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Chapter 1 the Science of Psychology HEWSTONE_Sample.qxd 7/8/04 19:54 Page 2 chapter 1 The Science of Psychology CHAPTER OUTLINE LEARNING OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION PINNING DOWN PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY AND COMMON SENSE: THE GRANDMOTHER CHALLENGE Putting common sense to the test Explaining human behaviour THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Philosophical influences Physiological influences PSYCHOLOGY TODAY Structuralism: mental chemistry Functionalism: mental accomplishment Behaviourism: a totally objective psychology Gestalt psychology: making connections Out of school: the independents The cognitive revolution FINAL THOUGHTS SUMMARY REVISION QUESTIONS FURTHER READING HEWSTONE_Sample.qxd 7/8/04 19:54 Page 3 Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter you will appreciate: n what psychology is, and how it differs from ‘common sense’; n that psychological knowledge can be usefully applied in many different professions and walks of life; n the emergence of psychology as a distinct discipline around 150 years ago, from its roots in physiology, physics and philosophy; n the fundamental differences between different schools of thought in psychology; n that psychology is the science of mental life and behaviour, and that different schools of thought within psychology place differing degrees of emphasis on understanding these separate elements of psychology; n that most academic departments in the English-speaking world focus on the teaching of experimental psychology, in which scientific evidence about the structure and function of the mind and behaviour accumulates through the execution of empirical investigations; n that in the history of psychology many different metaphors have been used for thinking about the workings of the human mind, and since the Second World War the most influential of these metaphors has been another complex information-processing device – the computer. INTRODUCTION Psychology is often defined as ‘the science of Ask yourself: ‘Who am I?’ You might mention behaviour’. Certainly, psychologists invest a con- many aspects of yourself when you answer this siderable amount of time and effort in observing question, including your personality, your experi- and measuring behaviour. But they are also inter- ences, your sexual preferences, age, physical ested in what people say about their experiences. characteristics, aspirations, attitudes, social con- Rather than studying a person’s behaviour in tacts and so on. All of these are of interest to psy- isolation, they use the behaviour to find out chologists (see chapters 10, 14 and 17). As if about mental and biological processes, motives this were not enough, they would also be inter- and personality traits. Therefore a definition of ested in things that you are unlikely to mention, psychology as ‘the science of behaviour’ is like your physiology (especially processes in your inadequate. nervous system), genetic make-up, and mental So, what is psychology? One way to answer this processes that are outside your conscious aware- question is to start with the word itself. ness (see chapters 3, 5 and 7). ‘Psychology’ literally means ‘science of the mind’ Here is a selection of the many activities that (psycho meaning ‘mind’, or ‘mental’, and -logy psychologists engage in and the settings in which meaning ‘science’). A better definition of psy- they do so: chology might be ‘the science of behaviour and mental processes’, and indeed this is the n Teaching and developing training programmes definition offered in most introductory psychology (universities, colleges, hospitals, industry, textbooks. government) But does this expanded definition cover the n Scientific research (universities, private and wide range of phenomena studied by psycholo- government research institutes, industry) gists – including topics you might not expect n Diagnosis and treatment of emotional and to find in a psychology textbook, like thirst, vision behavioural problems (hospitals, community and hearing (chapters 5, 7 and 8)? service agencies, private practice) HEWSTONE_Sample.qxd 7/8/04 19:54 Page 4 4 The science of psychology n Personality testing, vocational testing and n Helping athletes improve performance (pro- test development (personnel departments of fessional sports teams, government sports organizations, consulting firms) institutes) n Advising government on policies (all levels of government) Given this diversity of activities it should be no n Diagnosis and treatment of learning difficul- surprise that it is impossible to identify a com- ties, emotional and behavioural problems that mon set of characteristics (or even a single char- impair education (nurseries, schools, special acteristic) that sets psychologists apart from education units, universities) sociologists, anthropologists, biologists and so n Designing machines, computers, systems (e.g. on. What does this mean for you, as you begin assembly lines), traffic signs etc. that are opti- your study of psychology? It means that the sub- mal for human use (industry, government) ject you have chosen to explore is more complex n Providing expertise to the legal system (prisons, than it might appear at first sight – which makes courts, consulting firms) it all the more fascinating. n Developing advertising and marketing strategies (business) Figure 1.1 Psychologists engage in a wide range of activities, including helping athletes to improve their performance. Abnormal psychology: Nature and development of abnormal PINNING DOWN PSYCHOLOGY behavior, thoughts, feelings associated with distress or impaired functioning that is not a culturally expected To begin with, psychology is not a single enterprise. Rather, it is response to an event (see chapter 15) a coalition of specialities, each identified by the adjective that Behaviour genetics: Impact of heredity on animal and human precedes the word ‘psychology’. So, for example, developmental behaviour (see chapter 13) psychology encompasses age-related changes across the lifespan, Clinical psychology: Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of clinical psychology focuses on the causes and treatment of psy- mental disorders and disabilities (see chapters 14, 15 and 16) chological disorders and adjustment problems, physiological Cognitive neuroscience: Neuronal basis of mental processes psychology investigates the association between physiology and (see chapter 3) behaviour/mind, cognitive psychology looks at basic mental Cognitive psychology: Study of the processes by which sen- processes, and so on. Here is a list of the many sub-fields of sory information is transformed, reduced, elaborated, psychology: stored, retrieved and used (see chapters 8, 11 and 12) HEWSTONE_Sample.qxd 7/8/04 19:54 Page 5 Pinning down Psychology 5 Community psychology: Person-environment interactions have given rise to the field of pediatric psychology (see and the ways society impacts upon individual and commu- chapters 3 and 19) nity functioning. Focuses on social issues, social institu- Neuropsychology: Study of the impact of disorders of the tions, and other settings that influence individuals, groups, nervous system (especially the brain) on behaviour (see and organizations. Emphasizes changing social systems to chapters 3, 5 and 7) prevent psychological problems (see chapters 17, 18 and Organizational psychology: Study of structures and functions 19) of organizations and the activities of the people within Comparative psychology: The study of behaviour in different them. Included in its remit are job satisfaction, employee species (see chapters 3, 4 and 5) attitudes and motivation, and their effects on absenteeism, Consumer psychology: The effects of advertising, marketing, labour turnover, and organizational productivity and effi- packaging, and display on the behaviour of purchasers (see ciency (see chapter 20) chapter 17) Personality psychology/Individual Differences: Study of char- Counselling psychology: Traditionally associated with the acteristics that make each person unique (see chapter 14) field of education, counseling psychology may include Social psychology: Investigation of the reciprocal influence of vocational guidance as well as helping persons resolve the individual and his or her social context (see chapters 17, problems or role issues related to work or school or family 18 and 20) matters (see chapter 16) Sport/exercise psychology: Reciprocal effects of psychological Cross-cultural psychology: Impact of culture on human factors on sports/exercise behaviour (see chapters 13 and 18) Developmental psychology: Change in behavioural and The numerous specialities make psychology a wide-reaching sub- mental processes over the life span (see chapters 9 and 10) ject with rather fuzzy boundaries. So, you may well ask, ‘What is Developmental psychopathology: The origins and course of the glue that holds psychology together as a discipline?’ individual patterns of behavioral maladaptation whatever If there is any one thing, it is psychology’s reliance on a philo- the age of onset, causes or transformations in behavioral sophical view known as empiricism. Empiricists believe that manifestation (see chapter 15) knowledge comes from observation and experience (the Greek Educational psychology (also called school psychology): empeiria literally means ‘experience’). This viewpoint tells us that Diagnosis and treatment of educational, emotional, and all hypotheses about human functioning should have an observ- behavioural problems in children and teenagers (see chap- able consequence, which can be confirmed or refuted by data col- ters 9 and
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