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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Manifest Domesticity in Times of Love and War: Gender, Race, Nation, and Empire in the Work

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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Manifest Domesticity in Times of Love and War: Gender, Race, Nation, and Empire in the Work UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Manifest Domesticity in Times of Love and War: Gender, Race, Nation, and Empire in the Works of Louisa May Alcott, María Amparo Ruiz de Burton, Gertrude Atherton, and Pauline Hopkins A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Literature by Shih-szu Hsu Committee in charge: Professor Shelley Streeby, Chair Professor John Blanco Professor Rosaura Sánchez Professor Nayan Shah Professor Lisa Yoneyama 2008 The dissertation of Shih-szu Hsu is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm: Chair University of California, San Diego 2008 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page …………………………………………………………………….……. iii Table of Contents ...……………………………………………………………………... iv Acknowledgements …………..……………………………….……………………….... vi Vita …………………………………………………………………………….............. vii Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………......... ix Introduction Manifest Domesticity in Times of Love and War: Gender, Race, Nation, and Empire in the Works of Louisa May Alcott, María Amparo Ruiz de Burton, Gertrude Atherton, and Pauline Hopkins …………………………………………………………………………. 1 Chapter One Race, Nation, and Sentimental Womanhood: Interracial Encounters in the Shadow of Manifest Domesticity in Alcott’s Works during the 1860s ……………………………. 22 Chapter Two The “Domesticated” Western Hero and U.S. Westward Expansion in Alcott’s Little Men and Jo’s Boys …………………………………………………………………………. 103 iv Chapter Three Regional Writing, National Memories, and Transnational Undercurrents: Ruiz de Burton and Atherton Rewrite the Histories of Californios/Californians ...…………………… 179 Chapter Four The California Fable and the Imperialist New Women in Atherton’s The Californian ………………………………………………………………………………………… 250 Chapter Five Turning Indian, Empowering African American Identity: Hopkins’ Turn-of-the-Century Manifest Domesticity in Winona ……………………………………………………... 286 Afterword ……………………………………………………………………………. 323 References ……………………………………………………………………………. 327 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have materialized without the unfailing support of my chair, Professor Shelley Streeby. I would like to express my sincere thanks to her for being such a dedicated and conscientious advisor and for being such a wonderful reader, who has tirelessly read through numerous drafts and offered valuable insights every step of the way. It has also been my great fortune to have the benefit of a brilliant and congenial committee, and I sincerely thank Professors John Blanco, Rosaura Sánchez, Nayan Shah, and Lisa Yoneyama for their support and for their insightful questions and comments that have inspired my work. I also want to thank all my teachers and colleagues at UCSD and NTU, with whom I have had the pleasure to work and from whom I have truly learned a lot. I especially would like to thank Professor Wai-lim Yip for his kindness and interesting anecdotes. I am extremely grateful for the financial support from the following institutions that allowed me to engage in my graduate study and to conduct my dissertation research: the Literature Department at University of California, San Diego and the Chiang Ching-Kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange. I am forever indebted for all the invaluable social and educational resources that have been so generously invested in my academic training, and I sincerely hope I can put them into good use in the future. On a personal note, I would like to thank all my friends for their help, support, and companionship, including Chih-Yuan Chang, Chih-hua Chiang, Yu-Fang Cho, Jiangsui He, Sandra Hsieh, Su-Yun Kim, Tsan-Kuang Lee, Hsiu-Chin Lin, Kuei-Ju Lin, Larry Lin, Liyan Qin, Chia-Ho Tsai, Chia-chi Tseng, and many others. My very special thanks go to vi Neo, my roommate Su’s cat, who has brought so much joy into the stressful life of dissertation writing and who is indeed the best and cutest dissertation cat ever! My deepest gratitude goes to my family and family friends for their unconditional love and support in every possible way, and I particularly wish to thank Auntie Liou for her help and kindness. Lastly, I would like to thank my dad, who passed away three years ago, and my mom. This dissertation is dedicated to both of them, to whom I owe everything. Shih-szu Hsu vii VITA 1997 B.A. in Foreign Languages and Literatures, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 1999-2002 M.A. in English, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan (incomplete) 2002-2007 Predoctoral Humanities Fellowship, University of California, San Diego 2003-2006 Teaching Assistant, Chinese Studies Program, University of California, San Diego 2007 Center for the Humanities Conference or Research Travel Grant, University of California, San Diego 2007-2008 Dissertation Fellowship for R.O.C. Students Abroad, Chiang Ching-Kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange 2008 Ph.D. in Literatures in English, University of California, San Diego viii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Manifest Domesticity in Times of Love and War: Gender, Race, Nation, and Empire in the Works of Louisa May Alcott, María Amparo Ruiz de Burton, Gertrude Atherton, and Pauline Hopkins by Shih-szu Hsu Doctor of Philosophy in Literature University of California, San Diego, 2008 Professor Shelley Streeby, Chair This dissertation examines how four U.S. women writers from disparate racial, ethnic, class, and regional backgrounds negotiated and reimagined discourses of gender, race, nation, and empire in the second half of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century. Using the U.S.-Mexican War (1846-48), the Civil War (1861-65), and the Spanish-American War (1898) as well as other moments of conflict such as Indian ix Removal and large-scale westward migration as major historical reference points, I explore how these women writers used seemingly “apolitical” domestic motifs and practices, such as love triangles, courtships, marriage, and family interactions, to support, critique, challenge, and/or subvert racist and imperialist policies of the nation, and, more importantly, to promote their own political agendas through narration. My analysis builds upon Amy Kaplan’s thesis in “Manifest Domesticity,” which argues that gendered metaphors of domesticity could be used as a “civilizing” force to justify imperial relationships between the conqueror and the conquered. Even though the texts under discussion vary in terms of genres, subject matter, and the year of publication, I contend that they all try to converse with dominant national ideologies through complicated textual engagements with wars, love, domesticity, and U.S. imperialism, and that by doing so they delineate alternative kinds of transregional and intercultural negotiations at their specific historical moments. Chapter one analyzes Louisa May Alcott’s antislavery narratives (1860-64) and her sensational thrillers written during the same decade in relation to the sentimental disciplinary power of white womanhood. Chapter two discusses Dan, Alcott’s unruly hero in the second and third books of the Little Women series (1871; 1886), in terms of U.S. westward imperial expansion. Chapters three and four look at how two California writers, the Mexican María Amparo Ruiz de Burton and the Anglo Gertrude Atherton, mapped out their disparate literary visions of California and the West in the 1870s and 1880s and during the turn of the century and the early twentieth century respectively. Chapter five examines Pauline Hopkins’ 1902 novel, Winona, in relation to African Americans’ engagement in social practices and cultural imaginings concerning Indianness. x Introduction Manifest Domesticity in Times of Love and War: Gender, Race, Nation, and Empire in the Works of Louisa May Alcott, María Amparo Ruiz de Burton, Gertrude Atherton, and Pauline Hopkins On July 12, 1893, at the meeting of the American Historical Association during the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the historian Frederick Jackson Turner delivered the influential address, “The Significance of the Frontier,” in which he elaborated his famous definition of U.S. national character. Explaining “American development” in terms of the expanding frontier line, Turner claimed that “This perennial rebirth, this fluidity of American life, this expansion westward with its new opportunities, its continuous touch with the simplicity of primitive society, furnish the forces dominating American character” (2-3). To him and to numerous scholars and policy-makers following his footsteps, the United States was a nation characterized by infinite hope, primitive innocence, regenerative possibilities, unbounded freedom, and perpetual movement of expansion. What Turner tries to do, in Alan Trachtenberg’s words, is to give the nation a much-needed “coherent, integrated story of its beginnings and its development” (Incorporation 13). Turner’s frontier thesis, in this sense, exemplifies the process of producing national myths: spin the desirable and eliminate the unwanted. Thus expansion could be painted as a natural destiny for the nation, testifying to the spirit of American exceptionalism in all its glory. His address is as much an example of wish-fulfillment and myth-making as a “description” of U.S. history. So what was eliminated in this process of wish-fulfillment and myth-making? 1 2 Turner’s frontier thesis proposed to evade, suppress, and redirect certain unresolved tensions in both national and international affairs at that specific historical moment. On the one hand, while
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