

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Kei Torio “You’re going?” He popped out from the kitchen.

Alone Together “…” She struggled wearing her high heels without the stockings.

“Well, I was making cofee but okay. You go, I stay.” He looked sad as a lonely puppy. Curtain Call “Sorry, but thank you.” She left the apartment with a smile. After they made their last love, Ann was scared of losing him, but had no choice. “It’s all over.” She mumbled and gently kissed her sleeping boyfriend. That was the last time he saw her.

Early in the morning, the sunlight entered between the curtains into her eyes. She looked “Good bye…” He said it to the door as Ann went out. for the clock that was usually annoying in the mornings. Six O’clock. There, she noticed she was in the king-sized bed, alone. Where is he? It was a bright morning. The breeze flled the room, while the birds sang with joy. Wait. I closed that window last night. She Girl’s Side walked to the opened window. A few months later, Ann was at an ofce. She worked from 9 to 5, staring at the computer. The veranda smelled of tobacco. Drew stood there looking far away. Maybe he looked She desired to stay with Drew, but she had to take her life seriously. Jobs, bills, and reality over the whole town counting the stars on the ground. For a 24th foor resident, looking overwhelmed her. She was satisfed with her decision, but she also regretted it. below sparkled more than the stars above. Do you know that night I almost said, “I love you?” His back looked smaller than usual. But I had to go… From today…By myself…

She wished to have the courage to go closer to him. She went back into the room, closed Lots of love, the curtains without leaving even a little space. She sneaked back into the cozy bed. Ann

Marking Boy’s Side

Seven O’clock. Work time…. Never in her life had she thrown away her work. Her arm Drew lay down on the bed like a living-dead creature for days. He didn’t want to wake up went to the sleeve of her white blouse. The silk touch gently stroked her pearl skin. Her in the real world, but wanted to stay in his world with Ann. Suddenly she woke up looking back shivered when the blouse hugged her. But no. It’s all over. at the future. He looked at the past. At the time when they spent their last morning. While

smoking, he had realized their journey would soon end, soon and Ann did not like it, but Her pencil skirt squeezed her thighs up to her waist. A beige stocking lay on the foor with she had to go on. its legs crossed. She smelled it to test if it will go for another day or not.

“Bet it!” I knew our story was about to end.

She crouched on the messy bed. She caressed the right-leg stocking. Smooth, it camou- I had to part from her faged her leg. She reached her arm to the left one. A little scar was on the stocking’s skin. Even though I don’t want to. Yep, That was Drew. But we could be alone together.

She glanced at Drew and planned to complain. But he was not there. All the luck to you, Ann,

A large sigh came out. Drew

She headed of to the entrance grabbing her bag. I’ll go straight to the pharmacy to get some stockings, then buy a cup of Starbucks, and….

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Anh Nguyen Anh Nguyen My Milk Mug It’s a Monochrome World

Hot to the tip of my hand a.m. The alarm clock let out one single beep before I turned it off. November’s early I want to hold you so bad morning was a bit chilly, and I struggled to get out of my cozy heavy blanket, but I The warm, nurturing milk in you 4 managed. While everyone in the apartment was still fast asleep, I went to the bathroom The liquid I need to sustain and began brushing my teeth and washing my face. Then, I continued separating my To clear up the fog in my brain white hairs from the black ones and applied black hair dye. I had spent the past weekend To warm me down to my core in the apartment with Mummy, so I did not dye my hair for two days, and the white part had grown so much. I used instant hair dye, so it would take about 30 minutes to set in. The buttery creamy smell within you

Entice my lips to your rim As I was about to enter the shower room, I heard the sound of Mummy going into the Yet the fuming smoke kitchen. “Oh no, it’s 5 a.m already,” I thought, and turned on the water. Quickly washed Coming from you and then quickly dried my hair. I got dressed, put on my contact lenses and headed to the Warns me not to do so dining room. Mummy was setting up the table while mother was reading the newspaper. As I waited, patiently “Here’s your soy sauce, Kimiko,” Mummy placed the bottle of soy sauce next to mother. Eventually Mother put down her newspaper and poured soy sauce on her rolled omelette. Mother Kimiko was already dressed in her dark blue suit and ready for work. Mummy Ria, on You ofer me your handle to hold the other hand, wore her apron over her pink pajamas, her platinum hair was messy and Gently you thaw my touch all over the place. Mummy sat down on the opposite of the mother’s seat and poured And we kiss Worchester sauce on her sunny-side up egg. One sip, just one at a time So this moment lasts forever “Good morning mum, good morning mother.” The morning plagued with the mist We traded, I’m flled, you’re empty I sat down and poured both soy sauce and Worcester sauce on my sunny-side up. While you’re still warm I want to hold you more Mother snarled at me, “I wish you would stop eating like that, these two sauces do not go well together.” Thank you for the meal

My good one “Kimiko, come on. Let Hana enjoy what she likes.” Mummy smiled gently at me. Mother scowled at Mummy, then quietly fnished her breakfast. I also quickly fnished my breakfast so that I could leave at the same time with Mother.

”Bye Kimiko, bye Hana. Don’t forget your lunch!” Mummy fxed Mother’s tie while checking if I had taken my lunch with me. Her crystal blue eyes looked back and forth to check on me and Mother. Then Mummy took a silver white lily hair pin and attached it on mother’s hair bun. The silver lily added a nice detail on mother’s dark luscious hair.

“Bye Mummy.”

“Have a good day Ria.”

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As we were heading to the elevator, I heard a friendly voice greeting. ”Hana, how’s “I hope our kids won’t be short like you,” I teased Ritsuko, and she pouted as she ya weekend? Good morning Mrs. Kimiko.” Ristuko hugged me tightly from the back and yanked my lunch from me. smiled widely at my mother. Mother nodded at Ritsuko. We went on the elevator. “What wicked creation you got this time?” Ritsuko curiously looked inside. “Ew, it ”Pretty normal, I spent the weekend doing a black and white movie marathon with smells awful!” mummy.” My face fustered bloodshot red. “Yes! I like it that way, okay, leave me be.” I grabbed “Ehhh, why didn’t you invite me too? We could have watched something more exciting, my lunch, the Peanut Butter and Jelly sandwich, angrily taking a bite of it. like those new horrors that just came out.” “Why would you go and mix these things up like that huh?” “You know I don’t do well with horror,” I pouted. “Peanut Butter is tasty, Jelly is tasty too! Why is it bad to mix them up?” I grunted. ”C’mon watch for my sake, okay? You know, I have two tickets to the new slasher movie, come with me please?” Ritsuko pouted. My pouty face could never win against Ritsuko noticed how uneasy I was with her attitude. She hugged me tenderly, “It’s Ritsuko’s. With her short black hair hugging her blushing face, her pouty peachy lips okay. You’re weird, and I like that about you.” She looked at me with her puppy dog eyes. and big round eyes, Ritsuko is probably the cutest Japanese high school girl ever. I looked “Don’t be mad at me please?” Ritsuko was being too adorable for me to stay mad at her. over to Mother. Mother glared at me, urging me not to let this adorable girl wait. Much “Fine,” I sighed. as I didn’t want to watch something bloody, I involuntarily agreed with Ritsuko. Ritsuko smiled brightly, with her dark hazelnut eyes glistening softly. We got down to the apart- “Hey you lovers, get a room!” One of our classmates noticed us. “It’s always so ment’s parking lot and mom drove the two of us to school. chummy with you guys huh.”

*** “There are single people here, you know? Stop faunting your love!” said another classmate, jokingly. After homeroom, the frst class period was Biology. My mind drifted away as the teacher went on about chromosomes and whatever about DNA. “Chromosomes carry Ritsuko and I both looked at each other, then we looked at our classmates., and I kissed Ritsuko on her cheek. Ritsuko embraced me seductively while looking at our classmates’ hereditary information… they determine how tall you are and what your eye’s color is… reaction, and then we broke into laughter as our classmates yelled and recoiled. humans have 22 chromosome pairs and one pair of XX chromosomes…” I yawned, accidentally too loud. The teacher snarled at me, while everyone in the classroom giggled. “Let’s continue. The fundamental laws of inheritance. Your genes come in pairs. For *** example, if your mother is tall and has black hair…” I glanced over to Ritsuko, then the whole class. Everyone’s heights difer, but they all have the same dark, black luscious hair I felt nauseous after watching the horror movie with Ritsuko. Ritsuko joyfully like Mother. Another diference between them was their hair texture. I started writing a list reviewed the details of the movie. I ignored her, squeezing my eyes and looking up in of my observations of my classmates: tall-curly, tall-straight, short-straight,... Oh, this girl, she the sky, taking a deep breath in. We headed to the convenience store near our apartment straightened her hair. It was all curly and pufy last week. I wrote down: short-curly. Her building. We went in, Ritsuko headed for the ice cream aisle. Mummy Ria was working at straight hair would return to curly anyway. Straight hair does look good on her, but she the register. looks so bubbly adorable with her small body and large wavy hair. “Hi Mum!” Mummy looked exhausted. Her platinum blonde hair was so messy and *** thinned out, it looked more white than blonde.

Finally, lunch time! “Hi Hana. Hi Ritsuko.” Mummy looked over to Ritsuko. Ritsuko completely did not hear Mummy and kept looking at the ice creams. “You look pale,” Mummy worriedly “Hey, if we have children, maybe our kids will inherit your gene of being bad at looked at me. cooking, Hana.” Ritsuko took a bite from her melon bread. “We just saw that new slasher movie. I felt a little dizzy, that’s all.”

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“Then just get the usual and I’ll pay for you then.” Mummy told me. I grabbed a *** small milk carton and a can of cofee. Mummy checked a can of cofee and the milk carton. Then she took out some coins from her pocket and placed them in the cashier “Wanna head home yet?” said Ritsuko. machine. “No, I’m gonna wait for Mummy to fnish her shift.” “This is your daughter? She looks nothing like you,” said a noisy middle-aged cus- tomer. Mummy smiled, she did not know what to say. I went over to Ritsuko. “Well, good Ritsuko looked over to Mummy. “Fine then.” for her,” said that customer as she left the store. She left the convenience store. We sat at the seating corner of the convenience store. I opened the milk carton and poured cofee into it. A while later, Mummy fnished with her shift, and we walked home. Mummy wore a large unfashionable grey hoodie. “Should we go shopping for clothes this weekend?” I “Stop it Hana, this is absurd. You’re committing food crime.” suggested.

“Just let me be, will ya?” I grunted. My head had been hurting while watching that Mummy smiled kindly, “Sure, what do you want to buy? I think a long black lace bloody movie. dress would look good on you.”

“Awe, don’t be mad,” Ritsuko playfully stroked my hair. I took a sip of my drink. The “No, I’m saying we should buy something for you.” taste calmed me down. Just as my headache started to subside, Ritsuko came back with another comment:” I cannot understand how you can drink that thing.” “Aww, my daughter is too sweet.” She laughed it of. “There’s no color that would suit me anyway.” I stayed quiet. I stirred my milk-cofee concoction. “If it suits me then it should suit you. I am your daughter, you know.” As Ritsuko looked like she was about to continue, I cut her of: ”Look, I watched a horror movie with you, even though I don’t like to. Why can’t you respect my hobby too?” “No, no. None of the colors go well with me. Both black and white made me stand out-” she stopped. Ritsuko still played around with my hair. She was braiding it behind me. “I’m just saying. Why would you go and mix two things together when they are perfectly fne the “If you stand out then I will stand out too.” way they are?” “No, no. You’re beautiful my daughter. That is because you’re Kimiko’s daughter “I’m mixed too you know,” I said under my breath. I took another sip of the concoction, too.” She opened the door to our apartment. Mother was already home, reading the news my eyes were burning with rage. Suddenly, Ritsuko yanked out one of my hair strands. on her smartphone. She didn’t even bother to look up, and asked: ”Ria, when will the dinner be ready?” Mummy hurriedly went inside. I closed the door behind us. Finally, the “Ouch, whatcha do that for?” horridly long frst day of the week was over.

“Hold on. Done.” Ritsuko fnished braiding my long hair, and she told me to turn around. I held in my anger, turned back at her.

“Okay, I’m sorry, okay? But it’s okay, I promise I’m not like the others. I love you, just the way you are, just as beautiful as you are now.” Ritsuko sincerely looked at me. On her hand, she was holding a strand of glistening silver white hair. She gently dropped it on the foor.

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Ayuna Yukihira Without the Stars Trapped in a cornfeld maze. Every path taken Unspoken Tale leads to dead ends. I lay on my back and saw the sky “Setareh” without you there. We lay on concrete ground Saw the sky without the stars It started with goodbyes. Just you and me, A friendly stranger, embraced in silence. you’ve become.

Gave me your scarf Your voice in my head It wrapped around my neck. but my heart sings of freedom Roasted pistachios I’ll follow lingered in memory the winds instead to a place, I’ll call home. Rustling leaves outside the window Maybe one day…no that November night, I shouldn’t say. do you still remember? It’s time that I leave.

Our shadows aligned my head on your shoulder as I Sip of Mistake took a sip from your cup Cracked shells on the foor bitter sweet plum held her hand in the dark

like my secrets, Your hands were cold wrapped my scarf Just like mine. around her neck.

She took a sip from my cup Devouring White that night, Spilled ink on her head on my shoulder empty canvas. I thought she was mine. You called them stains Yet words were so now everything’s grey unspoken I wish it were black. and she left in the morning with My truth was your lie “Everything’s grey” molded over months. her indecisive tides Sculptures can’t paint are to blame. and I ruin beautiful things.

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Surrender Keita Kohno My windows boarded up Winter Tree for the storm to come.

Don’t knock on my door with questions Dearth for answers Leaves go you wish not Swallowed up high to know. To where, ganders cry

They pull you in Shredded, like ocean tides and Mourning in ache in the end Too much to take you’ll swallow sand. In the broad daylight rape

The fnal feather Renée Taken away, with that Shivering trees and Single gale sworn secrecy.

There he stands Nonetheless, a reckless sculptor. Alas, perfection

“Estelle” Seeing her perfumed nudity he whispers May I eulogize the enchantress? as if bitter plum Or be triggered with her seductiveness? linger on his tongue. Dear me, how! Year-end widow, There’s piling snow With your last boy seized outside these walls. By that cruel winter general His wandering eyes and Could you stand in the blizzard my wondering nights Alone to just freeze? end, in crushed pistachio shells. Yet, I’ve seen it all! As if the only hair Who is to blame for this Was plucked out splattered ink. From a bald man’s head. How stories change in With pity, my mouth is flled with convenient ways. Rich bitter, and too much savory

“Estelle” I’ve seen it all! they would whisper, How your little man has fown. rumors in static hiss. Blown away futtering, oh futtering But they dare not ask Like a freed dove from a cage footnotes to my Charmingly so it did, soared above unspoken tale. The red toasting chimney

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And gently Ellie Olstad Like a snowfake on the moon Found its place Dear Friend Where it had a lawn And a fallen plume

Lying there Dear Friend, Waiting for the next I miss you. Gush of wind Immensely. I hope you are well. I look forward to the day we meet again A cup of hot tea eager conversation drowning out the silence that is ever present when I am not with You. Whom I miss. Immensely.

Do You Remember? The warm spring wind, softly sweeping the last pink petals away. In a glass bubble with excited voices, we were in our own. Just you and me. When my feelings bubbled over. A tube of toothpaste being stepped on. It was not your mess, nor yours to clean. Yet you sat there. Holding my hand. It was never a question, “Do I stay? Do I leave?” Though the bubble was cracking, and the splinters were piercing; you sat there and held my hand. While I sobbed.

Absence of Sheep Spools of yarn. A kitten’s heaven. Pull one string and watch it unwind Magical thread Memories entwined During good or bad weather Laughter bounces of the walls Deep secrets knitted away Always with a common thread.

Daybreak I still fnd it funny, how I never knew orange and blue were complementary, until I met you.

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Please Press Play. “You should probably not do that,” he looked up at her, head slightly askew; clearly judg- ing. “I really want to, but maybe it is too much? To hell with anyone who thinks it is too About the Authors much. It is my game, I decide.” Well, that means to hell with me doesn’t it? He shook his head disapprovingly. “Do as you like, it’s not my place,” he stood up, stretching his long body. “I’ll just leave you to it then, but don’t say I didn’t warn you.” Slinking away through the Kazuki Fujii (Shade in Peace / Kitchen) is a Japanese student at AIU who took doorway, he glanced back at her. She was still hunched over her screen, mouth slightly Professor Joel Friederich's Creative Writing in the Fall of 2020. Although Kazuki has agape with square eyes. She looked over at him, “Oh you’re leaving?” He nodded. Rush- always been passionate about reading and writing, this was his frst attempt at making a ing over, she crouched down as she rubbed his soft raven fur. Reluctant purrs reverberated poem and a story. He graduated from AIU in March 2021 and will enter graduate school through her palm. “I’ll see you later then,” leaning down to kiss his pink nose she almost in Italy (University of Padova) to specialize in media and communication. toppled over and let out a breathy laugh. She might be silly sometimes, but at least she feeds me. K. Kohno (Rock Throne and Snowdust / Winter Tree) is a junior at Akita Inter- A New Chapter national University. His feld of expertise in writing is pseudohistory, incorporating various You stood there, historical events into a fctional concept. Here he takes on a challenge of illustrating the meek and unsure. mental dynamics under a static environment. Moreover, he has put eforts on adopting You said hello poetic techniques within his creative writing to deliver sensual information to the readers. A shy smile His story “Rock Throne and Snowdust” was selected as runner up for the Editor’s Choice An awkward handshake Award for Creative Writing for this edition of AIU’s student journal. But so warm, and open. Anh Nguyen (It’s a Monochrome World / My Milk Mug) is a recent graduate of Dear Friend, Akita International University. She took Professor Joel Friederich's Creative Writing in Fall Semester 2020. Before taking the class, Anh used to write in journals as a hobby, however When we met she had stopped since she went to university. Creative Writing class allowed her to reignite In spring, her love with writing. The trickling sound of snowmelt. In summer, Ellie Olstad (Anemoi / Knock Knock / Dear Friend) is a senior student at AIU The cool taste of watermelon. majoring in Global Business. Originally from Norway, she grew up listening to Norwegian In autumn, folktales, which sparked her interest in telling stories. She took Creative Writing in autumn The crisp touch of fresh books. of 2020 to explore and reignite her interest in writing creatively. The majority of her writ- In winter, ing takes place in mysterious, eerie and dark settings exploring several themes such as the The gentle smell of bergamot. supernatural, fear and death. Her poem “Anemoi” was selected as winner of the Editor’s

Choice Award for Creative Writing for this edition of AIU’s student journal. I knew then As I know now Kei Torio (Alone Together) is a junior at Akita International University. She used I won’t ever let you go. to write and tell short stories when she was a child. She loved happy-ending stories, but stopped for years. Her story “Alone Together,” shows the end of a romance in a collage of two perspectives.

Ayuna Yukihira (Unspoken Tale / Blood) is a junior student at AIU. Her inspiration for creative writing comes from the nostalgic natural sceneries she remembers in Akita. “Unspoken Tale” is a narrative/collage poem with 6 sections. In this piece, she explores the depths and complexity of daunting emotions from betrayal, hurt, loss, and the process of fnding "closure."

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