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Introduction to Botany: BIOL 154 Study Guide for Exam 3

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Introduction to Botany: BIOL 154 Study Guide for Exam 3 Introduction to Botany: BIOL 154 Study guide for Exam 3 Alexey Shipunov Lectures 16{26 Outline Contents 1 Questions and answers 1 2 Tissues 1 2.1 Origin of tissues . .1 2.2 Tissues basics . .1 2.3 First tissues: parenchyma and epidermis . .2 3 Questions and answers 7 4 Tissues 9 4.1 Origin of tissues . .9 4.2 Step two: skeleton. Supportive tissues . .9 4.3 Step three: construction sites. Meristems . 12 5 Questions and answers 15 6 Tissues 16 6.1 Origin of tissues . 16 6.2 Step four: pipes. Vascular tissues . 17 6.2.1 Xylem . 17 6.2.2 Phloem . 23 7 The Private Life of Plants. Episode 2. \Growing" 31 8 Questions and answers 31 9 Tissues 32 9.1 Secondary cover: periderm . 32 9.2 Step five: pumps. Absorption tissues . 33 9.3 In addition: secretory tissues . 34 1 10 Leaf 35 10.1 Leaf morphology . 35 11 Questions and answers 36 12 Leaf 37 12.1 Leaf morphology . 37 12.1.1 General characters . 39 12.1.2 Repetitive characters . 40 12.1.3 Terminal characters . 42 13 Questions and answers 45 14 Leaf 46 14.1 Repetitive characters . 46 14.1.1 Terminal characters . 47 14.2 Leaves in nature . 49 14.3 Modifications of leaf . 55 15 Questions and answers 65 16 Leaf 65 16.1 Anatomy of leaf . 65 16.2 Ecological adaptations of leaves . 67 17 Questions and answers 71 18 Leaf 71 18.1 Ecological adaptations of leaves . 71 19 Stem and shoot 78 19.1 Plant body . 78 19.2 Anatomy of primary stem . 81 20 Questions and answers 85 21 Stem and shoot 85 21.1 Anatomy of primary stem . 85 21.2 Components of shoot . 93 21.3 Phyllotaxis . 94 22 Questions and answers 98 23 Root 98 23.1 Root morphology . 98 23.2 Anatomy and development of roots . 102 23.3 Origins of root tissues . 108 23.4 Water transport in roots . 108 23.5 Diversity of roots . 112 2 24 Example questions for the exam 121 25 Short answers 121 26 Multiple choice 123 1 Questions and answers Previous final question: the answer What is the difference between zygotic and gametic life cycles? • Zygotic: Y! ! R!, no diplont, many protists • Gametic: R! ! Y!, ho haplont, animals and few protists 2 Tissues 2.1 Origin of tissues Origin of tissues and organs of plants: first steps Why did plants go to the land? Which problems did they meet and how did they resolve them? What was the plant way of acquiring tissues comparing with animals? 2.2 Tissues basics Definition of tissues and organs • Tissue is a union of cells which have common origin, function, and similar morphology • Organ is a union of different tissues which have common function(s) and origin Simple and complex tissues • Simple tissues have only one kind of cells • Complex tissues have more than one cell type. This tissue type is unique for plants 3 2.3 First tissues: parenchyma and epidermis Parenchyma (ground, main tissue) • Spherical or elongated cells • Thin primary cell wall • Sometimes, crystal inclusion bodies • Main functions: photosynthesis and storage Parenchyma cells of a potato Parenchyma cells of a potato; the central cell shows obvious nucleus with starch stained purple (LM ×83) Parenchyma with crystals 4 Parenchyma cells often include crystals (e.g., of calcium oxalate) Photosynthetic parenchyma 5 Photosynthetic parenchyma in lilac (Syringa vulgaris) leaf Epidermis: the complex tissue • Complex tissue of different cell types: 1. Epidermal cells 2. Stomata cells: { Guard cells { Subsidiary cells 3. Trichomes • Shapes and chemical compounds vary • Main functions: gas exchange, transripration, defense Epidermal cells 6 Three kinds of Shepard's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) epidermal cells Stomata 7 Stomata with guard cells and pores (Iris sp.) Final question (2 points) How are plant tissues different from animal tissues? Summary • The structure of plant body, its organs and tissues is a result of land colonization • Complex tissues have different cell types, secondary tissues originate from lateral meris- tems (i.e., cambium) • Parenchyma, or ground tissue, is a main component of young plant organs • Epidermis is a complex tissue which includes stomata For Further Reading 8 References [1] A. Shipunov. Introduction to Botany [Electronic resource]. 2010|onwards. Mode of access: http://ashipunov.info/shipunov/school/biol_154 [2] Th. L. Rost, M. G. Barbour, C. R. Stocking, T. M. Murphy. Plant Biology. 2nd edition. Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2006. Chapter 4. Outline Contents 3 Questions and answers Results of Exam 2: statistic summary Summary: Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. NA's 24.00 45.00 59.00 60.38 78.00 104.00 4 Grades: F D C B max 48 56 64 72 80 Results of Exam 2: the curve 9 Density estimation for Exam 2 (Biol 154) 48 72 0 20 40 (F) 60 (B) 80 100 120 140 Points 1. Two motile but unequal cells fused during syngamy. How to call these cells? (a) \+" and \−" (b) Male and female (c) Spermatozoon and oocyte (d) All of above 26. If meiosis takes place in an organism with a 2n number of 48, how many pairs of homologous chromosomes will be at the end of meiosis? (a) 48 (b) 24 (c) 0 (d) 12 Previous final question: the answer How are plant tissues different from animal tissues? 10 • Live on land vs. hunting • Epidermis with cuticle and stomata + parenchyma vs. kinoblast + phagocytoblast • Sometimes complex vs. (almost) always simple 4 Tissues 4.1 Origin of tissues Origin of tissues and organs of plants: first steps • Plants went on land: 1. To escape from competition 2. To escape from predators 3. To obtain several times more more light 4. To escape from temperature-gases conflict • To prevent drying, they develop a \plastic bag" (epidermis with cuticle) and regulated pore system (stomata) • The rest of their body was parenchyma (main, or ground tissue) More about plants2 classification • Mosses (Bryophyta) • Ferns and allies (Pteridophyta) • Seed plants (Spermatophyta) { Conifers (Pinopsida) { Some other classes of seed plants { Angiosperms (Magnoliopsida) ∗ Monocots (Liliidae) ∗ Other subclasses of angiosperms (together: \dicots") 4.2 Step two: skeleton. Supportive tissues Collenchyma: living supportive tissue • Elongated cells • Thick primary cell wall (pectins + cellulose) • Main functions: mechanical support of young stems and leaves 11 Angled collenchyma Collenchyma cells of marigold (Calendula officinalis) Sclerenchyma: dead supportive tissue • Long cells (sclerenchyma fibers) or short crystal-like cells (sclereids) • Dead cells with thick secondary cell wall, rich of lignin • Supports weight of older plant organs, makes fruits non-edible before they become rip, makes stems firm Sclerenchyma fibers 12 Cross-section of sclerenchyma fibers in geranium (Pelargonium sp.) Stone cells Stone cells (kind of sclereids) in pear fruit (Pyrus communis) 13 Sclereids from cherry pit Sclereids from cherry (Prunus sp.) pit (LM ×400) 4.3 Step three: construction sites. Meristems Meristems: apical • Centers of plant development • Locate on the very ends of roots (RAM) and shoots (SAM) • Produce intermediate primary meristems which form all primary tissues SAM 14 Coleus sp. stem apical meristem (LM ×100); primordia (embryonic leaves) are visible. RAM 15 Corn (Zea mays) root apical meristem ( c D. Webb) Lateral meristem: cambium • Originates from procambium which in turn originates from apical meristems • Usually arises between two vascular tissues • Main function: thickening. Produces secondary vascular tissues Primary and secondary tissues • Primary tissues originate from stem or root apex through primary meristems • Secondary tissues originate from lateral meristems 16 Additional meristems • Intercalary meristems: locate in stems, regulates stem elongation • Marginal meristems are leaf-specific, they regulate leaf shape • Repair meristems help to cure wounds, they form buds and roots in unusual places Final question (2 points) What is the difference between collenchyma and sclerenchyma? Summary • Collenchyma and sclerenchyma are simple supportive tissues • Secondary tissues originate from lateral meristems (i.e., cambium) For Further Reading References [1] A. Shipunov. Introduction to Botany [Electronic resource]. 2010|onwards. Mode of access: http://ashipunov.info/shipunov/school/biol_154 [2] Th. L. Rost, M. G. Barbour, C. R. Stocking, T. M. Murphy. Plant Biology. 2nd edition. Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2006. Chapter 4. Outline Contents 5 Questions and answers Previous final question: the answer What is the difference between collenchyma and sclerenchyma? • Alive vs. dead • Primary vs. secondary cell walls 17 6 Tissues 6.1 Origin of tissues Origin of tissues and organs of plants: first steps • Plants were pushed on land for many reasons, including competition • First challenge: drying. Response: epidermis and parenchyma. • Second challenge: new level of competition. Response: growing up! • Problem: big weight. Response: collenchyma. • Competition grows, plants growing even higher. Weight grows. They also need to get rid of turgor dependency. Response: use lignin not only for epidermis surface (cuticle) but also for secondary cell walls|sclerenchyma. • Competition grows again, plants need to grow faster. Solution: meristems. • Size of plant is too big for plasmodesmata transportations. Solution: vascular tissues, xylem and phloem. Lignin 18 Phenolic compounds (e.g., lignin) were initially developed for spore distribution with a wind, then used in cuticle, then in the secondary cell walls. 6.2 Step four: pipes. Vascular tissues 6.2.1 Xylem Vascular tissues: Xylem • Occurs in vascular bundles or vascular cylinder • Types of cells: tracheary elements (tracheids and vessel members), fibers, and parenchyma • Tracheids have pits; vessel members have perforations; all of them are dead cells • Gymnosperms have only tracheids; flowering plants have tracheids + vessel elements together • In flowering plants, primary xylem has mostly tracheids and vessels with scalariform perforations; secondary xylem has mostly vessels with open perforations 19 • Xylem elements (except parenchyma) are rich of lignin and are main components of wood • Main functions: water transport and mechanical support Vessel members vs.
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