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Coronavirus Proteins As Ion Channels: Current and Potential Research Washington University School of Medicine Digital Commons@Becker Open Access Publications 1-1-2020 Coronavirus proteins as ion channels: Current and potential research Conor McClenaghan Alex Hanson Sun-Joo Lee Colin G Nichols Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/open_access_pubs REVIEW published: 09 October 2020 doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.573339 Coronavirus Proteins as Ion Channels: Current and Potential Research Conor McClenaghan, Alex Hanson, Sun-Joo Lee and Colin G. Nichols* Center for Investigation of Membrane Excitability Diseases, and Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States Coronavirus (CoV) outbreaks have recently emerged as a global public health threat due to their exceptional zoonotic potential — a feature arising from their ability to infect a diverse range of potential hosts combined with their high capacity for mutation and recombination. After Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) CoV-1 in 2003 and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) CoV in 2012, with the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic we are now in the midst of the third deadly international CoV outbreak in less than 20 years. Coronavirus outbreaks present a critical threat to global public health and Edited by: Julia Kzhyshkowska, an urgent necessity for therapeutic options. Here, we critically examine the current Heidelberg University, Germany evidence for ion channel activity in CoV proteins and the potential for modulation as a Reviewed by: therapeutic approach. Jaume Torres, Nanyang Technological University, Keywords: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus-2, ion channel, spike protein, electrophysiology, Singapore bilayer, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus Srinivasa Reddy Bonam, Institut National de la Sante´ et de la Recherche Me´ dicale (INSERM), France INTRODUCTION *Correspondence: Coronaviruses (CoVs) are enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses that were first Colin G. Nichols [email protected] discovered in the 1930s (1). They are recognized as underlying frequent and deadly enzootic outbreaks in livestock (2), but their propensity for cross-species transmission has led to repeated Specialty section: human coronavirus (CoV) outbreaks, including the COVID-19 pandemic currently sweeping the This article was submitted to world. According to the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, as of August 2020, Vaccines and Molecular Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID−19) has caused >800,000 deaths and effective therapeutic Therapeutics, options remain limited. Months or years may pass before successful vaccine-development efforts a section of the journal come to fruition, but alternative therapeutic efficacy may arise from “anti-viral” mechanisms that Frontiers in Immunology reduce viral fitness by interfering with stages of the viral life cycle, such as viral entry, release, Received: 16 June 2020 assembly, and exit, or from “pro-host” mechanisms that improve host fitness by directly targeting Accepted: 22 September 2020 virulence factors, thereby disrupting the fundamental origins of tissue damage and pathology. In Published: 09 October 2020 reality, anti-viral and pro-host mechanisms may well overlap, since viral proteins often play Citation: multiple discrete functional roles that drive both pro-viral and anti-host consequences. This McClenaghan C, Hanson A, Lee S-J functional complexity points to a need for detailed understanding of underlying structure- and Nichols CG (2020) Coronavirus activity-function phenomena. Proteins as Ion Channels: Current and Potential Research. Coronaviruses are spherical particles with diameter of ~125 nm enclosed in an envelope bilayer, Front. Immunol. 11:573339. in which the membrane (M), envelope (E) and spike (S) structural proteins are embedded (3). The S doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.573339 protein generates the surface spikes that mediate receptor binding and membrane fusion between Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 1 October 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 573339 McClenaghan et al. Coronavirus Viroporins the virus and the host cell, while the E and M proteins maintain the expressed in host cells during viral replication: a minor envelope shape (4). Inside the viral envelope, nucleocapsid (N) fraction is incorporated into the virion envelope, while most proteins stabilize the single-stranded RNA genome (4). Many protein localizes in the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus studies have established the relevance of the E protein and or the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment (or ERGIC) of the protein 3a as fundamental pro-inflammatory SARS-CoV host cell, where CoVs bud (26, 27). E has variously been virulence factors (5–8), and additional studies have suggested that implicated in virus assembly, budding, envelope formation, the inflammatory properties of E and 3a are related to their virus release, inflammasome activation, and pathogenesis in induction of ion conductances in membranes, i.e. that they are different CoVs (see (2) for review), and deletion of E in ion channel proteins (9–12). Since the initial characterization of recombinant viruses results in reduced viral propagation and influenza M2 (13), viral proteins which form ion channels pathogenicity (2, 28, 29). E interacts with multiple viral- and themselves (viroporins) (14), or which can modulate host cell ion host-cell proteins and likely has multiple molecular functions (2), channel function (e.g. HIV-1 Vpu) (15, 16), have been reported in a either in addition to, or as a consequence of, its putative role as variety of virus species (17), and repeatedly proposed as potential an ion channel. anti-viral drug targets (17–19). Some proposed viroporins are proteins with structural features that are conserved in bacterial/ Evidence for Ion Channel Function of E eukaryotic proteins, such as the viral K channel Kcv (14, 20), which Early reports indicated that expression of the E protein from contains the canonical, highly conserved, potassium-selectivity filter SARS-CoV (30) and murine hepatitis virus (31), in E. coli or that is found throughout the prokaryota and eukaryota. Others mammalian cells, could increase membrane permeability to include a diverse range of short peptide/proteins, typically 50 to 120 multiple small molecules, although they did not establish amino acids, which are predicted or have been shown to contain at whether these molecules permeated channels formed directly least one transmembrane helix and may oligomerize to form by E or whether expression of E increased membrane channel-like structures with hydrophilic pores, but otherwise permeability via an indirect mechanism (31). carry no primary structural clues to any channel nature. Ion Western blots indicate that the E protein normally channels in general are attractive drug-targets which account for multimerizes, and a series of studies combining in silico and ~15% of clinically used drugs (21). In principle the lack of homology biochemical methods and NMR spectroscopy (32)provided between the proposed CoV viroporins and human ion channels evidence for pentameric assembly of E from SARS-CoV (33– provides the potential for selective modulation with small molecule 36) and MERS (37). The structural model includes a ~2Å radius or biologic therapies, and modern technologies allow for high- constriction, formed by the sidechains of V25 and V28, which throughput screening of novel channel modulators (21). If major could conceivably act as a channel gate, and an extended central drug-discovery endeavors are to be prudent, however, convincing “pore” of <6Å in radius (34)(Figure 1). The first evidence should exist for the ion channel function of CoV proteins electrophysiological characterization of E reported fluctuating as well as the anti-viral effects of their functional modulation. currents, with indistinct gating events, and very poor signal-to- Although there is also a wealth of detailed functional analysis noise, when synthetic SARS-CoV E, or E proteins from HCov- of a few viroporins, such as influenza M2 and Kcv [as reviewed in 229, mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) and from infectious bronchitis (17, 19, 22)], most putative viral channels have received relatively virus (IBV) were reconstituted into artificial bilayers (38, 39). little electrophysiological attention, which typically requires Different apparent ion permeability series were observed: the a- − expression of putative channels in heterologous systems or CoV HCoV-229 (K+ >Na+ >Cl ) differed from MHV (b-CoV) − reconstitution of purified or synthesized peptides into artificial and IBV (g-CoV) (both Na+ >K+ >Cl) but, in all three, bilayers. Such approaches can be technically fickle, with selectivity inferences were based on reversal potential important considerations for the interpretation of results, and measurements that were confounded by very small and unequivocal determination of pore-forming proteins generally variable currents. requires detailed combinations of both electrophysiological Guided by structural modeling, Torres, Liu, and colleagues analysis and structural manipulation to avoid the potential for engineered mutations in a short-form of SARS-CoV E (limited to mis-identification as a consequence of reconstitution of the predicted transmembrane region, and flanked at both termini contaminant proteins or altered regulation of endogenous by 2 lysine residues to aid with solubility), and reported that channels in heterologous expression systems (21, 23–25). N15A and V25F substitutions both altered
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