Coping with Climate Change in Vegetable Production Systems Dr. Stephanie Walker Extension Vegetable Specialist

Cooperative Extension Service Vegetable Production in NM

• Challenges in the Southwest US include: • Areas at higher elevations have a shorter growing season • Areas at lower elevations have limited and unpredictable rain events – supplemental irrigation usually needed

Cooperative Extension Service The Ancient Ones: Anasazi

• Vegetable production has a long history in the Southwest • Ancient Native Americans developed many strategies to cope with challenging conditions

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans Cooperative Extension Service Early Southwest Agriculture

• Irrigation canals, dams, diversions constructed by northern NM Pueblos • Trincheras (trenches) built to collect water, reduce erosion, prevent frost damage • Floodplain planting

Cooperative Extension Service Early Southwest Agriculture

• At Chaco Canyon, rainwater runoff was collected from mesas where it was channeled to fields to produce crops • Crop selection – seed was saved from plants that survived and matured under the challenging conditions

Cooperative Extension Service https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_prehistoric_Southwest Key Concepts

• Global warming is on-going

• Impact on Southwest US based on historic trends = warmer & drier

Cooperative Extension Service Impacts to Vegetable Production (+) • Milder winters with longer frost-free seasons • Longer growing season

• Higher carbon dioxide (CO2) levels benefit growth of some plants • Crop specific benefits (ex. Higher quality red chile; prolonged harvests of melons, tomatoes) Impacts to Vegetable Production (-) • Increased periods of severe heat • Increased disease and pest pressure • Increasing periods of drought along with scarcity of irrigation water • Increased rate of soil and water salinization • Increased extreme weather events (hail, torrential rainfall) How Can We Cope?

• Know our specific challenges • Develop strategies to address our situations -Implement best production practices -Irrigation and infrastructure planning -Variety selection and crop diversity

Cooperative Extension Service Coping with Climate Change BEST PRODUCTION PRACTICES Know Your Vegetable Plants

• Many vegetables expire at cold temps; some suffer at high temps

• Plant vegetables for growth during their preferred temperature

• Warm Season vs. Cool Season Vegetables Warm vs. Cool Season Crops

• Warm season crops: -Injured or killed by frost -May stop setting fruit at high temperatures (>95oF)

– Squash, melons, tomatoes, eggplant, okra, cucumber, beans, chile, bell peppers Warm vs. Cool Season Crops

• Cool season crops: -Tolerate (or are improved) by frost -Growth slows at very low temperatures

• Broccoli, carrots, spinach, lettuce, Swiss chard, kale, onions, beets, radishes Prepare Soil to Maintain Moisture

• Best soil is deep, well drained & contains plenty of organic matter • Organic matter holds soil moisture Example: Sponge vs. Gravel Know your soil • Soil type affects frequency and duration of watering • Most soil in NM is very low in organic matter • Increasing organic matter greatly increases moisture holding capacity of soil • To increase: -Add compost and manure -Use organic mulch Compost

• Benefits of compost – Organic matter – Aeration – Soil moisture • Make your own compost • Compost must reach 130oF for approx. 7 days

http://www.aggregatepros.com/images/Compost_Heap_lg.jpg Compost • Ingredients – Leaves, manure, yard clippings, food scraps • Turn often • Keep moist, not wet • Don’t add – Meat, dairy, slow decomposing items Compost

• When to add – Pre planting – Post planting • How to add – Till in – Mulch

http://www2.grist.org/images/advice/how/2008/08/19/shovel-o-compost_h528.jpg Coping with Climate Change IRRIGATION

Cooperative Extension Service Water • The vast majority of vegetable crops grown in New will require some supplemental irrigation

• Controlled application can aid in vegetable management for drought tolerance

http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/81/3081-004-A94E3EBB.jpg Water Harvesting

• Gray Water: Example: Place bucket in shower to catch water while it’s heating

• Rainwater Harvesting: Depending on size of collection area, even small rain events can provide helpful quantities of irrigation water Water

• Too much water can also stress or kill plants Water-saturated soil can ‘smother’ roots Many soil borne diseases thrive in overly wet soil . Dig down to roots to check moisture Water Requirements Through the Season • Know your plants, including critical windows for optimal watering • Germination and transplant establishment periods are always critical • Critical water stage for most vegetables is while consumable part is growing • ‘Fruiting’ vegetables (tomato, chile peppers, melons) is at flowering and fruit set Disorders: Blossom End Rot

• Caused by (Ca) deficiency at growing point in fruit • Drought stress during fruit set prevents transportation of Calcium Encourage Deep Root Growth

• The deeper the roots, the better a plant can hold up to drought stress • Less frequent, deep watering encourages • Water slowly to let moisture percolate • Some vegetables naturally have shallow roots so wouldn’t benefit: Onions, Lettuce • Deep rooted vegetables include: Asparagus, Squash, Tomatoes Deliver Water Directly to the Roots

• Sprinklers and flood irrigation are less efficient

• Drip irrigation and soaker hoses are more efficient

• Water in early morning or evening to minimize evaporation Olla Irrigation

• Use of unglazed, terra cotta pots filled with water and buried next to growing plants • Ollas are fitted with caps to reduce evaporation • Ollas are refilled when needed & maintained at least 50% full http://permaculturenews.org/2010/09/16/ollas-unglazed-clay-pots-for-garden-irrigation/

Cooperative Extension Service Coping with Climate Change MODIFY THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT Basic Tools for Cold Weather Protection • Microenvironments • Mulch • Cloches • Row Covers More Advanced

• Cold frames • Hoop houses • Greenhouses Microenvironments

• Spaces in your yard or garden that are protected from cold winds and weather • Sheltered spots that create a buffer in temperature – Against a house – Between two buildings – Beside a wall – Between taller, larger plants

http://www.winnscape.com.au/original%20pictures/PROJECTS%20016.jpg Mulch

• Material placed on soil surface around vegetable plants • Organic mulch helps increase soil organic matter • Be careful to not introduce weed seed

http://lh5.ggpht.com/_J1YeAr3jbgo/SFWcwplBkZI/AAAAAAAABBM/XhEQfGc-x6w/6-15-08+16.JPG Mulch • Types – Straw, leaves, wood chips, newspaper, plastic, pecan shells, compost • How to apply – Once plants are established, cover ground 2 – 4 inches – Water to help settle – Don’t cover vegetable plants Mulching

• Pros – Keeps weeds at bay – Conserves soil moisture – Warms/cools soil temp • Cons – Could harbor pests

– Labor and cost http://thailand.ipminfo.org/images/components/Organic_farm_egg_pla investment nt_mulching_3.JPG – Warms/cools soil temp Lithic Mulch • Use of pebbles, or other stone-type materials • Used in Galisteo Basin of NM by early Native American farmers • Useful in dry, desert environments • Reduces water evaporation, • Reduces soil erosion • Increases water infiltration • Increases soil temperature

Cooperative Extension Service Cloches

Burpee.com http://www.naturemoms.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/02/milk-jug-cloche.jpg Cloches (rhymes with slosh) • Provide protection to small, tender plants from frost, wind, and rain • Wall-of-water, soda bottles, milk jugs, and food containers • Remove or open when temperature rises • While getting a head start on your garden you are saving these items from the landfill!

http://justsopress.typepad.com/garden_klog/images/2008/05/08/080502_008.jpg Row Covers

• Provides some protection against freezing temperatures (about 4-6o F boost) • Hoop supported vs. floating • Perforated polyethylene vs. spun bonded polyester or polypropylene • Water permeable • Air permeable • Remove or open when temperature rises http://tinyfarmblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/spr08_row_cover_everywhere.jpg

http://www.gallupgrowers.com/blog/wp-content/dsc00334.jpg Cold Frames • Protects from early frosts

• Good place to start germination of hardy seeds

• Cool season vegetables will thrive within, even with freezing temperatures outside

• Safe place to start transplants being hardened off

• Easy to construct

http://lh3.ggpht.com/_kKnUhfzrGXo/RfI0iON42hI/AAAAAAAAAEU/3-h8Ta4sVDE/100_0863.JPG Hoop Houses

• Meets the needs of small farmers and gardeners • Relatively inexpensive to construct • Must be opened and closed to maintain optimum temperatures for plants growing inside Cold & Hot Weather Protection - Greenhouses • Protected space for year round vegetable production • Sturdy and permanent against wind, snow, and rain • High cost and labor investment • High maintenance

http://www.igcusa.com/Hobby/bc/BC-capecod-large.jpg Hot Weather Protection

• Shading using structures or companion plants Coping with Climate Change COMPANION PLANTING

Cooperative Extension Service Companion Planting Concepts… • Plants have predictable strengths and weaknesses when grown in set environments -Physical structure -Root growth -Phytochemical production -Susceptibility or resistance to diseases -Relative attraction to pests • Certain plants can benefit - or harm - others when placed in close proximity in the garden 1) Trap Cropping

• A companion plant is used to attract pests away from the main plant • Examples: Collards more attractive to diamond back moth; used to protect cabbage Hubbard squash most attractive for squash bugs • Be careful to not attract more pests to your garden 2) Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation

• Nitrogen fixing crops are used to boost available N to a main crop • Example: Use of legumes as companion crop • Keep in mind-- most of the N fixed by the legume will be used by the legume; limited amounts will be available to the main crop 3) Biochemical Pest Suppression

• Some plants exude phytochemicals that suppress or repel pests or diseases; neighboring plants may also benefit • Example: -Rye residue suppresses germination of weeds; transplanted tomatoes, broccoli do fine 4) Physical Spatial Interactions

• Pair tall, sun-loving plants with low growing shade to best optimize space • Corn plants are believed to disorient adult squash vine borers; prickly squash vines may discourage vertebrate pests from dining on the corn • Example: ‘The Three Sisters’ The Three Sisters

• Corn, Beans, and Squash benefit each other when planted closely together

• Corn provides support for beans • Beans (legume) provide nitrogen to soil • Squash leaves keep weeds suppressed Zuni Waffle Garden

• Waffles are approx. 12’ x 12’ • Each individual square is indented and surrounded by a high rim • Sunflowers are often planted along the edges • Allows maximum water efficiency in arid, southwest climate

Source: National Sustainable Agriculture Info. Service, www.attra.ncat.org 5) Nurse Cropping

• Tall or dense-canopied plants may provide protection to delicate companion plants • Oats have long been used to prevent weed growth and allow for establishment of alfalfa or other forage crops 6) Beneficial Habitats

• A companion plant provides a desirable habitat for beneficial insects and other arthropods 7) Security Through Diversity

• ‘Not putting all your eggs in one basket’ • Univ. of Cal. research demonstrated that mixing of broccoli cultivars can reduce aphid pressure

• Excellent insurance against total crop failure during challenging climatic conditions! Intercropping

• Plant two or more crops in the same space • Avoid wasting ‘unused’ space • Take advantage of difference in growth rate; harvest quick maturing crop while slower maturing crop is still growing to full size -Carrots and radishes -Cabbage and lettuce

Cooperative Extension Service http://www.veggiegardeningtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/03/broccoli-and-lettuce.jpg Crop Diversity

• Monoculture versus polyculture • Monoculture is especially risky in times of uncertain growing conditions • Diversity minimizes losses during adverse conditions Coping with Climate Change WATER-WISE VEGETABLES

Cooperative Extension Service Consumptive Use of Water

• Irrigation requirements impacted by: -Type of vegetable -Growth stage of plant -Time to harvest -Environmental conditions

Cooperative Extension Service Reduce Time to Harvest

• Look for quick maturing vegetable varieties, including determinate, bush type vegetables

• Start with transplants Transplants – Potential Benefits

• Can be used to obtain earlier maturity • Reduce the time plants are exposed to adverse field conditions • Reduce overall water use • Helps stand establishment (older seedlings better able to withstand many early season diseases and pests) Transplants • Start 4 - 8 weeks before planting outside • Plant seed in clean potting soil and planting containers • Provide ample light and warmth for best results • Harden off seedling before planting outside

• Some vegetable crops are not suited for transplanting Selecting the Vegetable and Cultivar • Know your vegetables • Determinate vs. indeterminate • Days to maturity Tomato Cultivars • Drought-tolerant varieties: -Pineapple -Yellow Pear

• Look for early maturing varieties • Tomatoes -‘Early Girl’ 52 days -‘Better Boy’ 75 days -‘Zapotec’ 80 days Additional Thoughts on Cultivar Selection… • Different cultivars of the same type of vegetable exhibit different tolerance to hot and cold temperatures • Look for guidance in seed catalogs, from fellow gardeners, as well as your own experience Low Water-Use Vegetable Crops

• Tepary Beans • Black-eyed Peas (Cowpeas) • Okra • Asparagus • Squash (some varieties) Tepary Beans (Phaseolus acutifolius)

• From the Papago Indian phrase “t’pawi”, meaning “it’s a bean” • Small beans in a wide variety of colors (black, white, brown, mottled)

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Phaseolus_acutifolius

Cooperative Extension Service Tepary Beans

• Native to the American Southwest where they’ve been a staple crop for thousands of years • Tepary beans were planted in flooded arroyo; with no additional irrigation, harvest was ready in about two months

Cooperative Extension Service Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata)

• Originated in Africa • Need little water to grow; grow poorly if watered too much • Thrive in high heat

Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds

http://www.rareseeds.com/store/vegetables/cowpeas/

Cooperative Extension Service Cowpeas

• Black-eyed peas, as well as many other types • Immature beans can be eaten like green snap beans • Most produce long vines; allow 3-5’ between rows

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-eyed_pea

Cooperative Extension Service Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)

• Member of the mallow family (Malvaceae), closely related to hibiscus and cotton

• Origins in northern Africa http://www.graphicpenguin.com • Grown for their immature pods • Known for glutinous consistency (gumbo) Okra Planting

• Okra plants prefer humidity and heat • Well-drained, fertile soil is optimum • Intolerant of prolonged wet soil -Plant in areas with good drainage • Plant when soil is warm (> 60oF) Okra Harvest

• Harvest pods when less than 4” (2-3” optimum); larger pods are tough & bitter • Harvest every other day (4-6 days after flowering) • Wear gloves & long sleeves when harvesting • ‘Clemson Spineless’: 56 days to harvest Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis)

• Tolerant of heat, drought and salinity • Perennial; productive for many years • Dioecious – male and female plants • Modern varieties all male for higher yield

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asparagus Asparagus

• Wild asparagus near the Rio Grande Asparagus Culture

• Start from crowns

• Don’t harvest 1st year • Stop harvesting – spears are less than diameter of a pencil

• Allow ferns to develop to feed the plants Asparagus Varieties

• Open-pollinated varieties: ‘Mary Washington’ ‘Martha Washington’

• Hybrid, all-male varieties: http://garden.lovetoknow.com/wiki/images/Garden/3/31/Asparagus.JPG ‘Jersey Giant’ ‘Jersey Knight’ ‘Purple Passion’ www.parkseed.com Squash (Cucurbita species)

• Four species: C. pepo, C. maxima, C. moschata, C. argyrosperma • One of the staple crops of Native American in the Southwest • Some varieties are particularly drought tolerant

Cooperative Extension Service Squash: argyrosperma

• C. argyrosperma: Includes ‘Cushaw’, many of the best tasting and squash -Requires a long, warm growing season -Many are grown for their edible seeds

• C. argyrosperma varieties: ‘Tennessee Sweet Potato’, ‘Hopi Cushaw’ Squash:

• C. moschata: Includes the butternut and “cheese pumpkins”

• C. moschata varieties: ‘Waltham Butternut’, ‘Long Island Cheese’ ‘Seminole ’ (C. moschata)

• Cultivated by the Seminole Indians in Florida • Large, spreading vines • Fruit with long shelf-life

http://www.southernexposure.com

Cooperative Extension Service Squash:

• C. maxima: Includes many of the

• C. maxima varieties: , Buttercup, Hubbard Red Kuri Squash (C. maxima)

• Also called ‘Baby Red Hubbard’ • Thick-skinned, orange colored, winter squash • Delicate, chestnut-like flavor • Drought tolerant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_kuri_squash Squash:

• C. pepo: Includes most of the , and small to medium-sized ornamental pumpkins

• C. pepo varieties: , Spaghetti, Acorn, Delicata Summer Squash

• Zucchini (C. pepo) cultivar ‘Dark Star’ -bred for deep, penetrating roots for drought tolerance

http://www.seedsofchange.com Coping with Climate Change PROTECT BIODIVERSITY

Cooperative Extension Service Seed Saving • Ancient art practiced by humans since the dawn of agriculture • Prior to WWII, gardeners had to save seed • With rise of commercial seed industry, the art of seed saving declined • Increasing interest in heirlooms, seed libraries and locally adapted varieties creating resurgence

Cooperative Extension Service Reasons to Save Seeds • Reproduce cultivars that do well in your area • Ensure long-term survival of excellent cultivars

http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2154/2306725768_8afe38a498.jpg?v=0 In Summary, Coping With Climate Change in Vegetable Production:

• Improve soil health • Use water resources efficiently • Modify the growing environment through season extension techniques & shading • Practice correct seed saving techniques In Summary, Coping With Climate Change in Vegetable Production:

• Diversify your crop mix • Experiment & keep records

• Know the unique conditions of your farm or garden and plan for flexibility Thank You!