1 Une Étude Comparative De L'adoption D'un Nouveau

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1 Une Étude Comparative De L'adoption D'un Nouveau UNE ÉTUDE COMPARATIVE DE L’ADOPTION D’UN NOUVEAU REMÈDE ANTISCORBUTIQUE EN ANGLETERRE ET EN FRANCE AU TEMPS DES VOYAGES DE DÉCOUVERTES AUX TERRES AUSTRALES James Tibballs Thèse pour remplir toutes les conditions requises pour un doctorat February 2019 École de Langues et de Linguistique Université de Melbourne https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4433-004X 1 Fas est et ab hoste doceri (Il est légitime d’apprendre même de l’ennemi) (Ovid, Book IV, 428) 2 ABSTRACT The navies of France and England explored Indo-Pacific regions in the 18th and 19th centuries, seeking new scientific knowledge and territories. Although equal in technical and navigational skills, the health of their crews was very different. When French explorer Nicolas Baudin encountered English explorer Matthew Flinders off the south coast of Nouvelle Hollande in 1802, the English crew was healthy while the French was scorbutic. From 1795, British crews were protected from scurvy by a daily ration of lemon juice preserved in alcohol. While adoption of this innovation was judged late by sociologist Everett Rogers, according to his theory Diffusion of Innovations, its adoption almost a century later by the French was even more so. This work explores reasons for late adoption by both navies, referring to Rogers’ theory. Scurvy was inevitable during prolonged sea journeys, appearing after 2-3 months. Landfall was the only remedy, but for reasons unknown. The real cause, lack of dietary vitamin C (ascorbic acid), causing fatal haemorrhages, was discovered in 1932. However, 17th century British and French explorers had discovered that citrus fruits cured and prevented scurvy, believing erroneously that their acid content was antiscorbutic. Their discoveries were ignored. Putative causes and remedies for scurvy were proposed, in the context of prevailing medical ideologies such as Galenism or iatromechanics. In 1747 James Lind experimented and showed that only oranges and lemons cured scorbutic sailors. Lind also prepared a “rob” (heat-distilled preparation of juice) which was not tested. Half a century passed before Gilbert Blane, knowing that heat destroyed antiscorbutic property, persuaded the British Navy to adopt alcohol-preserved lemon juice. In England, debate over spurious remedies, including malt used by James Cook, delayed adoption of lemon juice. In reality, consumption of fruit and vegetables on frequent landfall during expeditions explains why Cook’s crews remained healthy. Likewise, in France, debate over spurious causes such as consumption of meat, delayed adoption of lemon juice. A vegetarian diet, which did not contain fresh produce, remained in force for over a decade. An important hindrance was, ironically, the invention of a process by Nicolas Appert in 1802 to preserve heat-sterilised food in glass jars which enabled consumption of food, otherwise available only on shore, during long sea journeys. The process prevented putrefaction of food and preserved its taste, but unknown to Appert and French authorities, also destroyed its antiscorbutic property. Not until the Crimean war in the 1850s, did French authorities realise that preserved food did not prevent scurvy in contrast to lime juice which maintained health of their British ally. A Commission was established in 1856 to investigate preparations of citrus fruit but erroneously recommended a heated preparation based on acidity and taste, not on antiscorbutic property. A decree of 1860 ordered consumption of lemon juice but could not be fulfilled. Additional decrees of 1874 and 1894 encouraged delivery and consumption of lemon juice but its need dissipated with the introduction of steamships which shortened sea journeys. Citrus juice was never effectively adopted by the French Navy, compromising voyages of discovery. 3 4 Table des Matières Abstract 3 Declaration 4 Table des Matières 5 Remerciements 6 Introduction 7 La théorie de Diffusion of Innovations 13 Chapitre 1 - Facteurs qui peuvent influencer l’adoption d’un remède antiscorbutique 19 Contextes maritimes 19 Influence du siècle des Lumières 20 Siècle des Lumières dans la médecine 20 Idéologies médicales 22 Le regard sur les maladies 28 L’environnement et l’hygiène 32 Le médecin éclairé à la fin de l’Ancien Régime 35 Révolution et la Marine française 35 Technologies maritimes 37 Invention des conserves alimentaires 39 Chapitre 2 - Regard historique sur le scorbut 42 Chapitre 3 - Voyage de Nicolas Baudin aux Terres australes 53 Chapitre 4 - Voyages qui révélèrent des remèdes antiscorbutiques 81 Voyages de Jacques Cartier 81 Voyages de James Lancaster 82 Voyage de Sir Richard Hawkins 88 Voyages de François Pyrard de Laval et de François Martin de Vitré 90 Voyage de James Lind 98 Chapitre 5 - Voyages français de découvertes aux Terres australes 102 Voyage mythique de Gonneville 102 Voyage de Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier 104 Voyage de Louis Antoine de Bougainville 105 Voyage de Jean-Marie de Surville 108 Voyage de Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne 109 Voyages d’Yves de Kerguelen et de Louis de Saint Aloüarn 112 Voyage de Jean-François de Galaup, comte de la Pérouse 119 Voyage de Joseph-Antoine Raymond de Bruny d’Entrecasteaux 122 Voyage de Louis Claude de Freycinet 129 Voyage de Louis Isidore Duperrey 131 Voyages de Jules Sébastian César Dumont d’Urville 134 Chapitre 6 - Voyages anglais de découvertes aux Terres australes 138 Voyage de George Anson 139 Voyage de John Byron 145 Voyages de Samuel Wallis et de Philip Carteret 148 Voyages de James Cook 154 Chapitre 7 – Adoption du traitement du scorbut en Angleterre 166 Chapitre 8 – Adoption du traitement du scorbut en France 203 Chapitre 9 – Conclusions 240 Bibliographie 246 Appendix – Abbreviated text in English 261 5 REMERCIEMENTS Ce travail est né des intérêts historiques, médicaux et navals, tous dans les contextes d’une relation franco-anglais et de l’exploration des Terres australes. Le rassemblement de ces idées hétérogènes a exigé une direction minutieuse. Tout d’abord, je remercie la directrice principale de cette thèse, Associate Professor Jacqueline Dutton, School of Languages & Linguistics (French Studies), The University of Melbourne, qui a guidé et encouragé mes idées avec zèle et patience, aidée de temps à autre par Dr Andrew McGregor, School of Languages & Linguistics (French Studies), The University of Melbourne, co-directeur de cette thèse. La plupart des épreuves de la thèse ont été lues et corrigées par mon enseignante, Mme Françoise Leconte et certaines d’entre elles ont été lues par mon collègue Dr Kevin Collins (retraité) ou par mon enseignante Mme Yvette Murphy, toutes aux termes de l’article 4.78 de Graduate Research Training Policy (MPF1321) de l’Université. Par ailleurs, ces personnes n’ont eu aucune participation à la structure et à l’essentiel de la thèse. Je remercie aussi les membres du personnel de la Bibliothèque Nationale de France et ceux de The Baillieu Library, The University of Melbourne, qui m’ont fourni les travaux que je ne pouvais obtenir moi-même. Pour finir, j’adresse mes remerciements aux deux examinateurs anonymes, à certains amis, surtout de l’Alliance Française de Melbourne, et aux membres de ma famille qui ont montré de l’intérêt pour mon travail. 6 INTRODUCTION Après la « découverte » (détection européenne) par les Hollandais de la Nouvelle Hollande et de la Terre de Van Diemen au XVIIe siècle, les Français continuèrent pendant un siècle et demi à chercher un autre pays, les Terres australes, dans la région Indo-Pacifique. Lorsqu’il devint évident que les Terres australes n’existaient pas, qu’elles étaient mythiques, la France rivalisa avec l’Angleterre pour explorer et coloniser la Nouvelle Hollande et la Terre de Van Diemen. On a beaucoup disserté sur le fait que les Anglais avaient réussi à coloniser la Nouvelle Hollande alors que les Français y avaient échoué. Et pourtant, les Anglais n’avaient pas la priorité absolue quant aux actes de prise de possession de l’ensemble de cette terre inexplorée. Les Français et les Anglais n’y débarquèrent qu’à deux ans d’intervalle. Tandis que le capitaine James Cook débarqua sur la côte orientale du continent en 1770, Louis de Saint Aloüarn débarqua en 1772 sur la côte occidentale de la Nouvelle Hollande et Marion du Fresne débarqua en même temps sur la côte méridionale de la Terre de Van Diemen. Quelques années plus tard, les Anglais parvinrent à coloniser la Nouvelle Hollande. Plusieurs hypothèses ont été déjà émises dans les domaines de la politique, de la science, de la philosophie et de l’histoire ; pourtant un fait incontestable s’impose. Il est évident qu’à l’époque les Anglais étaient capables d’effectuer des voyages au long cours en maintenant un état de santé convenable, alors que les Français, en contractant des maladies, surtout le scorbut, s’affaiblissaient ou en périssaient. Les Anglais, en consommant les agrumes, se protégeaient contre le scorbut depuis la fin du XVIIIe siècle, mais les Français ne commencèrent à les prendre que vers la fin du XIXe siècle. Pourquoi l’adoption des agrumes comme remède antiscorbutique a-t-elle été si retardée en France, par rapport à l’acceptation en Angleterre ? Etant donné qu’il ne s’agit pas là d’une hypothèse mais d’une observation vérifiable, nous nous pencherons sur cette différence fondamentale pour creuser la question posée ci-dessus d’une manière originale. Dans cette étude, nous nous donnons pour tâche d’analyser les facteurs qui influencèrent l’acceptation et l’adoption tardive par la Marine française d’un remède contre le scorbut. Les Français n’adoptèrent ni les recommandations pertinentes des explorateurs français Cartier, Pyrard de Laval et Martin de Vitré ni les découvertes des Anglais Hawkins, Lancaster et Lind. Ils avaient déjà tous montré de façon convaincante que les agrumes étaient un remède efficace contre le scorbut. Mais l’adoption de ce remède pour les voyages de découvertes était une nouvelle idée ou une innovation.
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