Politics of Gender and Nationality

CEU eTD Collection

ESTONIAN PARAMILITARY POLITICS OF GENDER ANDNATIONALITY: In partial fulfillmentIn partial Supervisor: Prof. Department Gender Studies of Central EuropeanCentral University for the degreeMasterinGender ofArts Studies of

Dr. Dr. Budapest Maari Põim Maari Submitted to habil. Andrea Pető Andrea habil. 2014 By , Hungary

ORGANISATION

D.Sc.

CEU eTD Collection Key term self the with regard in controversies important some were there yet sources, the all of analyses in manifested roles gender towards attitudes conservatist The work. memory exclusionary quasi a of outlines t that concluded I finding, research the a As archives. of digital EDL the of analysis as well as photostreams, analysis and forewords publication EDLers, male young with interviews history oral conducted: were League Defence organisation Paramilitary Estonian the of case the upon looks thesis This ABSTRACT - representation of the organisation. ofrepresentation the s : nationalism, militarized masculinities, militarized memory: nationalism, work,

( the EDL the - secret male secret ) . In order to work with this research this with work to order In - dominated society, built upon nati upon built society, dominated e D self EDL he i

- ersnain s military a is representation topic the onalism and corresponding and onalism , three blocks of analyses of blocks three , Far Right. - – like,

h Estonian the matching matching EDL EDL CEU eTD Collection excellent thoughts. finding I’d met the precisely finding my throughout support supervisor my thank to like would I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS also their lik

care of care of Finally, t Finally, e to express my grat my express to e ti me for critical for me my o

my motivation throughout motivation

degree coursemates aphor

feedback.

itude studies which , friends and family and friends , to

worked I’m much obliged to obliged much I’m

Prof. at CEU. CEU. at the CEU CAW staff and staff CAW CEU the the

nra eő o hr persiste her for Pető Andrea i i the best. the academic yearacademic

M c appreciation uch

It was my pleasure to work to pleasure my was It

for

my being there for me and for for and me for there being .

interviewees for interviewees Prof. for encouraging me and and me encouraging for Hadley Z. Renkin Z. Hadley nce, patience and and patience nce, sharing with you with taking

their

for . CEU eTD Collection References 5. CONCLUSION 4. DIGITAL ON THE MAKING STATEMENT 3. 2. 1. OFCONTENTSTABLE

1.2 Methodology and methods 1.1 Sources 4.2 Summary analysis4.1 Content archives digital ofthe 3.3 Summa 3.2 Visual analysis ofchapter illustrations 3.1 Analysis ofprefaces 2.3 Summary Interview2.2 results Interview2.1 field notes 1.5 Research limitations 1.4 Theoretical framework Literature1.3 review ANTICIPATED DISCOURSE:INTERVIEWS COMBAT EDLERS WITHTHE INTRODUCTION DECLARINGIN MASCULINISM STATELESS THEMILITIA CONTEXT OF 4.1.2 Militarized masculinities4.1.2 Militarized constructed media via channels social 4.1.1 Nationalist ideologyappearing exhibitions inmuseum 1.2.3 Discourse and digitality 1.2.2 Visual analysis 1.2.1 Oral history

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CEU eTD Collection APPENDIXES

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CEU eTD Collection military arranged forces, armed paramilitary unified of organization defence national voluntary, legal, a is 1918, in established EDL, The Estonian paramilitary. project of kind the understand The public schools. in visits educational and Classes Defence National through carrying EDLers with p the in and system education Estonian the in engaged actively The subjectivities. political legal including assets, of range wide work by ofthe importance because research topic isof EDL’ ’the acronym by refered hereinafter Estonia of Republic the of organisation nation to regard in masculinities construct paramilitarysettings do how on question research a to answer seeks organisation” paramilitary Estonian nationality: and gender of “Politics project thesis My “ All nationalisms are gendered, a 1.

pre

and because of the the of because and

INTRODUCTION is - WWII legacy WWII to contribute to overcoming the overall gap of critical social research regarding regarding research social critical of gap overall the overcoming to contribute to EDL - building. building.

a etbihd serious a established has

, internal violence, internal , gender and nation politics th politics nation and gender state

organisation focus I

ambitions ambitions all

are on weapons

invented and all aredangerous”and all invented seems to seems and lack of control of lack and h self the ,

quasi – and ’EDLers’ and

h Etna Dfne ege ( League Defence Estonian the institution 1 -

ie oeaig ne te soin Defence Estonian the under operating like, - public

secrecy n i ivle i cntutn militarised constructing in involved is and - ersnain of representation recruit new members from from members new recruit e organisation e euain and reputation al culture ,

being a part of state patriotic youth patriotic state of part a being when refering to its members its to refering when

the EDL the atriotic national youth work, work, youth national atriotic

of theEDL of represents

the ( McClintock McClintock so

(Anne McClintock a The md paramilitary rmed t s motn to important is it .

which is carried iscarried which et Kaitseliit Eesti The aim of this of aim The early on, being being on, early EDL

1997 possesses possesses ). This ). : 89 ). ) ,

CEU eTD Collection (2013), ( Government Estonian Agenda of Report 2015 Development Agenda Development Defence State the to Similiarily th EDL the regarding paranoia governmental things right Agenda forecasted be cannot membership F The 59). th of example EDL the it to given tasks new ha membership EDL the 2022, t to According organisation. the regarding state look of mo with Estonia, all covering protection’ of the same voluntary time a organisation 5 March since force (in Estonia of Republic the of Law EDL the fulfilling and Forces Defence Estonian the of part constituting Ministry, orces e work, visitwork, school risen. remarkably have EDL the “ se great people

Even though demographic situation is bad, then trends and people’s awreness about awreness people’s and trends then bad, is situation demographic though Even Commenting the Commenting Agenda saig ht the that stating , ing , there is a need for extra resources, staff politics to get “ get to politics staff resources, extra for need a is there ,

(Estonian Defence Ministry 2013: 4). 4). 2013: Ministry Defence (Estonian at the case of case the at “

e pre e (ibid.) Esi kpes 2013) Ekspress (Eesti

- ( WWII the the

a been has Agenda –

to display the tothe outside EDLstrengths

EDLers)“ (ibid.). that all the Estonian territorial defence tasks should be should tasks defence territorial Estonian the all that the

broader EDL EDL at this very time derives from the from derives time very this at EDL , the Head of the EDL Meelis Kiili stated EDL Kiili , theHead ofthe Meelis s to grow up to 30,000 members in a decade to be able to bear to able be to decade a in members 30,000 to up grow to s rtczd by criticized which

task ER 03 and 2013) (ERR , as well as as well as , in ourselves engage to have We

consisted as well asas s

ol b unrealistic be could , re than 21,000 members involved. involved. members 21,000 than re

some manifesting 2

of of e Sta he part of the state, defining itself as the ’carpet ’carpet as itself part state, the ofdefining the

This more than more leading figures of the the of figures leading a

ed to need n re t me te ol set goals the meet to order in

te Defence Development Plan Plan Development Defence te agenda

itself itself

: 4

0,000 members 0,000 soin iity f Interior of Ministry Estonian

“ in real life mistrust towards towards mistrust life real in o achieve to “ (Postimees 2012). Finally em to seems th the right people to do the do to people right the , 1999). So, the EDL is at is EDL the So, 1999). , ambitions :

to the Security Policy Policy Security the

u an put diinl youth additional tasks given to it by it to given tasks sne voluntary since , soin Defence Estonian copy

of the Estonian the of

(Pedaru 2011: 2011: (Pedaru carried The necessity The

end a historical historical a

o this to out n the in 2013 by -

CEU eTD Collection self and space media Estonian following not history, of interpretations differing citizenship, with issues Estonian, of name full Estonian a isseen community and Russian Thelocal factors). decicive be to seem Whiteness language, Estonian of command accentless (read: matching nationality and 2 133). were(ibid., people arrested 1,000 and werewounded people 100 ci the a in to capital elsewhere the cemetery in military Library National the facing park central from Soldier Bronze the as known memorial WWII 1 me ( ority The of politics declared: (Postimees Republi the of President Night Bronze the during partner legitimate Päevaleht April the about Report Overview the in Furthermore, unit. reserve military operations, rescue scale t (ibid.), Report the to Estoni the and EDL the between agreements cooperation stipulates (ibid.) Report This policy. defence sees 25) 2009:

Use of term of Use Civil unrest which broke forth in 2007 in the Tallinn and in Eastern in and Tallinn the in 2007 in forth broke which unrest Civil vol people Estonian the of will defence the with well is all that light positive in indicated Soldier Bronze the p Every “ - morial identification according to ethnicity. to according identification The role of the EDLers in forcing down the April Unrest cannot be underestimated. underestimated. be cannot Unrest April the down forcing in EDLers the of role The unteering ofsituations? these in kind the Russian community Russian the o te tncmjrt iig in living majority ethnic the not ,

an Police and Board Guard Board Guard Board and Police an 2008), the Police and Board Guard Board Guard Board and Police the 2008), remise has to be created for the further development of the EDL. the of development further the for created be to has remise

“ 2008). Estonian people Estonian

are consideration takinginto contured when sharply that more

due to active participation of its members’ its of participation active to due After the April the After 2 / .

efficient inclusion of the EDL EDL the of inclusion efficient he desirable role of the EDL would EDL the heof desirablerole --- continuation of continuation . Subsequently, as a gesture of graditude and as a sign of a trust, the trust, a of sign a as and graditude of gesture a as Subsequently, .

c of Estonia became a supporting member of the ED the of member supporting a became Estonia of c i te tt ray o ae oiie s o te spontanous the of use positive make to ready state the is / “

refers here only to ethnic Estonians, since the Estonian view considers ethnicity ethnicity considers view Estonian the since Estonians, ethnic to only here refers

)

was ty (Wertsch 2008: 134). As a result of the events, one person was killed, killed, was person one events, the of result a As 134). 2008: (Wertsch ty

Events

strongly guarding objects of strategic importance and being a a being and importance strategic of objects guarding ,

the Minister of Defence of the time Jaak Aaviksoo Jaak time the of Defence of Minister the " (Postimees, 06.11.2007).

as well as the Estonian Rescue Board. Rescue Estonian the as well as offended by the relocation of the Bronze Soldier Soldier Bronze the of relocation the by offended the Republic of Estonia of Republic the 3

as an essential part of Estonian interna Estonian of part essential an as

stated that it perceived the EDL as its its as EDL the perceived it that stated s not part of the nation due to poor command command poor to due nation the of not part s t o be engaged,be o

- Viru county after relocation of a Soviet Soviet a of relocation after county Viru

in forcing down the street riots street the down forcing in

. The April events took took events April The the largestthe local for instance, in large in instance,for

The story of story The Unrest L Sakala unit unit Sakala L

According According 1

min (Eesti -

- l

CEU eTD Collection non the of amount vast Since men. Estonian mind in bearing in out appointed was role EDL’s the that telling is It rights. equal the havenot do minorities Russian the case, Estonian Inthe rights. and resources state towards access the represents juridically citizenship Europe, modern in that out pointed 2010). citize undefined an minorities indicates which Passport Alien’s Estonian an issued Furthermore, against fight the supporting not Estonia of Republic F particular standing out regime Soviet the tied under people the all interpretation, closely victory WWII the and ’Russianness’ self of part important an constitutes and Nazism against victory f that article as seen interpretation, of side the from WWII regarding was unrest civil 133). 2008: communities" past the of commemoralization the over disagreement a to due place or the local Russian community, relocation of the Bronze Soldier bears a meaning a bears Soldier Bronze the of relocation community, Russian local the or hs orsod t cnlcos ae ale b An MCitc (1997: McClintock Anne by earlier made conslucions to corresponds This victims

living living

For the Estonian majori Estonian the For r the or

te Estonian the : 30% of the state population state the of 30% the local Russian minority Russian local the

seen seen ht h EL s known is EDL the that n Estonia in

lobotomy local local a

as ultimate victims ultimate as s a s n act of act n usa community Russian - paig aoiy n te Russian the and majority speaking from the side of Russian of side the from r, n at largely fact, in are, minority minority current ty, which positions correspond positions which ty, denies Stalinist crimes against small nations and are and nations small against crimes Stalinist denies .

for its its for oty of mostly ,

hooliganism which took place due to fabricati to due place took which hooliganism usa poaad apparatus. propaganda Russian - ethnic people living in Estonia are not citizens, not are Estonia in living people ethnic , the Bronze Soldier stands for liberation and and liberation for stands Soldier Bronze the , 4

patriotic non

non - may have may

the quote above as outstanding as above quote the iies ih eue rgt (Greene rights reduced with citizens aim hence, Nazism, o ah other each to

dia. - agenda and membership membership and agenda Estonian ethnic Estonian Wertsch -

- paig minority speaking suffered, suffered, identity to those of the EDL, the EDL, the of those to between two "mnemonic "mnemonic two between . (ibid.) explains in his in explains (ibid.)

, with , en a ai state Nazi a being codn t this to According

with no with origin, coig o this to Accoring si. o t So, nship.

discourses of discourses have been have nations in nations

(Wertsch (Wertsch of 1 who 91)

for the for

ethnic when when ons he .

CEU eTD Collection 34 36 1967: (Duverger combat physical in weapons with enemy the meet to expected 3 a as it following Guard National largely unproblematized 73 the Th accompanied rhetorics by theconstant the state ofvouching Fo that noted has “ 20), (ibid., in experience previous Afghanistan and in participation and exercises military of tradition common a Army otherThe militias EDL standsoutamongst exclusionaryproject the nationalistEDL t then

Militia ). - r instance, Estonia joining the NATO and participating the missions abroad has been been has abroad missions the participating and NATO the joining Estonia instance, r e Hääl 2013). terms, egoistic more in think who those always are there Unfortunately, o defence the to contribute voluntarily to opportunity an it’s that understand should citizen a EDL, the joining from get I will what asking of “Instead 135) 74, The EDL is refered to as a militia in Pedaru’s (2011) thesis. (2011) militia Pedaru’s as a in to TheEDL is refered

Holoca historical legacy of the EDL, such as its speculated past of past speculated its as such EDL, the of legacy historical , since others rarely exist outside t outside exist rarely others since , e olwn quote following he u o te ei itrs. codn to According interest. media the of out –

a ust events ( events ust rvt am o cvlas h ae enro are who civilians of army private every EDLer should go through at least one mission one least at through go should EDLer every remain

militarization is globalized under th under globalized is militarization ,

the EDL EDL the The . oehr ih soin troops Estonian with together oe fr developme for model s

to to See: See: patriotic patriotic Bosnia and Kosovo (ibid.), whereas according to EDL corporal Turro Turro corporal EDL to according whereas (ibid.), Kosovo and Bosnia

has debate academic in undiscussed largely be y regional a by Weiss partnership strong a education and and education - Wendt 2008 Wendt he framework of of framework he seems to to seems nt 3 nt ed f h EDL the of head unit

with its legality with its and lled on military lines, subjected to military training and and training military to subjected lines, military on lled 5 , Balkelis 2012, Balkelis ,

youth work of the EDL seems also a topic topic a also seems EDL the of work youth

Tro 2009: (Turro

ae on based major aim with e

discourse of discourse at the Guard the : ak Teel Mark

terrorism

national security and close connectiontheand ties with its NATO

former key figures key former youth opposed by opposed

“. (Estonian Advantage 2003 Advantage (Estonian - . 20) pursuing

eosrts h kn of kind the demonstrates

For instance, t instance, For Cynthia Enloe (2007: 39) 39) (2007: Enloe Cynthia rm the from - 37 foreign missions foreign . Some EDLers have a a have EDLers Some . program a wl as well as s , as cited in Yoroms 2005: Yoroms in cited as , oes w state. own one’s f

national security national . Kasekamp 2000: Kasekamp

/ U.S. U.S. --- me / “ (Saarte “ he EDL he

conduct ald the called Maryland

publicly publicly in Iraq in

has ing ) , . CEU eTD Collection analysing I’m EDLers and to recruitment their regarding paramilitary the in narrations involvement their on focusing EDL, the of members on based is thesis this of part empirical The 1.1 chaptersaare wh followed Conclusions by EDL. the of archives digital the on focuses chapter third The EDL. the of publications with analysis these self the at looking capters core correspond framework methodology of description introduction o briefly Introduction is thesis This agenda new tasks. ofgivingthe organisation State the concerning stated been previously already has work youth EDL the of importance ’ Challenge Sources the , my young male EDLers. The second chapte second The EDLers. male young ’

and research limitations research and , to the to

follow the same logic of structure of logic same the follow

research sample research the EDL the is

divided into divided n methods and chapter

the iie t fv floig uscin. is o toe sub those of First subsections. following five to divided eerh sources research - three representation of the EDL the of representation (1)

s tie te an eest o lo of necessity main the utlines started to work work to started odce interviews, conducted

of this MA thesis MA this of main

an Introduct an

r introduced are sources consists of consists . Atr hs tee is there this, After . In addition to the to addition In . Therearet

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(2) (2) followed by a summary of findings of summary a by followed - 6 olwd by followed risk Estonian youth Estonian risk hree corehree

: based on an analysis of a particular source, particular a of analysis an on based the chapters of analysis of chapters r focuses on analysing the contents of two of contents the analysing on focuses r oral history oral eta ad visual and textual oking at the case of the EDL. The The EDL. the of case the at oking analysis chapters in chaptersanalysis results of the of results a sub ltrtr review literature a

section interviews

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its its p. 119 p.

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representation of the the of representation rl history oral illustrated with rich with illustrated p. 156 p.

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for the the for digital digital self ysis

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CEU eTD Collection special units, consists programme of type EDL the values, core its as tolerance several as well channel Youtube sources. S These su booktitles and (2013) F bases. homepage are but work) memory connotating geography situated building the Toompea, T page. on focus will ( compilation analysis My EDL. the of galleries shooting and units, regional “ magazine of page nominal the (2) restrictions, technical to due posts no and likes, 3,400 approximately with English, in EDL, the of page interest generated automatically the (1) of: consist EDL the of pages Facebook official The mla, dooial cagd n mblzn headings mobilizing and charged ideologically imiliar, he EDL he

traditionalist androcentric “interests“ and ideals and “interests“ androcentric traditionalist or instance, or h EL a a ofca magazine official an has EDL The . The Museum The . M i.e., part of the capital closely capital the of part i.e.,

eed Yu) Home!“ (Your) Defend “ useum

o Estonia! For p competitions, judo, etc.competitions, hotos section), the Events, an Events, the section), hotos

aeok groups. Facebook ald “ called

ggest exhibitions are exhibitions

n eet years, recent in next to the Museum of Occupations and close to the Freedom Square Freedom the to close and Occupations of Museum the to next of explicit references to weapons, explosives, demonstrations of police police of demonstrations explosives, weapons, to references explicit of

ideologically and mobilizing male functions (08, h lte aaye i ti thesis, this in analysed latter the (2008), “ o Fatherland! For

al located on located oevr a Moreover, with approximately 900 likes, and (4) a few pages of of pages few a (4) and likes, 900 approximately with t

he EDL he

publications so events, as a as connected ( “ d the posts in the nominal page nominal the in posts the d

publishe called with approximately 1,200 likes, (3) page of the the of page (3) likes, 1,200 approximately with 8 judging by their programme, their by judging www.youtube.com/user/isamaaFor/videos the ground floor of floor ground the

lo aty iial accessible digitally partly also lthough

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f rulers and power and rulers f content EDL Headquarters EDL have a Father’ a

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CEU eTD Collection regarding information methodology and tool a is interview history oral An 1. 1.2 and theagecriteria explicitly togender refer dominating members, male sub to exclusively female the to opposed As dominated. ( gender the to references explicit in itself manifest gender The of membership future preparing and/or tasks sub These Daughters’. ’Y the named unit boys a Defence’, functions: appointed and age ideals, gender on based county, Estonian every to dominated its G ’f ender 2.

emale’, ’daughters’ emale’, a nuclear familythefather the career toassist designed of igsi choices lingustic 1 Oralhistory Methodology and binaries and strong segregation occur segregation strong and binaries main body main - pcfc xettos mhszd n h nms f oh f h female the of both of names the in emphasized expectations specific aees s nr ad etaiy Smlaiy te Yug als d not do Eagles’ ’Young the Similiarily, neutrality. and norm a as maleness

of itsmembers, insteadof eadn te ae o is sub its of names the regarding ) -

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but

whereas the sub the whereas unmobile private sphere (’home’) sphere private unmobile past to the ’manly ideals’ such as bravery, mobility, nobility such (’Eagle’) as mobility, to thebravery, ’manly ideals’

bears

Tusel 1999) (Truesdell -

neutral name “T name neutral o igitc itntos f edr hne sugges hence, gender, of distinctions linguistic no oung Eagles’ and a girls unit named the ’Home ’Home the named unit girls a and Eagles’ oung . They are They . . -

divisions of the main body refer to differentiation to refer body main the of divisions

9 from the structure of the organisation the of structure the from -

units, units, .

grounded in memory work memory in grounded composition composition refering to patriarchial gender hierarchy hierarchy gender patriarchial to refering rl history Oral a female unit named the ’Female Home Home ’Female the named unit female a he Defence League“, regionally spread spread regionally League“, Defence he - h mi body main the units. units.

figure T

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can can

, historically opened opened historically ,

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CEU eTD Collection hour an half than more lasted interviews the of All office. interviewee’s the in place taking condu I present membership inthe ofthe EDL. andfuture perspectives interviewee’s the with connection in (past) history oral the to refering blocks, main three into categorized to offered uploaded. and defended been has thesis the after as well process, as research whole protectedduringanonymity be the will interviewees, their and translate transcribed, language, society. Estonian the in role its and EDL the to relationship and in involvement to, recruitment their of narration interviewees’ of purpose main The EDL. the of members male post altogetherseven Iconducted 2014, InApril organisation to me enabled mediate to chose interviewees the which about discourses gendered The attitudes. and values current their on based EDL, the join to decided they why on performances their record to interviewees the from 1) (Appendix intervi the 145 2008: Wertsch in detail more The paramilitary. the memory interviews between cted the interviews in public settings in Tallinn, with an exception of one of exception an with Tallinn, in settings public in interviews the cted in order to translate the outcomes of those interviews to interviews those of outcomes the translate to order in discourses ewees. because I was interested in exposing possible exposing in interested was I because the interviewees beforehand via email upon their request. The questions were were questions The request. their upon email via beforehand interviewees the .

h tertcl rmwr o ti thesis this of framework theoretical the For the oral history interviews, interviews, history oral the For ).

eadn te at n present and past the regarding There were ten were There con nection it Egih n cdd I rvdd ofdnily o the to confidentialty provided I coded. and English into d s

ewe nat between pre All of the interviews were conducted in Estonian Estonian in conducted were interviews the of All - designed interview questions which I asked from all from asked I which questions interview designed 10 oaim n mmr wr are work memory and ionalism -

structured oral history interviews with young with historyinterviews oral structured conducting the interviews was to understand understand to was interviews the conducting

coe o ask to chose I (ibid.). Interview questions (Appendix 1 (Appendix questions Interview focus on the self the on focus underlinings of nationalist collective nationalist of underlinings (see: I

oik 99 3 1999: Novick hs t cnut rl history oral conduct to chose gen the nation dered - representation of the of representation part

icular questions questions icular - , s ie in cited as 4,

xlie in explained - building of of building interview interview the EDL the ) were were ) CEU eTD Collection of flow natural the hinder might this that aware was I inquiry. of lense critical time a maintaining same the at yet them, from learn to and interviewees the harm ethically to not order researc a as position outside an take to and opinions own my opening avoid lied community male EDL the interviewing when history oral using in challenges methodological main the of One me tocontact that way a in sample the of construction the indicates 1 Tabel in appearing names the Ülo receive not did but them by meant he I’m referingstraightforward theto thesis, Throughout replies. what him asking kept I capacities. mental my safety personal of reasons with Interview place. took seven interviews, planned eight of Out interview. an with agreed immediately contacts the of most and channel unit one of borders the outside me led soon sampling snowball the but EDL the of unit single a in interviews conducting Th comfortableatmospherefor theinterviewees. in let didn’t I a of interviews, maintainance to contribute to trying questions, and answers the between pauses considerable During question. specific the of articulation my the without by covered were questions the of Some interviewees. the by up brought themes the on depending two, first the of exception the with sequence, free a the all covered I in asked were questions The process. in questions the of phrasings the yetmodified questions, interview, every In minutes. 50 approximately for some and e interviewees were sampled using a Snowball method. Originally, I planned to focus on on focus to planned I Originally, method. Snowball a using sampled were interviewees e , Margus , M , Indrek ihkel , etc. , S , conducting research work in a possibly dangerous settings. dangerous possibly a in work research conducting iim

, since he he since , , I , ndrek .

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Tanel 11

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.) convinced me that in case profound preparation does not help to tackle issue tackle to help not does preparation profound case in that me convinced .) content “ ( “ described by Gi by described ibid. Oral history collects the interviewee’s recollections and opinions, not the the not opinions, and recollections interviewee’s the collects history Oral , 105). I learned from his guidelines that I merely need to challenge and challenge to need merely I that guidelines his from learned I 105). ,

analysis “ ( “ ibid. eem poorely clarified, not to argue against opinions which I do not not do I which opinions against argue to not clarified, poorely eem ), have been given less attention to by hi by to attention less given been have ),

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at f misra pbi dsore n Estonia in discourse public mainstream a of part - animal being. animal n at b fact, In pa to ay languages many too speak memory work, memory t ntoaim ad mil and nationalism, oth

exclusion and - state' assumes a complete correspondence between the the between correspondence complete a assumes state' and militarized and ibid. ogeny ) tu, vn oe o rsn i te mainstream the in present so more even thus, , “ 21 , 247). 247). , ’othering’, i.e.standing (ibid.). -

215) when decribing the technologies of of technologies the decribing when 215) ( Yuval n cno rmme te aie tongue native the remember cannot and

Nationalism excludes minorities, hence minorities, excludes Nationalism

masculinities are connected with each each with connected are masculinities - trs ae medd hog the through embedded are itarism Davies 1997:

3) s h dsoae alien, dislocated the as 333)

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h Eey Jfod 18: 8) wt (aamltr isiuin atvl uig the using actively institutions (para)military with 183), 1989: (Jeffords Enemy the - middle ibid.

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rhetorics, follows heteronormative traditions heteronormative follows rhetorics, , 244 , - 245), the Extreme Right is populated populated is Right Extreme the 245), - osraie raiain although organisation, conservative t e EDL he ulc discussions public oiig prnig of upbringing roviding .

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(ibid uh rtqe wt R W Cnel ad ae W Mseshit ( Messerschmidt W. James and Connell, W. R. with critique, much f boththegroups.dominating subordinated, as as the well , 244 ., ter is not much common. In fact, t fact, In common. much not is ter ibid. procapitalist; beliving in free market and free entreprise, (2) extremely extremely (2) entreprise, free and market free in beliving procapitalist; - nies n h lt nntet ad al teteh etre meant centuries twentieth early and nineteenth late the in anliness 245). The latter stresses ‘manly virtues’, described by Mosse (1996) as as (1996) Mosse by described virtues’, ‘manly stresses latter The 245). , 252 as - 254). cited troduced by Connell in 1995, was seen as embodying the most the embodying as seen was 1995, in Connell by troduced

in Nagel 1998: 244) argues that " that argues 244) 1998: Nagel 23

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o inherit the inherit o ibid. ". The The ". 848) , CEU eTD Collection Ukraine. theCrimea, claims territorial its expand to threatened Russia while Alliance’, the of borders Eastern 7 EDL. the i When to recruited been coursemates and classmates former my witnessing of history researcher a as position myand topic this researching for motivation My 1.5 changemight inthebeyond future thatof a state countries neighboring its towards Federation Russian of operations militaryand political asagendas, t as with development well provided withthe perspectives state non a from moved review, literature the in provided descriptions 36), 298). 2009: (Ashe and communities their from shootings, individuals exiling beatings, punishment of system brutal a through communities respective practic schemes community of the types the in instance, paramilitaryfor from, the differ society of Estonian practices and role current the that mention to noteworthy It’s ( researching for scenery prolific cited 1996, Mosse 1995; (Bederman etc adventurousness, persistence, stoicism, strength, quiet comp discipline, courage, honour, willpower, including masculinity’, ‘normative

ibid ale i 21, diinl AO i fre lne i al f h tre atc tts o asr pae n the in peace ’assure to States Baltic three the of all in landed forces air NATO additional 2014, in Earlier Research limitations there are two types of militias, depending on their relationship to the state. Based on the on Based state. the to relationship their on depending militias, of types two are there .) has described.

in t - Nagel 1998: 245). 245). 1998: Nagel became more clear more became in circumstances military d uig h Nrhr Iead ofit hr prmltre plcd ‘their’ policed paramilitaries where conflict Ireland Northern the during ed

tt mlta o state a to militia state

The EDL The er

that I’ll be focusing on the on focusing be I’ll that the the the maintainance of the kind the of maintainance , with its one century old ideological rootings, ideological old century one its with , Eastern Europe Eastern - etrd n. oee, with However, one. centered 24 during during -

centered militia. the early ’90s early the 7

caused by agressive foreign policies foreign agressive by caused case of the of case

of masculinity ideals that Mosse Mosse that ideals masculinity of According to Yoroms (2005: Yoroms to According

, the , - based restorative justice justice restorative based EDL, I EDL,

EDL seemed to have to seemed EDL is rooted in rooted is

he current unstable beyond annectation of of annectation beyond h nw broader new the

considered this this considered , the EDL role role EDL the , etitiveness, etitiveness,

personal seems as as

CEU eTD Collection whole the of analysis thorough a as not paramilitary since organisation thatwoul example, an as considered be should EDL the of case the sample, research the of limitations the and conducted interviews the of amount anonymized the unfortunately, be that, to remain noted interviews be should It analyses. textual and mainly visual by is accompanied thesis This harrassment. possible facing for myself prepare to tried I supervisor, my of help the With mine. from differ drastically values to due challenge a topic research

n ue slciey Mroe, t sh it Moreover, selectively. used and aiy identifyable easily the risks of conducting research in a community whose whose community a in research conducting of risks the d have exceeded the limits of this thesis. ofthis exceededd have thelimits

inside the Estonian context even though coded, coded, though even context Estonian the inside 25

ud e etoe ta de o h small the to due that mentioned be ould

b sd on ased research

interviews ,

CEU eTD Collection pregnancy disturbing lost art background interview harrassmen earlier explicit an without interviews. the influenced which issues and characteristics key the of some upon touch I’ll Followingly, 2 ’ c self of themes main three interviews, the during that out point will EDL out point will I Furthermore, self EDL the culture the that memo and militarism the In manly bond netn te D self EDL the onnecting .1 I s of meditation. Afterwards, meditation. of s 2. nterview field notes nterview field that

. However, in a few occasions, the gendered power dynamics seemed to seemed powerdynamics gendered the occasions, few a in However, .

ANTICIPATED COMBAT ANTICIPATED COMBAT Introduction and state ambitions connected ambitions state and ,“ ae f the of case

amd t eitig h interviewer the belittling at aimed , ht e osdrd e ’ey eiie oa’ fe “ after woman’ feminine ’very a me considered he that

reply refered reply t “ which can be connected with his self his with connected be can which “ o which to

experienced I ’ from the side of interviewees of side the from . -

representa

negative stance from the from stance negative

part part ry work are throroughly are work ry D i a iprat to important an is EDL he

towards towards in em t b vr coe o ht f h military the of that to close very be to seems tion

f hs thesis this of replied - the ersnain ih obtv msuiiy siiult and spirituality masculinity, combative with representation interview I missed I a jokingly , particular particular anxieties regarding its public display public its regarding anxieties D with this organisation this with ISCOURSE: ISCOURSE: ,

one detail detail one questions I o instance, For . stated “ : ir sexual practice aimed for increasing the odds of of odds the increasing for aimed practice sexual 26

connecte side, with the exception of exception the with side, o atr Il raise I’ll matter, No eerh u t te paramilitary the to due research .

The gender power dynamics reveal when when reveal dynamics power gender The that - regarding his previous response previous his regarding identification as identification being INTERVIEWS WITH INTERVIEWS

d with each other. other. each with d h ntos f nationalism, of notions the

acknowledged by the interviewees interviewees the by acknowledged Mihkel . In th In

is chapter I will argue that that argue will I chapter is stated stated a practicioner of Ori of practicioner a okn a m energetic my at looking - (your) representation occured, occured, representation . during the recorded the during Tanel

Moreover, As a concl a As

THE es up! legs (masculinities). result

as mentioned mentioned as

institutional

EDL

saying: “ saying: gendered in I argued I usion, I usion, “. sexual sexual ERS ental T the his I

CEU eTD Collection friendliera to interview, the of end location isolated and quiet more a for site interviewing intervi the negotiated himself was contradicting and use answers direct avoiding its him noticed though I beforehand. even device, recording a of use the by caused been have with interview The self stake.the contactcarrying Moreregarding tobe control importantly, work seemed the a of out establishin the to contribute to seemed and remarks short with occasionally with contact eye direct keep to managed her where from the throughout unexpectedly interview, the to him accompany by used discourses quasi a being EDL of process the influenced aspects important Several paramilitary with thetheory futher Army. applicablethe the heterosexualit male the by partner. ejaculated been just has intercourse heteronormative the in which sperm of trying is who partner female a of buttom the underneath pillow a putting by legs“ “raising that consideration into taking - representation of the EDL: ofrepresentation the say, tosay to and not what tothe interv

hs fesv sxs ’oe ses o ofr te mg o a violent an of image the confirm to seems ’joke’ sexist offensive This g a role of a of role a g ew, he was on the spot half an hour earlier and demanded to change the the change to demanded and earlier hour an half spot the on was he ew, wih os hand goes which y and more talkative version. This can be interpretated in term of quasi of terminterpretated becanin This version.talkative more and event

the interviewees. interviewees. the Indrek

, sittin , immediately after immediately - military, n evaluative n

suffered under his style of cryptic laconity. The latter seemed to to seemed latter The laconity. cryptic of style his under suffered g in a spot where I couldn’t see his reactions simultanously but but simultanously reactions his see couldn’t I where spot a in g

to get pregnant is usually done in order not to miss any amount any miss to not order in done usually is pregnant get to quasi - in party. party. - hand with the military, therefore connecting Estonian Estonian connecting therefore military, the with hand - For instance, the contact who lead me to me lead who contact the instance, For secret I switched I Gender power dynamics were not the only issues at at issues only the not were dynamics power Gender 27 organisation seemed to have influenced the the influenced have to seemed organisation

the dictaphone off, off, dictaphone the .

conducting the interviews. the conducting The contact remained to be present present be to remained contact The that he had chosen had he that

Ülo . He interrupted the interview interview the interrupted He . gender power gender Indrek . However, . iewer. ’s voice change voice ’s . O .

dynamics with with dynamics Ülo n the day of of day the n Namely, the Namely,

- - aggressive secrecy of secrecyof

chose to chose

in the in d CEU eTD Collection other In introduced. words, the EDL interested only isnot is it way the towards EDL the of interest the indicates This instead. Estonian the to turn to me suggesting masculinities, on research a for n might EDL the that and clarity lacked question research whereas superficial, as project. thesis my regarding concern their expressed to.“ talk should you whom with people the as well as determined, this“ on Based result. estimated its and project Tanel aimed interviewees the of Some in order tomeet the ideals’befatherland“. nation; theto ’manly the“true of sonsof the self women. with experiences sexual and guns, cars, about mainly are held conversation organisation interview, the After women. to attracted sexually necessary not also possibly and ’feminine’, called, he what are, men these then nowadays, youth of idols male the analyses one when whereas generation, his and him for that saying record, the off Likewise, ( Indrek organisation. an as EDL the sic! ) t

he disctinct itriw acle) fee hmef o ep e o “ to me help to himself offered cancelled) (interview mentioned it to be veryexplain tothe be W mentioned itto important for to him - represent Tarmo ’ , and that during during that and , ation of theEDLation of as seems aim towards masculinityas hegemonic to possible

essence admitte Margus Margus

of the EDL that d oee, h EL self EDL the However,

the was worried if my research focus was perhaps sexist, that the the that sexist, perhaps was focus research my if worried was

provided me with some of his opinions about masculinities, about opinions his of some with me provided o ein this design to re ie n h exercises, the in time free “of course“ course“ “of

in its public display public ofit. in its anxious butseems be to , since the latter donot very seemit thelatter understand , since to well

a ’masculine man’ is tough and interested in women, in interested and tough is man’ ’masculine a 28

e osdr te D t b a be to EDL the considers he eerh rjc. n u wb conversation, web our In project. research h said, he , Tarmo - ersnain a a key a was representation ot have been the best organisation organisation best the been have ot

criticized the interview questions interview the criticized

hn truh h ne o this of need the through think te eurd eut cn be can results required “the in the evenings, evenings, the in

estern Europeanesterncountries Both Both

Hunters’ organisation organisation Hunters’ Tarmo h tpc of topics the

and and issue, since since issue,

Margus ’

Hence, Hence,

macho macho .

CEU eTD Collection male several of principles regar in citizen. class working a (1979 Foucauldiana in similiar Hence, EDL. the of joining later their to Army, the and Scouts Boy the as such organisations, state of types different between in connection perceived a expressed interviewees the Furthermore, publicly declaring otherwise. uncritical past, its towards relationship active an has EDL warriorthe ideologies centuryGerman 19th the to corresponds die“ to will “free the of concept The of joining with the and comprehensions fr (family) grandfathers, brothers, fathers, as such figures, men young member a being mostly were recruiters their in either recruited were interviewees the of All 2 .2 Interview results D bcue epesd neet n onn te D Yug als organisation Eagles ( Young EDL the joining in interest expressed I because EDL “ Indrek I entered I ding with membership of those organisations. organisations. those of membership with ding mission and mission

). the organisation n ead o netet md t te historical the to made investments to regard in - .

citizen who is volunteering to die for its state (Hagemann 2004: 125) (Hagemannstate2004: itsfor die to volunteering is who citizen

Directed efficacy from the side of older older of side the from efficacy Directed

into the EDL based on my own free will and wish. / wish. and will free own my on based EDL the into ’ assume I’d , or family members who had who members family or , ideological ideological beliefs beliefs

friends of the interviewees interviewees the of friends In other words, there seems to be large amount of vertical mobility vertical of amount large be to seems there words, other In -

. dominated organisations do not seem to contradict, for instance, for contradict, to seem not do organisations dominated t

a te rudn ielg o te ainl raiain are organisations national the of ideology grounding the hat

of young me young of

) sence of shaping a specific type of nationalist agent out of out agent nationalist of type specific a shaping of sence ) underpinnings n result 29

an early an

of the EDLof

ed who introduced the introduced who

early teen early family members or other other or members family n the in I’d Moreover, it seems that the founding the that seems it Moreover,

access to ideological to access

suggest hence, believing

latter legacy ed, ae relatives, male iends, s or or s

--- fi ht hs eainhp is relationship this that in their their in

nd /, father took me to the the to me took father /, –

ing m to the to m though

it easy it early twenties. The The twenties. early

ly in the importance

in respected respected

h EL is EDL the a . Since the Since . fluencing of dvantages to associate associate to

towards towards of male male “

the the

CEU eTD Collection Russian many“ contains it because trusted not is Army the nutshell, a In cases. several in out pointed explicitly was Unrest, April events, as noteworthy the to such trust, the interviewees’relationship of theissues In regard to three by obstacle an as out pointed nationalist membership asopposed politics, tothe Army. (hence, exclusionary its of because force security o the as organisation the see members EDL, the of case In show reality will becomewhat ofone ( image untrustworthy its of mainly Army, expressed interviewees several hand, other and role increasing the Army, Close of any contradictory basings ideological ( provide organisations those which socialization nature the about knowledge something everything containing in “ events) “ ws lo Scout a also was I Well, some kind of Dmitri Linter Linter Dmitri of kind some Well, recommenders and pass and recommenders cooperation Margus

would not get the EDLeven not asking into would be he’d if Internal Security Service Security Internal

due to due , - speakers who might not be “loyal“ due to being raised under the influence of influence the under raised being to due “loyal“ be not might who speakers Indrek between oal ad ideologically and morally responsibility , what was framed as, framed was what , irrhs and hierarchism , . Siim ok eeyhn i mc connected much is everything Look,

the EDL and EDL the , s itd no iiay agendas military into fitted is an Margus Tarmo oral round. interview

ee ecie a well as perceived were , was , ), even though also in the EDL a “ a EDL the in also though even ), . In . “ ( “ etaiy of centrality : pltcl ciit ognzr f h Boz Night Bronze the of organizer activist, (political

Peeter “ ( several state institutions, state several the EDL, e EDL, the represented

Mihkel insufficient selection criteria and/or criteria selection insufficient certain a 30 Inanti latter case, the also ). ucekd elements ’unchecked’

Hatty 2000: 127 2000: Hatty ) . weapons

very new member candidate member new very

as natural as Hence,as itnig rm n oppos and from distancing - ea “ ( Hne ml bn ad m and bond male Hence, . Te ry was Army The . nly trustworthy, ’real Estonian’ Estonian’ ’real trustworthy, nly nd ( rned Ülo

ih ah other each with Ülo ( Indrek ).

) exceed the importance the exceed ) for instance for –

Mihkel

put it os 19: , 9 1, 1993: Mosse – person can deceive, so so deceive, can person

- ), whereas the EDL’s EDL’s the whereas ), n te wrs “too words, other in voluntary naturewas :

, Margus represented the Police, the the Police, the the .

to t the to ition hr is There has to have to has aggressor aggressor ). On the the On ale - 10)

as CEU eTD Collection history 91) (1997: heter i.e. ’family’, of concept the surrounding emphasises repetitive in manifested values beforementioned the connected internally are xenophobia and homophobia and integrity on based both since penetration, of fear homophobic a upon constructed is nation a of politics“ “body the ( aggression, misogyny, pressure, under coolness invulnerability, activities. need practice gendered military to According “ Enemy, Eastern the of discourse the theories in change conspiracy a of kind some and as events Crimea regarding generalisations xenophobic about sceptical remained EDL the ( unit Academic an of members whereas values, Russophobic more express to for through, structures EDL the with connected closely more interviewees the of several Crimea the in events the “Annectator“ the of space media the Higate 2003: 27, 29, Woodward 2003: Woodward 29, 27, 2003: Higate stupid Russ stupid the governing male body male governing the

’ainl ie) and time’) (’national

noted These and eerto o hmscaiiy te blt t dpo cnrle physical controlled deploy to ability the homosociability, of celebration “

on the face thing advancing Estonian isn’tquite the odad 20: 3, eti gop values group certain 43), (2003: Woodward

a commitment to the completion of assign of completion the to commitment a , the family trope is an important part of nationalism of part important an is trope family the ,

onormative nuclear unit in biological relation to each other. other. each to relation biological in unit nuclear onormative values values

impene

were

embrace ( Ülo trability

represented depicting as well as a nation state are state nation a as well as to be brought in for a person to be able to engage in military military in engage to able be to person a for in brought be to , Margus

– . pride in physical prowess, hardships, hardships, prowess, physical in pride

Peeter Hence, the Eastern Enemy. T Enemy. Eastern the 44).

oil hierar social ,

as one as Tarmo

Tomasz Siko Tomasz 31

grsie h aggressive one out: pointed the nation is a phallic concept (ibid.), whereas (ibid.), concept phallic a is nation the

). Nevertheless, the group of interviewees interviewees of group the Nevertheless, ). u nified c nified h a “aua“ n “familial“. and “natural“ as chy the World Order. As an opposition to opposition an As Order. World the to

ra (2004: 69 (2004: ra each other. each

trsxaiy n homophobia, and eterosexuality rises originating from the East by East the from originating rises ed tasks with minimal complaint minimal with tasks ed “

Russophobia and punching the the punching and Russophobia he Bronze Night i Night Bronze he mostly defined defined mostly

instance, employment, seemed employment, instance, which .“

- construct the basis of of basis the construct During the interviews, interviews, the During 70 in how explained has ) organising national organising Siim by sovereignity sovereignity by As n Estonia and Estonia n

McClintock McClintock , rationality, Peeter The The ) of of )

CEU eTD Collection settings outdoor the in 67) 2004: Sikora (see: nation his of enemies the ( EDL the because case T self “self and family of trope common men of duty ethical highest the “ since masculinism, military the of part internal an is I as enemies many as me with take “ the as conceptualized self the of ’a (2003: by out pointed nationalism, of essence homophobic The increased O then when structures to connection in interviewees 1993: 16), manly youth manly 16), 1993: heories regarding militarism militarism regarding heories te contrary, the n bnormalities -

representation of the EDL. ofrepresentation the spend with their weekends eeoomtv atclto o wa a aiy can family a what of articulation heteronormative 44

EDL ). - ersnain eas i hls o rw teto aa fo wa Margus what from away attention draw to helps it because representation Gay men men Gay perceived ’.

activism as a getaway for getaway a as activism they as members as they So, So,

the n ae f led eitn fmle, l ntd a noted Ülo families, existing already of case in the EDL the family. They would forecast a decrease in decrease a forecast would They family. .

philosophy of philosophy roots in and practices and in roots their own or someone else’s changes in changes else’s someone or own their Being young and fit has been linked with nature through doing sports doing through nature with linked been has fit and young Being are

, with the land and nation nation and land the with , is mdt sei landscape scenic a amidst

seen as an essential part of an image of a warrior, fighting against fighting warrior, a of image an of part essential an as seen framed as ’feminine’ Others Others ’feminine’ as framed family are

– would have a family a have would e

applicable in helping to unpack to helping in applicable ir family evident“ possibly possibly soldiers - centeredness bullets“

“ (ioa 04 69). 2004: (Sikora “

middle ( heteronormativity in circulation in heteronormativity can Siim

32 – military activities. military

“ “ (Margus). “

If I have to die, give give die, to have I If ). ). - seems to be declarative be to seems feminized as ’in need of manly protection’ manly of need ’in as feminized aged men men aged

Higate Higate – because because dying for your country country your for dying

hl a te ae ie politically time same the at while

(only) be corresponds here to the the to here corresponds be (only) n lf ot f consideration of out left and The trope of death for one’s state state one’s for death of trope The from their wives and children and wives their from (2003: 27, 29) and Woodward Woodward and 29) 27, (2003: according to according t

A I he amount he future activism in the EDL the in activism future d conclude ’d

ccording to George Mosse George to ccording th e away my l my away

member particular , yet important part part important yet ,

them, which serves the the serves which of EDL activism EDL of

ht t that (is) ife, then I then ife, atr o an of pattern

paramilitary theywould posited as posited ee is here

will will as “. “. a

CEU eTD Collection a towards test compatible activities EDL the that remarkable is It acting asmarket and alabour providing the with achieved be can ideological R through of concept manhood’. ’national of seedbed a publicly membership its with explained be can recruitment novice Paramilitary enough, notgetchose will to practice recruiting in manifested ideals’ ’manly beforementioned 82). 2001: (Hooper body male the of shaping social Park 135, 1977: Foucault Connell & (Carrigan limitations through transformation are images Those na with meanings those connecting ecruit ( “ together subservient my by me to offered was idea this and entrepreneur “ Mihkel Oh, you are our guy, I remember you, you are this bro, do come by, let’s fix your issue your fix let’s by, come do bro, this are you you, remember I guy, our are you Oh, / --- / et of ment

col iis n patriotic and visits school hs ae esnl otcs a wl as well as contacts, personal are these ). “ ( nationalism fosterage as early as possible, possible, as early as fosterage

Indrek

boys and and boys . As .

lsl rltd with related closely ).

Mihkel .

oie erimn is recruitment Novice r 2000 er ny on mn em t b wr by worn be to seems men young paramilitary

certain units.

esns rfsinl aaiiis n hmn ot, s if as worth, human and capabilities professional person’s put it, those who aren’t visibly longlasting, strong and strong longlasting, visibly aren’t who those it, put Hence, young men with weapons in their hands inform the the inform hands their in weapons with men young Hence, 131 : inlt, iiesi ad statehood and citizenship tionality, education many other

- 132 ihl connecting tightly

the highly prestigous prestigous highly the so ee ersne b te interviewees the by represented were )

33 Mi . to guarantee to , provided by teachers, teachers, by provided ,

vouched iul hc o te addt bde a a as bodies candidate the of check visual iay riig novs oh hscl and physical both involves training litary

hidden advantages. work

- n h cs o te neves the interviews, the of case the In Lee & also eae cnat. / contacts. related

meaningful lifelong commitment. lifelong y ay ces o on men young to access easy by oiain to motivation 2002: 115, Dyer 2002: 264, 264, 2002: Dyer 115, 2002: body politics of corporeal corporeal of politics body ,

that we could do this this do could we that

Cpr 20: 174) 2008: (Cupers ot wres etc workers, youth ae oil circles, social male --- represented start with the the with start / I am an an am I /

The latter latter The

sportive sportive as a

as as “ . .

CEU eTD Collection as cooperation, and imperative’ men“) (“real ( EDLto contributing be should Estonian soldier Army the P voluntarism. (Hagemann hero“ “fallen volunt ( blood Chris with cooperation close religious. all be to seem tactics, war about talking when tone spiritual maintaining in and oaths, giving in settings, ceremonialized in attributes weapons ’right full persons, purified and valuable more better, as themselves see EDLers of idea Christian the quote, this In instance, For this. as for enough be would environment certain in weapons use to ability and nature in survival aean 2004 Hagemann aramilitarism One’suncovers very essence core there itself are they / capacities. their commitment, their there from partners “ An entrepreneur or a person in a leading position can find very good good very find can position leading a in person a or entrepreneur An - idd, oa, n trustworthy. and loyal, minded’, arily d equating sacrifice, tkn cr o te accompanying the of care taking , . / . chose to sacrifice to chose ---

is seen is / ) n hmn development; human and “) that’s the place where you can find someone to someone find can you where place the that’s : 123 Margus n poet one’s protects one as a life experience (“ experience life a as , (the EDL) (the , oiz 20 Kovitz

the survival of a whole team of men depends upon mutual support mutual upon depends men of team whole a of survival the 2004: 121). 2004: eath in battle with nobility, saintliness nobility, with battle in eath

put it:

in hrh in church tian himself and his death is nationally commemorized as that of a of that as commemorized nationally is death his and himself

--- 3 7 03: h EL ebrhp s purge a as membership EDL the / because he is out together with these men these with together out is he because /

Hence, the nationalism needs heroes and discourse of of discourse and heroes needs nationalism the Hence, --- Ülo as , This / peers , how they bear up bear they how , justifying

an EDLer is in bet in is EDLer an 34

Mihkel cited

Christia ecig n “ai lf truths“, life “basic one teaching .

patriotic race race patriotic “

n l stain, including situations, all in

n Ferrill in In the past, the military has operated in operated has military the past, the In , Siim siiult. o isac, h EDL the instance, For spirituality. n and , glorification glorification Indrek

1985). to spirituality spirituality ter touch with the world than world the with touch ter

and fighting with evil forces evil with fighting and the stress the do something do ).

According to ’masculine to According

h ‘ainl warrior’ ‘national The

starts to unwrap. The The unwrap. to starts wars with Christian Christian with wars - breed persons, the the persons, breed sacralizes , how resourceful how t h cs of cost the at

hence, for you for . cooperation He can see see can He use of of use

every every . / --- / CEU eTD Collection that...’ legac historical respectable with associated is 9 8 to capacity their by defined soldiers, of mothers as women whereas nation, the of guardians (land) feminine the protecting of imperative masculine 67 (2004: interviews the during common remarkably the when children the double carrying reduced,or Alon of path person’s becoming a “real man“ a in necessary viewed development, male and education of component 70) 2004: (Altinay practice 238, 111, 1993: Woollacott & (Cookeall markedas are ’masculine’ hero conquering and the the assaulter,warrior thejust Tickner kin female their “protect” to whereas publicly to 1993: Woollacott ca symbolic organization the ci necessary oneself to sacrifice considerable

In Estonian language, term ’fatherland’ is used. is ’fatherland’ term language, InEstonian In Estonian language, ’fore language, Estonian In

one’s sd wt te oiis f aclnt, h pltc o fmnnt se t b hindered, be to seem femininity of politics the masculinity, of politics the with gside , etc. ,

1996 manliness is manliness seen to be “naturally“ male “naturally“ be to seen ability to win a win to ability

- 68) rcumstanc pital ).

oncig Hm wt nto ad Hr wt ln, hn eeig o the to refering when land, with ’Her’ and nation with ’Him’ connecting D A a result, a As . sc a sca ties, social as such ,

iscourse 239) seen as ’warlike’as seen es are provided for the young me young the for provided are es .

and stayingand as aims for it life one, The latter can be explained be can latter The - fathers’ is a term used more often than ’fore than often more used term a is fathers’ gy ae n h frs’ ih e with forest’ the in are ’guys battle and to use physical force physical use to and battle s of - standards. On the one hand, women are expected to be home withhome be to expected are women hand, one the On standards.

( n crepnigy te D rpeet itself represents EDL the correspondingly, and security national oiz 03 3 2003: Kovitz Cooke & Woollacott 1993: Woollacott & Cooke

ot of lost (Hockey 2003: 18 2003: (Hockey , as the clearest expression of men’s “natural aggression“, aggression“, “natural men’s of expression clearest the as y, i.e. i.e. y, , motivated by motivated ,

u also but

membership . ’wisdom of the fore the of ’wisdom This corresponds to the parallel used by T. by used parallel the to corresponds This 35 ).

and warfare and

iiay evc i se a a education an as seen is service Military losing

- with 19).

“manly urge“ to serve one’s country and and countryone’s serve to urge“ “manly could

n never to wish to voluntarily leave leave voluntarily to wish to never n T - equating a ( long commitment ibid., x he EDL aims to make sure that all that sure make to aims EDL he 8 110

- M . gendered lct edrd s of use gendered plicit fathers’; ’already our fore our ’already fathers’; have strong gendered essence, as as essence, gendered strong have possibly - mothers’. Furthermore, ’fore Furthermore, mothers’. , Hooper 2001: 81 2001: Hooper ,

en are seen seen are en 236

the - 237). Th 237). self question of masculinity of question o only not - identity .

is is is s fathers as

mean losing losing mean as , as ,

- why war is war why fathers knew knew fathers Coe & (Cooke a natural natural a language

cited - Sikora Sikora fathers’ fathers’ 9

and in al al CEU eTD Collection exclusionary. as explicitly read canbe and atypical is gender the emphasizing Nevertheless, went“. “they saying of instead went“, “women that out pointing as such e explicit put to has One unconsciousness. automatic with explained 10 towards criticism discourses towards relation interviewees’ The strenght and ideology ’wrong’ organisation. the joining of reasons the of one ( duells chivalrous prestigous decorous, and nobility respected about movies a games outdoor boyhood with centered, articulations. cautious often masculinism. read E to speech the f general, In combative class/race. up “keep to standards high meet to has important ( “ 68). (Ibid., sons to birth give Mihkel A iel oa is) woman ideal (An

Since Estonian nouns and pronouns do not have grammatical gender, then gendered distinctions cannot be be cannot distinctions gendered then gender, grammatical have not do pronouns and nouns Estonian Since DLers as “guys“ (male) “guys“ as DLers as an outcome of outcome an

). an in terms of keeping the birth the keeping of terms in

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trai ning follows follows ning f self of , 37

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representation. I will will I representation. Jro 00 4 2010: (Jürjo vious chapter I proved that the EDL presents itself as a military, emphasising on emphasising military, a as itself presents EDL the that proved I chapter vious . An important aspect about this paraphrase is its explicit implication towards the towards implication explicit its is paraphrase this about aspect important An . -

known Estonian patriotist poet Juhan Liiv Juhan poet patriotist Estonian known ern a ato o a lce phrase cliche a of caption a bearing

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45 .

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when one wished to visit the physical equivalent of the the of equivalent physical the visit to wished one when hr al h pro exhibiti person the all where 46 greatly in their length.. T length.. their in greatly

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or engaged in service of the masculinist nationalist project service theor asside engaged masculinist in of - time female for suborganisation of branch separate a with organisation, only - teller, perpetuator, target are all male. The Defence The male. all are target perpetuator, teller, . ai Laidon Maria . Instead, she is represented as the love object and mourning widower of widower mourning and object love the as represented is she Instead, . y (male) writer Karl A. Hindray: A. Karl writer (male) y stig atrsto it te eetl I te ae f Põdder, of case the In pedestal. the into martyrisation setting , - looks ie rsl, osah, / moustache, bristle, like hog te hrce o hs ie ai Laidoner Maria wife his of character the through private o be / awarmhearted person

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(Hagemann 2004: 124). 2004: (Hagemann

which was constructed upon linking central masculine virtues and amibtions to amibtions and virtues masculine central linking upon constructed was which seems to be a be to seems ,

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secures his privileges (ibid.). In large, these these large, In (ibid.). privileges his secures voluntary military service as a form of form a as service military voluntary as

relatively h Ms Jhn Laidoner. Johan Mrs. the

- by “ (ibid.). The paramilitary was, and in the Estonian the in and was, paramilitary The (ibid.). “ - word to centuries old German model of patriotic valorous patriotic of model German old centuries to word

According to Karen Hagemann (ibid., 125) citizenship was citizenship 125) (ibid., KarenHagemann Accordingto A e An . new asset to the to asset new rned by the German nobility for centuries since early Middle Ages. Ages. Middle early since centuries for nobility German the by rned h EDL The

. neatly matching the previously stated theoretical theoretical stated previously the matching neatly . xcerpt from a love letter from “Vanja“ (Johan) to to (Johan) “Vanja“ from letter love a from xcerpt ood sacrifice ood 48

carrying EDL S , whereas participation in the p the in participation whereas , he is the tool to assure his undying undying his assure to tool the is he

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masculine self masculine .

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CEU eTD Collection aged women any and and diveristy older of femininities. kindof represenation etc. cam the to be to presenceseems the if Women, leaders. as speeches in activities group in engaged portrayed are men where videos the of rest the from differing is This language. first their is time and attention i filmed video single a of exception an with view, the all Almost that wouldmeet rather be to seems catalogue the of head the of greeting from rangingunsystematical, T EDL. the of work memory nationalist par traditional Estonian, the of homepage the to visitor the guides page Youtube the of aim the opening text introductory no is There minutes. two about of length the with mostly EDL The o t So,

with e EDL he era Youtube page consists of nine videos, nine of consists page Youtube O te te hn, h acie articulate archives the hand, other the On .

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engaged in traditionally ’feminine’ activities, ’feminine’ traditionally in engaged per t be to appears goals ofself goals

given to young women, including women who did not speak Estonian as Estonian speak not did who women including youngwomen, to given lacking in half of the videos) the of half in lacking videos appear to be male be to appear videos more a

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like uploading every footage that the EDL has about itself about has EDL the that footage every uploading like . aey rig o ae eti ’orcin’ in ’corrections’ certain make to trying lately

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CEU eTD Collection Interview questionnaire. interviewees 1.Sampling Tabel samplemethod. tosnowball accoding Appendix 1. APPENDIXES Name (changed) 7) 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) Margus Mihkel Tarmo Indrek

Peeter Siim Ülo PleaseED describe howhas Pleaseyou describe what have amember? while learnt being youPlease for describe about what important EDL? is yourPlease describe roleinEDL? current yourPlease impressions describeofEDL? first Please describeand when youPleasefirst toknowabout describe got EDL? how

List and questionnaire ofinterviews

Twenties Twenties Twenties Twenties Twenties Thirties Forties

Age

why youwhy EDL? tojoin decided Lyour affected life? Private sector Entrepreneur Entrepreneur Entrepreneur Entrepreneur Public sectorPublic sectorPublic Occupation 63

Age when recruitedAge structures when EDL to

12 23 21 24 14 15 20 -

CEU eTD Collection

10) 9) 8)

Please describe theimportancesociety? EDL toEstonian of youryourPlease (reasons)for describe motivation continuing membership? life? EDL in established ties social have role which describe Please

played in your later later your in played

CEU eTD Collection Appendix 2. 2) 1)

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List ofillustrations

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