Pests of Fruit Crops A Color Handbook

David V Alford BSc, PhD Formerly Regional Entomologist and Head of the Entomology Department Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries & Food Cambridge, UK

BOSTON • SAN DIEGO @ ..&aIl~ Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier ELSEVIER First published in the United States in 2007 by Academic Press, an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA Contents 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA

Copyright © 2007 Manson Publishing Ltd, London

ISBN-l3: 978-0-12-373676-5 ISBN-lO: 0-12-373676-5 Preface 7 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, Chapter 1 Introduction 9 recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Chapter 2 Smaller orders 23 Notice Order Saltatoria (crickets, grasshoppers and locusts) 23 No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons 1. Family Tettigoniidae (bush crickets) 23 or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use 2. Family Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets) 24 or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material 3. Family Acrididae (grasshoppeeers and locusts) 25 herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent Order Dermaptera (earwigs) 26 verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made 1. Family Forficulidae 26 Order Isoptera (termites) 27 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 1. Family Kalotermitidae 27 A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Order Thysanoptera (thrips) 27 1. Family Thripidae (thrips) 27 For information on all Academic Press publications 2. Family Phlaeothripidae 31 visit our web site at books. elsevier. com Chapter 3 True bugs 32 1. Family (shield bugs) 32 Commissioning editor: Jill Northcott 2. Family (shield bugs) 32 Project manager: Paul Bennett 3. Family (ground bugs) 34 Copy-editor: Mary Kelly 4. Family (lace bugs) 35 Cover and book design: Cathy Martin, Presspack Computing Ltd 5. Family (capsids or mirids) 37 Layout: DiacriTech, Chennai, India 6. Family () 43 Colour reproduction: Tenon & Polert Colour Scanning Ltd, Hong Kong 7. Family () 45 Printed by: Grafos SA, Barcelona, Spain 8. Family Membracidae 46 9. Family Cicadellidae () 47 10. Family 57 I 11. Family 57 12. Family Carsidaridae 62 l3. Family Aleyrodidae () 63 14. Family Lachnidae 66 15. Family Callaphididae 67 16. Family () 68 17. Family Pemphigidae 95 Plant Protection Handbooks Series 18. Family (phylloxeras) 97 Alford: Pests of Fruit Crops - A Color Handbook 19. Family (armoured scales) 99 Biddle/Cattlin: Pests, Diseases and DisOiders of Peas and Bean - A Color Handbook 20. Family (pits scales) 109 Blancard/LotlMaisonneuve: Diseases of Lettuce and Related Salad Crops - A Color Atlas 21. Family (soft scales, wax scales) 109 Bridge/Starr: Plant Nematodes of Agricultural Importance - A Color Handbook 22. Family Pseudococcidae () 120 Fletcher/Gaze: Mushroom. Pest and Disease Control - A Color Handbook 23. Family (giant scales) 122 Koike/Gladders/Paulus: Vegetable Diseases - A Color Handbook Wale/Platt/Cattlin: Pests and Diseases of Potatoes - A Color Handbook 174 175

host tree until they reach the sap wood. A narrow, DAMAGE Chapter 5 longitudinal maternal gallery about 1.5-3.0cm long is Infestations do not occur in healthy fruit trees (cf. then excavated, within which the female lays about Xyleborus dispar) ; damage, therefore, is of only 50 eggs. Once eggs hatch, the larvae tunnel outwards secondary importance. True flies from the initial gallery, between the bark and sap wood, to form a sinuous series of shallow tunnels that often Xylebo1'lls dispar (Fabricius) criss-cross, particularly towards their extremities. At larva = broadleaved pinhole borer the end of its tunnel each larva forms a deeper cell in A primary and secondary pest of a wide variety of trees, which pupation takes place. When adults eventually including apple, pear, almond, apricot, cherry, peach, emerge they bore through the bark to the outside, plum and walnut. Palaearctic. Widely distributed in 1. Family TIPULIDAE LIFElllSTORY forming the familiar shot-hole-like flight (exit) holes. Europe, including Mediterranean areas, but local and (crane flies) Adults are most numerous in May. Eggs are then There are usually two generations in a season, larvae of usually rare in more northerly regions. deposited at random on the soil surface. The eggs do not the second continuing their development during the Slow-flying (widely known as 'daddy-longlegs'), hatch until the early autumn, owing to a period of winter months. DESCRIPTION with elongate bodies, long and natTOW wings, and very summer diapause. Larvae feed briefly in the autumn on Adult female: 3.0-3.5 mm long; dark brown to black, long, fragile legs. Larvae (colloquially known as the subterranean parts of plants before overwintering. DAMAGE with light brown legs and antennae; thorax and elytra 'Ieatheljackets') at'e elongate, more or less cylindrical and Activity is resumed in the early spring, with most larvae This species attacks the trunks of small unhealthy trees, with a sparse coating of yellowish hairs; thorax rounded slightly tapered anteriorly, with a soft, but tough, leathery completing their development by the middle of April. and branches up to about 6 cm in diameter; a serious and with numerous small projections anteriorly. Adult skin; the head is small and indistinct; the final abdominal They then pupate in the soil. Adults appear shortly infestation may kill the whole tree. male: 1.5-2.0 mm long; thorax relatively small and (anal) segment bears numerous fleshy papillae, the afterwards, the pupae wriggling to the surface shortly abdomen short, giving the body a hunchbacked features of which at'e often useful for distinguishing before emergence. XyleborinliS saxeselli (Ratzeburg) appearance. between species. Leatheljackets are typically soil Fruit-tree wood ambrosia beetle inhabiting; they feed on the roots, and sometimes on the DAMAGE A secondary, polyphagous pest of a wide range of LIFElllSTORY lowermost leaves, of a wide range of plants. Particularly under dry conditions, attacked plants may trees; sometimes associated with fruit trees, Adults occur on the trunks of host trees from May to wilt and this can be detrimental to the growth of young particularly apple and cherry. Palaearctic. Present July; they are very active in hot, sunny weather. After Nephrotoma appelldiculata (Pierre) (355) plants and to fruit production on older ones. throughout Europe; also present in North Africa and mating, females bore into the bark of host trees, Spotted crane fly the USA. usually entering through a surface crack; they then A minor pest of strawberry and, occasionally, other fruit Tipula oleracea Linnaeus (356) burrow down to the sap or heartwood before crops such as raspberry. A wide range of other low­ A common crane fly DESCRIPTION excavating a transverse tunnel to either side. From growing plants are also attacked, particularly in A polyphagous and occasional pest of various crops, Adult: 2.0-2.5 mm long; dark brown, with yellowish each of these, cylindrical breedi ng galleries are allotments and gardens. Widely distributed in Europe. including cane fruit, strawberry and hop. Widely body hairs; elytra elongate and parallel-sided, with the produced, directed perpendicularly both upwards and distributed in Europe, but generally less common than hind ends meeting in a more or less straight line. downwards. Eggs are laid at the entrances to these DESCRIPTION Tipula paludosa. passages, each female depositing up to 50 in her Adult: 12-20 mm long; body mainly yellow, golden LIFE HISTORY lifetime. Larvae occur from Mayor June onwards yellow and black; wings to-IS mm long, with a pale DESCRIPTION Adults appear in the spring. After mating, each female and, since eggs are laid over a period of several yellow or light brown stigma. Egg: 0.8 x 0.4 mm; oval Adult: 15-23 mm long; body mainly grey, the thorax bores into a host tree down to the heart wood, usually weeks, larvae of various sizes may be found within and black. Larva: up to 30 mm long; body greyish with indistinct, light brown, longitudinal stripes; wings by way of dead tissue or a surface lesion. The tunnel is the colony at anyone time. The larvae do not feed on brown; anal papillae rounded. 18- 28 mm long; legs brownish, with black tat'si, and then extended transversely on one or both sides to the actual wood, but instead browse on ambrosia fungi form breeding galleries in which eggs are laid. Unlike which develop on the walls of the breeding passages. the system excavated by Xyleborus dispar, the Adults occur in the galleries throughout the year, but individual passages are narrow and flat. Once eggs are most numerous from mid-winter to early summer. have hatched, the larvae enlarge their chamber Males are much rarer than females, particularly in the considerably to form a cavity 2cm or more across. The summer, usually forming no more than 10-20% of faeces they produce form a brownish-yellow pulp, populations. Young adults may be found in the which lines the walls of the chamber and accumulates breeding galleries, before their emergence from in the associated passages; considerable quantities are infested trees, tightly packed one behind the other. also ejected to the outside through the original entrance burrow. This pulp forms a substrate upon DAMAGE which ambrosia fungi can develop, lining the inner Orchard infestations tend to be restricted to a small chamber and forming an essential part of the larval number of trees, often those growing in waterlogged diet. All stages occur within the breeding chambers, conditions. However, relatively young, vigorous trees the inhabitants often packed tightly together. Up to may also be colonized. The beetles attack both the trunks 300 individuals are reared in a colony, and there may and larger branches and, in some cases, trees may become be two generations annually. extensively riddled with galleries and will eventually die. 355 Spotted crane fly (Nephrotoma appendicu/ata) - fema le. 356 A common crane fly (Tipu/a o/erocea) - male.

D Tru e flies 176 177

distinctly thinner than those of T. paludosa; antennae sometimes also attack horticultural crops such as cane 2. Family BIBIONIDAE 3. Family CECIDOMYIIDAE 13-segmented. Larva: up to 40 mm long; brownish fruits, strawberry and hop. Widely distributed in (St. Mark's flies) (359) (gall midges) grey, with a dull, dusty and wrinkled appearance; head Europe; also present in North America and Asia. black; anal segment with two pairs of elongate anal A small fa mily of mainly black, hairy flies of robust Small to very small, delicate flies, with broad, often papillae. DESCRIPTION appearance; males often hover rather sluggishly in the air hairy wings and a much reduced venation; antennae Adult: 17-25 mm long; body grey, with a brownish Or in conspicuous groups. Larvae are cylindrical, with a long, with bead-like (moniliform) segments; legs long LIFE HISTORY yellowish-red tinge, the thorax with indistinct prominent head, well-developed mouthpmts and fleshy and thin; genitalia clearly visible. Larvae are short­ This species has a similar biology to that of T. paludosa, longitudinal stripes; wings 13-23 mm long; legs brown processes on. each body segment. Bibionid larvae abound bodied and narrowed at both ends, with the head small but adults occur earlier in the year, typically from May and distinctly thicker than those of Tipula oleracea. in soil that contains decaying vegetable matter, in manure and inconspicuous; they usually possess a sternal onwards. Also, development is more rapid than is the antennae 14-segmented. Egg: 1.0 x O.4mm; oval, black heaps and the like, and sometimes cause damage to the spatula ('anchor-process' or 'breastbone'), which is case in T. paludosa, the larvae often pupating before the and shiny. Larva: up to 45 mm long; similar to that of roots of plants growing in soil with a high organic content. often of characteristic shape for the genus or species. winter. Under particularly favourable conditions there T. oleracea, but with just one pair of elongate anal may be two generations annually. papillae. Pupa: 20-30 mm long; brown and elongate, Dilophus febrilis (Linnaeus) (360) Contarinia hU11luli (Theobald) with paired respiratory horns on the head. Fever fl y Hop strig midge DAMAGE The subtelTanean larvae of this generally abundant laJwl = hop strig maggot Leatheljackets attack the underground parts of stems, LIFE HISTORY species typically occur in gregarious masses, and An uncommon pest of hop in various hop-growing roots and crowns of plants. At night, they also come to Adults emerge from June onwards, but are most sometimes attack the roots of strawberry plants and also areas, including England and pm·ts of mainland Europe. the surface and feed on the basal parts of stems; leaves abundant in late summer or early autumn. On average, a the un derground pmts of hop plants. Attacks usually in contact with the soil may also be holed or shredded. female deposits about 300 eggs; most are laid fro m mid­ occur only locally, and are rarely of importance; DESCRIPTION Damage is most evident in spring, when infested August to the end of September, and placed just below however, damage may be of some significance on Adult: 1.5-2.0mm long; body pale yellow; legs brown. plants make poor growth and may begin to wilt, and the soil surface in batches of five or six. Eggs hatch in young strawberry plants or on recently planted hop sets. Egg: very small, fusiform and translucent. Larva: up to is most likely to occur when young blackberry, about 14 days and the larvae then feed on plant roots Eggs are most frequently deposited in well-manured 3 mm long; whitish, with a distinct spatula. loganberry or raspberry canes, strawberry runners or near or at the soil surface. Feeding ceases du ring the sail or amongst decaying vegetable matter, and hop sets are planted in recently ploughed pastures or winter to be resumed in the spring, the larvae becoming infestations most often follow the spreading of compost LIFE HISTORY old hop gardens. Young strawberry plants are fully grown by about June and then pupating in the soil. on the land or the planting of crops on sites of former Adults are active in wm"ffi, sunny and calm conditions in particularly liable to be attacked and if damage is In common with those of other species, the pupae manure heaps. There are usually three broods during the late July and August, eggs being laid in developing hop severe they may have to be ploughed in. In general, wriggle upwards to protrude out of the ground shortly year, but adults are most often encountered in the early burrs (strobili) from early August onwm·ds. Lm·vae feed attacks tend to be less severe in light, dry soils and in before adults emerge. There is just one generation spring when, in common with other members of the gregm·iously from mid-August to mid-September, there hot, dry years. annually. family (genus Bibio), they are attracted into flowering being up to 50 attacking a single cone. Most burrow into orchards to forage for nectar; in such situations, they are the central axis (strig) of the burr or into the base of the Tipula paludosa Meigen (357-358) DAMAGE often regarded as important pollinators. Fever flies (6mm bracts, but some may feed externally. Fully grown Im·vae A common crane fly Apart from timing, similar to that caused by Tipula long) m·e characterized by a circlet of spurs on each leave the burrs from late August onwards, and may A sometimes very common and important agricultural oleracea, with most significant damage occurring in the front ti bia and by a double series of spines at the front 'jump' over the soil smface for some distance before pest, particularly in pastures and grassland. The larvae spring following the autumn in which eggs were laid. of the thorax. The larvae are about 10mm long and dull burrowing into the ground to spin cocoons in which they brown ish in colour; pupae are whitish, with a will overwinter and, eventually, pupate - the ability to hunchbacked appem·ance. 'jump' (by flexing and suddenly straightening the body)

357 A common crane fly (Tipu/a pa/udosa) - female. 358 A common crane fly (Tipu/a pa/udosa) - larva. 359 Bibionid larvae. 360 Fever fly (Di/ophus febri/is) - adults in copula......

True flies 178 179

is a feature of Contarinia larvae, and helps them to DESCRIPTION LlFE HISTORY Contarinia rubicola Kieffer disperse and then force their way into the ground prior to Adult: 2.5-4.0 mm long; head and thorax black to Adult midges appear in April and May, when blossoms Blackberry flower midge pupation. Larvae of some other dipterans, e.g. those of greyish black, the latter with a pair of pale longitUdinal of mid-season pear cultivars are beginning to open. A minor and local pest of blackberry. Present in various Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata), but not stripes dorsally; abdomen greyish black, that of neWly Eggs, usually from 10 to 30, are deposited in open parts of Europe, including the British Isles, France and members of the genus Dasineura, share this ability. emerged female pale brownish yellow; wings dusky; blossoms or in those still at the white-bud stage, and are Germany. antennae of male elongate, but those of female usuall y placed in groups on the anthers. If more than DAMAGE relatively short; female with a very long, extendible one female deposits eggs in the same flower, eventually DESCRIPTION The strigs of infested burrs become blackened and ovipositor. Egg: very small, fusiform, whitish and up to 190 larvae may occur within a single fruitlet. Eggs Adult: 1.5-1.6 mm long; body dark grey to greyish riddled with tunnels. Heavily infested burrs turn brown semitransparent. Larva: up to 5 nun long; yellOWish hatch in 4-6 days and the larvae then feed within the brown; abdomen of female yellowish, with broad, and their growth is severely stunted. Damage is white, with a conspicuous, brownish spatula. flesh of the developing fruitlet, forming a black cavity. greyish-brown crossbands. Egg: very small, fusiform particularly serious on cvs Fuggle and Tutsham. Larvae are fully fed in about 6 weeks. They then force and translucent. Larva: up to 3 mm long; whitish, with their way out of the fruitlet (which may by then have a distinct spatula. Contarinia pruniflorum Coutin & Rambier dropped to the ground) and enter the soil to spin silken Plum fruit-bud midge cocoons at a depth of about 5-8 cm. Here they LIFE HISTORY Although associated mainly with wild Prunus, overwinter, eventually pupating in the spring. There is Adults occur in June and July, eggs being laid within infestations of this southerly distributed midge occurred one generation annually. flower buds at the base of the stamens. The larvae feed widely on cultivated plum in the Mediterranean region gregmiously within the unop