GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN HYDROLOGY Water Science and Technology Library

VOLUME 26

Editor-in-Chief V. P. Singh, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, U.S.A.

Editorial Advisory Board

M. Anderson, Bristol, U.K. L. Bengtsson, Lund, Sweden A. G. Bobba, Burlington, Ontario, Canada S. Chandra, New Delhi, India M. Fiorentino, Potenza, Italy W. H. Hager, Zurich, Switzerland N. Hannancioglu, Izmir, Turkey A. R. Rao, West Lafayette, Indiana, U.S.A. M. M. Sherif, Giza, Egypt Shan Xu Wang, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China D. Stephenson, Johannesburg, South Africa

The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN HYDROLOGY

edited by

VIJA Y P .SINGH Department of Civil Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, U.SA. and M. FIORENTINO Department of Environmental Engineering and Physics, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V. A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 978-90-481-4751-9 ISBN 978-94-015-8745-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-015-8745-7

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved © 1996 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1996 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1996

No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. To our families:

Anita Maria-Rosaria Vinay Arti Table of Contents

Preface xiii

1 Hydrologic modeling with GIS 1 Y.P. Singh and M. Fiorentino 1.1 A Short Historical Perspective of Hydrologic Modeling 1 1.2 Hydrology in Environmental and Ecological Continua . 2 1.3 Current Needs in Hydrologic Modeling 3 1.4 Role of GIS ...... 3 1.4.1 What is GIS? ...... 3 1.4.2 Geographical Data Modeling. 4 1.4.3 Applications...... 5 1.5 Hydrologic Modeling with GIS ... 6 1.5.1 Hydrometeorological Forecasting 7 1.5.2 Stormwater Management 7 1.5.3 Watershed Modeling ...... 8 1.5.4 Flood Prediction ...... 8 1.5.5 Groundwater Modeling .... 9 1.5.6 Non-Point Pollution Modeling . 9 1.5.7 Water Resources Planning ... 10 1.6 Outlook for the Future ...... 10

2 Integration of Remote Sensing and GIS for Hydrologic Studies 15 S.F. Shih 2.1 Introduction ...... 15 2.2 Remote Sensing System . . . . 16 2.2.1 Ground-Based Sensors. 16 2.2.2 Airborne-Based Sensors 18 2.2.3 Satellite-Based Sensors 20 2.3 Image Processing System ... 23 2.4 Geographic Information System 23 2.5 Global Positioning System . . . 23 2.6 Interface Among Remote Sensing, GIS, and GPS 24 2.7 Applications ...... 25 2.7.1 Land UselLand Cover Classification . 26 2.7.2 Precipitation ... . 28 2.7.3 Soil Moisture .. . 30 2.7.4 Evapotranspiration. 32 2.7.5 Water Extent .... 32

vii viii Table of Contents

2.7.6 Groundwater. 33 2.7.7 Water Quality 35 2.7.8 Runoff. 36 2.8 The Future ...... 38 3 Hydrologic Data Development 43 M.L. Wolfe 3.1 Introduction .. 43 3.2 A GIS Database 44 3.3 Data Sources .. 45 3.3.1 Maps .. 45 3.3.2 Existing Digital Spatial Data . 49 3.4 Data Input ...... 52 3.4.1 Primary Source Data .... . 52 3.4.2 Secondary Source Data .. . 53 3.4.3 Criteria for Choosing Modes of Input 57 3.5 Quality of Digital Data ...... 57 3.6 Integrating Data from Different Sources 59 3.7 Cost of Building a Database ..... 59 3.8 Database Administration and Update. 59 3.9 Summary and Recommendations. 60

4 Spatial Data Characteristics 65 c.A. Quiroga et al. 4.1 Introduction ...... 65 4.2 Spatial Models . . . . . 66 4.2.1 Categorical Approach 66 4.2.2 Object Approach. . . 68 4.2.3 Deductive Object-Oriented Model . 68 4.2.4 Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) Model . 70 4.3 Spatial Data Structures ...... 72 4.3.1 Raster Spatial Data Structures ...... 72 4.3.2 Vector Spatial Data Structures ...... 76 4.4 Geographic Conceptualization and Standardization Issues 81 4.5 Time in Geographic Information Systems 84 4.5.1 Cartographic Time ...... 84 4.5.2 Models of Spatiotemporality . 85 4.6 Summary...... 86

5 Methods For Spatial Analysis 91 E.B. Moser and R.E. Macchiavelli 5.1 Introduction ...... 91 5.2 The Variogram ...... 93 5.2.1 VariogramModels.. 94 5.2.2 Semivariogram Estimation . 94 5.3 Trend Surface Models ...... 96 5.3.1 Ordinary Least-Squares Estimation 97 5.3.2 Maximum-Likelihood and Restricted Maximum-Likelihood Es- timation ...... 97 5.4 Ordinary Kriging...... 99 5.4.1 Optimal Interpolation 99 Table of Contents ix

5.4.2 The Kriging Equations . . . . . 99 5.4.3 De-Trending and Median Polish 101 5.5 Universal Kriging ...... 101 5.6 Examples...... 102 5.7 Integration Into GIS Software 110 5.8 Conclusions ...... 112

6 GIS Needs and GIS Software 115 C. Collet et al. 6.1 Aim of the Chapter...... 115 6.2 GIS Concepts and GIS Software . . . 116 6.2.1 GIS Overview and Concepts . 116 6.2.2 GIS Needs in Hydrology . . . 120 6.2.3 GIS Software Capabilities . . 121 6.3 Geographical Data Base Construction 122 6.3.1 Sources and Spatial Data Acquisition 122 6.3.2 Spatial Data Preprocessing ...... 123 6.4 Geographical Data Base Management System 128 6.4.1 Historical Overview in Computer Sciences 128 6.4.2 Scope of Data Base Management System 130 6.4.3 Description of a DBMS 131 6.4.4 Organising a Data Base 132 6.4.5 Specificity of a GDBMS 136 6.4.6 Illustrative Example . 137 6.5 Exploitation ...... 140 6.5.1 Information Retrieval 141 6.5.2 Mapping...... 145 6.6 Spatial Analysis and Simulation 146 6.6.1 GIS Operators . . . . . 146 6.6.2 Remotely Sensed Data Processing 148 6.6.3 Morphologic Modelling . . . . . 149 6.6.4 Dynamic modelling ...... 150 6.6.5 Object Oriented Modelling, Application in Hydrology . 158 6.6.6 Simulation Applications 163 6.7 GIS Software Selection 169 6.7.1 Selection Keys. 172

7 Digital Terrain Modelling 175 A. Sole and A. Valanzano 7.1 Introduction ...... 175 7.2 Data Source for Generating DTM 176 7.3 Methods for Creating DTM .. . 178 7.3.1 Regular Grids ...... 178 7.3.2 Triangulated Irregular Networks. 182 7.4 Examples of Products that can be Derived from DTM 184 7.4.1 Slope and aspect . . 185 7.4.2 Watershed . . . . . 187 7.4.3 Drainage networks. 188 7.5 Software.. 190 7.6 Conclusions ...... 193 x Table of Contents

8 GIS for Distributed Rainfall - Runoff Modeling 195 C. Colosimo and G. Mendicino 8.1 Introduction ...... 195 8.2 Computed and Observed Data . 199 8.2.1 Topographic Parameters 199 8.2.2 Soil Parameters .... 205 8.3 Mechanisms of Runoff Production . 209 8.4 Infiltration Excess Models .... . 213 8.5 Saturation Excess Models .... . 218 8.6 Comparison Between the Models Observed 221 8.7 Spatial Variability of the Parameters . . 224 8.8 Conclusion...... 229 9 GIS for Large-Scale Watershed Modelling 237 G. W. Kite et al. 9.1 Introduction ...... 237 9.1.1 Large-Scale Hydrological Modelling. 237 9.1.2 Data Needs of Hydrological Models 239 9.1.3 Remotely Sensed Data...... 239 9.1.4 Geographic Information Systems 242 9.2 The SLURP Hydrological Model. . . . 244 9.2.1 The Model Concept ...... 244 9.2.2 Use of Satellite Data in SLURP . 246 9.2.3 Use of GIS in SLURP ...... 248 9.2.4 Examples of Recent SLURP Uses 251 9.3 Use of the GIS ...... 253 9.3.1 GIS System Description . . . . . 253 9.3.2 Assembly and Organization of Data 254 9.3.3 Derivation of New Information for Modelling 254 9.3.4 Display and Analysis of Model Results ... 257 9.4 Limitations of Present Geographic Information Systems for Large-Scale Watershed Modelling...... 259 9.4.1 The Geographic Model...... 259 9.4.2 Traditional (Layer) vs. Object Models 260 9.4.3 Open vs. Closed Systems ...... 262 9.4.4 MemorylSpeedlFuture Developments 262 9.4.5 Formats 262 9.5 Conclusions ...... 264

10 Lumped Modeling and GIS in Flood Prediction 269 l. Muzik 10.1 Introduction ...... 269 10.2 Modelling Approaches . 270 10.2.1 LumpedModels 271 10.2.2 Distributed Models. 271 10.2.3 Probabilistic Models . 273 10.3 GIS Modelling Environment . 274 10.3.1 Raster Data Structure 275 10.3.2 Vector Data Structure 276 10.3.3 Digital Elevation Models 276 10.3.4 Data Input ...... 276 Table of Contents xi

10.4 Lumped Modelling with GIS ..... 277 10.4.1 Unit Hydrograph Derivation . 277 10.5 Conclusions ...... 298

11 GIS in Groundwater Hydrology 303 S. Gupta et al. 11.1 Introduction ...... 303 11.2 Role of GIS for Data Integration ...... 304 11.3 "Loosely Coupled" GIS for Groundwater System Evaluations . 304 11.4 Proposed GIS-Groundwater Modeling Coupling Approach 306 11.5 Groundwater Basin Data Upload . . . 307 11.6 Conceptual Model Development . . . 310 11.7 GIS-CFEST Interface ...... 314 11.8 Calibration and Scenario Simulations 314 11.9 Display of Analysis Results ... . . 321 11.1 OConclusion ...... 321

12 Nonpoint Source Pollution Modeling (with GIS) 323 C. T. Baan and D.E. Storm 12.1 Introduction ...... 323 12.2 Model and Data Resolution . 324 12.2.1 Temporal Resolution. 324 12.2.2 Spatial Resolution . 325 12.3 Selection of Climatic Inputs 325 12.4 Parameter Estimation .. 326 12.5 GISlModel Integration . . . 327 12.6 Model Selection ...... 329 12.7 Available U.S. Spatial Digital Data. 333 12.8 Nonpoint Source Pollution Potential Screening 335 12.9 Targeting Critical Source Areas of Nonpoint Source Pollution. 336 12.IOGIS Integrated Hydrologic and Water Quality Models ..... 336 13 Soil Erosion Assessment Using G.I.S. 339 A.P.l. De Roo 13.1 Introduction ..... 339 13.2 Soil Erosion Processes 340 13.3 Soil Erosion Models . 340 13.4 Soil Erosion Models Using GIS 344 13.5 LlSEM: a Physically-Based Model Integrated in a GIS 346 13.5.1 Introduction . 346 13.5.2 LlSEM Input ...... 348 13.5.3 LlSEM output ...... 349 13.6 Validation, Calibration and Error Propagation Problems in Physically-Ba- sed Models ...... 352 13.7 Discussion and Conclusions ...... 353

14 A Study of Landslides Based on GIS Technology 357 T.P. Gostelow 14.1 Introduction ...... 357 14.2 Landslide Hazard Mapping...... 357 14.3 Geological Setting, Land-use and Landsliding in Basilicata 360 xii Table of Contents

14.4 Landslide Complexes at Grassano, Pisticci and Ferrandina...... 361 14.5 Hydro-geotechnical Models of Rainfall Infiltration and recharge on Nat- ural Slopes ...... 366 14.5.1 General ...... 366 14.5.2 Hydro-Geotechnical Models for Translational Slides ...... 369 14.5.3 Deep-Seated Mass Movement Complexes with a Surface Aquifer 369 14.6 Hydro-geotechnical models and their relationship to topography. 370 14.7 Triggering Mechanisms, Decision Analysis, Hazard and Risk 370 14.8 Digital Datasets and ARCIINFO GIS 373 14.9 Sources of GIS data 374 14.10Data Conversion ...... 374 14.10.1 General ...... 374 14.10.2 Data Conversion Details 375 14. 11 Regional Hazard Mapping in Basilicata using GIS . 375 14.11.1 Methodology...... 375 14.11.2 CORINE Land-Cover Data 378 14.11.3 Examples of GIS Output. 379 14. 12Conclusions ...... 386

15 Land-Use Hydrology 389 C.A. Quiroga et al. 15.1 Introduction ...... 389 15.2 Conceptualization of the Land System 390 15.3 Hydrologic Modeling Strategies . . 392 15.4 Hydrologic Modeling Applications. 395 15.4.1 UrbanlBuilt-Up Areas 395 15.4.2 Agricultural Areas . . . . . 399 15.4.3 Forested Areas...... 404 15.4.4 Mining Areas ...... 407 15.5 Management Issues Affecting Land-Use Hydrologic Modeling 410 15.5.1 Regional and Cultural Effects . . 410 15.5.2 Spatial and Temporal Resolutions 411 15.6 Summary...... 411

16 Design of GIS for Hydrological Applications 415 G. Mendicino 16.1 Introduction . . . . 415 16.2 Feasibility & Design 416 16.3 GIS Software. . 417 16.4 GIS Comparison 432

List of Contributors 437

Subject Index 439 Preface

The last few years have witnessed an enormous interest in application of GIS in hydrology and water resources. This is partly evidenced by organization of sev• eral national and international symposia or conferences under the sponsorship of various professional organizations. This increased interest is, in a large measure, in response to growing public sensitivity to environmental quality and management. The GIS technology has the ability to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, and visualize the diverse sets of geo-referenced data. On the other hand, hydrology is inherently spatial and distributed hydrologic models have large data requirements. The integration of hydrology and GIS is therefore quite natural. The integration involves three major components: (1) spatial data construction, (2) integration of spatial model layers, and (3) GIS and model interface. GIS can assist in design, calibration, modification and comparison of models. This integration is spreading worldwide and is expected to accelerate in the foreseeable future. Substantial op• portunities exist in integration of GIS and hydrology. We believe there are enough challenges in use of GIS for conceptualizing and modeling complex hydrologic processes and for globalization of hydrology. The motivation for this book grew out of the desire to provide under one cover a range of applications of GIS tech• nology in hydrology. It is hoped that the book will stimulate others to write more comprehensive texts on this subject of growing importance. Discussing the role of GIS, the introductory first chapter discusses the current needs in hydrologic modeling and the meeting of these needs with application of GIS, and is concluded with a brief reflection on the outlook for the future. Integra• tion of remote sensing and GIS for hydrologic studies constitutes the subject matter of Chapter 2. Introducing the remote sensing system, the image processing system, and the global positioning system (GPS), the chapter goes on to discuss the inter• face amongst remote sensing, GIS, and GPS; and several applications in surface• water hydrology, groundwater hydrology, and water-quality hydrology. Chapter 3 presents hydrologic data development, including data needs, sources of data, con• version of data into appropriate format for GIS software, and maintenance of the database, with emphasis on quality control measures. Spatial models and data struc• tures are presented in Chapter 4. Raster spatial data structures as well as vectorial data structures are described under spatial data structures. The spatial models in• clude a discussion of categorical and object approaches, as well as a combination

xiii xiv Preface of these approaches. Chapter 5 presents methods for spatial analysis, including variogram models, trend surface models, and kriging. Also presented are some ex• amples of these models and their integration into GIS software. GIS needs and GIS software constitute the subject matter of Chapter 6. It briefly illustrates GIS capabilities, and disucsses uses of GIS software for information management, queries and mapping, spatial data preparation, modeling, and sim• ulation needed for hydrological applications. Chapter 7 discusses digital terrain modeling. It includes a review of techniques for generating a digital terrain model (DTM), algorithms for calculating information relevant to hydrological modeling, and available software packages for generating DTM and hydrological parameters. GIS for distributed rainfall-runoff modeling is the topic of Chapter 8. It discusses applications of GIS in analyses of different runoff production mechanisms, and use of a distributed rainfall-runoff model, TOPMODEL, for simulating the hydrologic behavior of a gaged basin in southern Italy. Chapter 9 extends the discussion to large-scale watershed modeling, encompassing macroscale modeling, integration of a GIS with SLURP macroscale hydrological model, and appraisal of the present modeling situation and recommendations for future development of GIS. Lumped modeling and GIS in flood prediction is the subject of Chapter 10. It briefly re• views hydrologic models for flood prediction, and shows the GIS unit hydrograph models as distributed rainfall-runoff models, and makes an argument for applic• ation of GIS to facilitate the merging of deterministic and stochastic models into one unified modeling approach. GIS in groundwater hydrology is discussed in Chapter 11. It presents the role of "loosely coupled" GIS-groundwater models with field examples. Chapter 12 dis• cusses non- point source pollution modeling with GIS, with emphasis on hydrolo• gic and water quality modeling. Soil erosion assessment using GIS is presented in Chapter 13. It discusses several soil erosion models, and demonstrates integration of erosion models with GIS with use of LISEM soil erosion model as an example. Chapter 14 discusses application of the GIS technology to study of landslides. With a short review of techniques and examples of landslide hazard mapping, the chapter goes on to describe a GIS methodology based on the identification of 3-D hydro-geotechnical models, together with the difficulties of defining hazard asssess• ment from rainfall triggering mechanisms. It is concluded with a discussion of ex• amples of GIS output for investigating the relationships between land use change and the distribution of landslides. Land-use hydrology with GIS constitutes the subject matter of Chapter 15. It reviews basic concepts in land-use systems from a hydrologic perspective, approaches employed for quantifying hydrologic effects of land-use changes, use of GIS in the modeling of processes, and specific man• agement issues that may arise when GIS is used as a tool for land-use hydrology. The concluding Chapter 16 presents the design of GIS for hydrologic applications. It analyzes some of the main criteria for GIS design and considers a wide range of commercially available GIS packages. The editors would like to express their gratitude to all the contributors who, Preface xv despite their busy schedule, were generous to write the chapters. The book is the fruit of their labor. They also would like to express their appreciation to their fam• ilies; the Singhs - wife Anita, son Vinay, and daughter Arti; and the Fiorentinos - wife Maria-Rosaria, for their love and support - without which the book would not have come to fruition. v.P. SINGH Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A.

M. FIORENTINO Potenza, Italy