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Democratising Indonesia NYMA DEMOCRATIZING INDONESIA The Challenges of Civil Society in the Era of Reformasi Mikaela Nyman N The fall from power of Indonesia’s President Suharto in 1998 has drawn much media and academic attention but the focus DEMOCRATISING has been on the elite perspective, the role of the regime and military; little has been published on civil society, let alone gender issues. This study, which covers the period from Suharto’s fall up until the elections in 2004, analyses the role of civil society in Indonesia’s transition towards democracy. Here, the au- thor argues that social movements are civil society’s primary catalysts for change. In support of her argument, Mikaela Nyman discusses the shortcomings and successes of the pro-democracy move- ment and examines the actions and limitations of its various I parts. Case studies are provided of three groups of actors – the student movement, the women’s movement and the N labour movement. D ONE The author warns that a strong civil society is needed to consolidate the gains achieved by social movements in the political, social and economic spheres. Taking this as her S standpoint, she looks at prospects for the future health of IA Indonesian civil society. DEMOCRATISING INDONESIA The Challenges of Civil Society in the Era of Reformasi www.niaspress.dk MIKAELA NYMAN Nyman_reprint-cover.indd 1 26/6/09 14:46:10 DEMOCRATISING INDONESIA NORDIC institUTE OF asian stUDIES • RECENT NIAS REPorts 29. Alain Lefebvre: Islam, Human Rights and Child Labour in Pakistan 30. Mytte Fentz: Natural Resources and Cosmology in Changing Kalasha Society 31. Børge Bakken (ed.): Migration in China 32. Donald B. Wagner: The Traditional Chinese Iron Industry and Its Modern Fate 33. Elisabeth Özdalga: The Veiling Issue, Official Secularism and Popular Islam in Modern Turkey 34. Sven Cederroth: Basket Case or Poverty Alleviation? Bangladesh Approaches the Twenty-First Century 35. Sven Cederroth and Harald O. Skar: Development Aid to Nepal 36. David D. Wang: Clouds over Tianshan. Essays on Social Disturbance in Xinjiang in the 1940s 37. Erik Paul: Australia in Southeast Asia. Regionalisation and Democracy 38. Dang Phong and Melanie Beresford: Authority Relations and Economic Decision- Making in Vietnam 39. Mason C. Hoadley (ed.): Southeast Asian-Centred Economies or Economics? 40. Cecilia Nathansen Milwertz: Beijing Women Organizing for Change 41. Santosh Soren: Santalia. Catalogue of Santali Manuscripts in Oslo 42. Robert Thörlind: Development, Decentralization and Democracy 43. Tarab Tulku: A Brief History of Tibetan Academic Degrees in Buddhist Philosophy 44. Donald B. Wagner: The State and the Iron Industry in Han China 45. Timo Kivimäki (ed.): War or Peace in the South China Sea? 46. Ellen Bangsbo: Teaching and Learning in Tibet. A Review of Research and Policy Publications 47. Andrew Martin Fischer: State Growth and Social Exclusion in Tibet. Challenges of Recent Economic Growth 48. Jens Kovsted, John Rand and Finn Tarp: From Monobank to Commercial Bank- ing. Financial Sector Reforms in Vietnam 49. Mikaela Nyman: Democratizing Indonesia. The Challenges of Civil Society in the Era of Reformasi 50. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita: Indonesia and the Muslim World. Between Islam and Secularism in the Foreign Policy of Soeharto and Beyond A full list of NIAS publications is available on request or may be viewed online (see copyright page for contact details). DEMOCRATISING INDONESIA THE CHALLENGES OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN THE ERA OF REFORMASI Mikaela Nyman Nordic Institute of Asian Studies NIAS Report 49 First published in 2006 by NIAS Press Reprinted in 2009 Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Leifsgade 33, DK–2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark tel: (+45) 3532 9501 • fax: (+45) 3532 9549 E–mail: [email protected] • Website: www.niaspress.dk © Mikaela Nyman 2006 All rights reserved. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Nyman, Mikaela Democratising Indonesia : the challenges of civil society in the era of Reformasi. - (NIAS reports ; no. 49) 1.Civil society - Indonesia 2.Indonesia - Politics and government - 1966-1998 3.Indonesia - Politics and government - 1998- I. Title 320.9’598’09045 ISBN 978-87-91114-82-3 Typesetting by Thor Publishing Printed in the United Kingdom by Marston Digital CONTENTS Preface vii Glossary and Abbreviations ix Part I: CIVIL SOCIETY AND Democratisation 1 Introduction: Civil Society and Political Opportunities • 1 2 The Search for an Indonesian Civil Society Concept • 28 Part II: CIVIL SOCIETY IN ACTION 3 Students Stealing the Limelight • 59 4 Workers and NGOs in Solidarity • 93 5 Women Fighting a Double Battle • 125 Part III: Facing THE CHALLenges OF THE TWentY-First CentURY 6 The Role of Civil Society beyond 2004 and the Prospects for Change • 157 7 Conclusion • 206 Appendix Example of Protests and Demonstrations Held by Students, Women and/or Workers in Indonesia in January 2002 • 215 References 225 Index 253 v Democratising Indonesia TABLES 4.1 Strike frequency during the Sukarno and Suharto regimes • 99 5.1 Women’s representation in higher government institutions in 2000 • 148 6.1 The five top-ranking parties in the legislative elections, April 2004 • 183 6.2 Final results of the first round of presidential elections, July 2004 • 186 vi Preface ‘Civil society’ became the buzzword of the last decades of the twentieth century and its popularity seems to carry on into the new century. An old term has been turned into a trendy concept that is freely used by the smallest of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the United Nations alike. Just like ‘democracy’, ‘civil society’ is a term that carries a great deal of promise. While civil society can be narrowly or broadly defined, definitions and interpretations vary widely depending on when and where they are used, and by whom. This is particularly the case in a country experiencing democratic transformation, such as Indonesia, where the discourse is still considered to be new and even alien. There is no unitary interpretation of what constitutes an Indonesian civil society, let alone what its role should be. In the new climate of openness brought about by the fall of Suharto, the debate about civil society is not only alive, but is crucial for Indonesia’s future democratisation process. Any claim to have comprehensively covered the topic of civil society in Indonesia would be futile indeed. Every turn a researcher takes is bound to end up at new crossways, with new choices to be made and new paths to explore or disregard, for the time being. In this case, there is still a wide range of issues to be studied and disseminated, such as the Islamic context, which constitutes a vast and complex topic in itself. Despite such limitations, the aim of this work is to provide an insight into the Indonesian civil society discourse, thereby creating greater understanding of the specific Indonesian context, as well as showing the power of some of the social movements that make up Indonesia’s vibrant civil society. This study would have been seriously limited in its scope without the information volunteered by some inspiring Indonesian civil vii Democratising Indonesia society activists and scholars, who generously shared their time and experiences with me. Therefore this work is dedicated to the staff at Solidaritas Perempuan, ACILS, Yakoma-PGI, Sisbikum, LBH APIK, Kapal Perempuan, YLBHI, Griya Lentera, Yasanti, Balairung, the Centre for Civil Society Studies at the University of Indonesia, as well as Mr Mohammad Sobary, Mr Papang Hidayat, Dr Hadi Soesastro at CSIS, Mr Kun Adnanya and the many individuals who wanted to discuss this topic without necessarily being mentioned by name. All translations from Bahasa Indonesia as well as the interpretations of the interviews are entirely my own. The field research in Indonesia in January and February 2002 was funded by a research grant from the University of Southern Queensland. I would like to sincerely thank Mr Richard Gehrmann and Dr Libby Connors at USQ for generously providing their time and expertise in Indonesian politics and social movement perspectives. My thanks also goes to other members of the USQ Faculty of Arts who have assisted my work, in particular Dr Michele Ford and Dr Philip Kitley for their constructive criticism and generosity with Indonesian sources and personal contacts. I am also grateful to Dr George Aditjondro and Mr Putu Suasta for assistance in this regard, while Katarina Reychman deserves thanks for sharing her experience and research about the Indonesian women’s movement. I am furthermore deeply indebted to other scholars who have given valuable feedback and advice on how to proceed. Among them are Dr Anders Uhlin, Dr Edward Aspinall and Professor Robert Elson. Last but not least I am grateful for the support from my partner Steve and our daughter Emelie Skye. Thank you to all – your support and help is greatly appreciated and will never be forgotten. viii Glossary and Abbreviations AJI Aliansi Jurnalis Indonesia; Alliance of Independent Journalists AAK Aliansi Anti Komunis; Anti-Communist Alliance ABRI Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia; The Armed Forces ACILS American Center for International Labor Solidarity Amarah April Makassar Berdarah; Bloody April in Makassar angkatan generation arus bawah undercurrent; the lower classes/grassroots’ politics asas keluargaan family principle Babinsa Bintara Pembina Desa; the Village Guidance Army Officer Bakorstanas Badan Koordinasi Pemantapan Stabilitas Nasional; the military Co-ordinating Agency for the Maintenance of National Stability
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