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RULE 5: AN ANALYSIS OF THE MLB HALL OF FAME CHARACTER CLAUSE

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A Thesis Submitted to the Drexel University Graduate Board

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in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF SPORT MANAGEMENT

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by Brett Bush June 2010 © By Brett Bush 2010 All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT RULE 5: AN ANALYSIS OF THE MLB HALL OF FAME CHARACTER CLAUSE Brett Bush Master of Science Drexel University, 2010 Thesis Advisory Committee Chair: Dr. Amy Giddings

The purpose of the research study was to (1) compare the different scandals that have occurred and the different ways of in the sport of , (2) research the

Steroid Era and the players that have their name associated with it, and (3) look at the Hall of

Fame and explain how the purposes have an affect on being considered a Hall of Fame player using the Rule 5 Character

Clause Hall of Fame entrance criteria.

The review of literature in relationship to the research purpose and research questions are divided into the following sections: (1) Different Types of

Scandals/Ways of , (2) Players That

Were Involved in Different Scandals, (3) Major League

Baseball Hall of Fame Entrance Qualifications, (4) How the

Hall of Fame Voting Committee Has Not Had Consistency in

Their Voting, and (5) Current Hall of Famers' Opinions.

The Literature Review demonstrated many different ways of cheating in baseball. Insight into Major League iv Baseball and the Hall of Fame was attained via a variety of media sources.

The quantitative research provided several miscreants that have been involved in transgressions which do not live up to the Integrity and Character classifications that the

Hall of Fame looks for in a candidate. Some of these players have been enshrined in the Hall of Fame already.

For example , and have been elected despite certain transgressions. Throughout the history of the Hall of Fame, the voters have not had voting consistency as other players with similar infractions remain either banished from baseball or passed over during Hall of Fame elections. Current violators of the Rule 5 Character Clause, because of steroid use, are waiting for their time on the ballot but the outlook remains bleak. This further supports the inconsistency in the Hall of Fame voting process.

Future research into the topic may provide alternate points of view which have not been expressed in the thesis.

The current Hall of Fame voters, current Hall of Fame players, baseball players, owners, the Commissioner and/or other personnel have not been interviewed. Those are important individuals in the realm of baseball and should v have their opinions more closely associated with the lack of inconsistency the Hall of Fame has allowed. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Amy Giddings for helping me through this thesis from step one. The time that you took to help me I am extremely grateful for and without you

I would have been lost!

Thank you to the Drexel committee for your time,

Professors Dave O'Brien, Brett Burchette and Douglas Turco.

Justin, thank you for allowing me to edit your paper that had to deal with a similar topic, your references helped me greatly in my search for information!

Dad, I blame you for peaking my interest in baseball when I was younger. Your antics at the games were (and still are) priceless.

Mom, thanks for the support over the years during my educational youth. Helping me with my homework in elementary school was no small feat, allowing me to do this all on my own was an even bigger one!

Lastly, thank you to my parents for putting up with me while at Drexel during the pursuit of my Masters Degree. I know I was rough around the edges at times, especially while writing this thesis, but your unwavering support helped me get through it all. vii DEDICATION

To Pop-Pop Morris, I told you that I wanted to be an architect once but never said what I wanted to create. I

“put my mind to it and studied” and this is the fruition of my hard work; I know you would be proud. Consider this the skyscraper. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ABSTRACT...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... v

DEDICATION...... vi

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION...... 1 Need for the Study...... 8 Purpose of the Study...... 10 Research Questions...... 12 Limitations...... 12 Delimitations...... 13 Definition of Terms...... 14 Historical Necessities...... 30 The Invention of Baseball...... 30 The Hall of Fame...... 34

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE...... 37 (1) Different Types of Scandals/Ways of Cheating in Baseball...... 38 (2) Players That Were Involved in Different Scandals...... 42 (3) Major League Baseball Hall of Fame Entrance Qualifications...... 43 (4) How the Hall Of Fame Voting Committee Has Not Had Consistency in Their Voting...... 47 (5) Current Hall of Famers Opinions...... 49

3. METHODOLOGY...... 53 Research Design...... 54 Quantitative Data Analysis...... 54 Scandals...... 58 Summary...... 59

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...... 60 Different Scandals in Baseball...... 60 Discussion of the Research Questions...... 62 1. What Constitutes Being Considered A Scandalous Player In Baseball?...... 62 ix 2. Who in Major League Baseball History is Considered a Scandalous Player A) Already in the Hall of Fame...... 63 Grover Alexander...... 63 ...... 65 Ty Cobb...... 67 Joe DiMaggio...... 73 & Other Alcoholics...... 74 Rogers Hornsby...... 76 ...... 78 ...... 78 Gaylord Perry...... 82 ...... 85 ...... 89 B) Not in the Hall of Fame...... 95 The Bossard Family...... 95 Drug/ Scandals...... 96 ...... 97 ...... 97 Lamarr Hoyt...... 98 ...... 98 ...... 101 ...... 102 ...... 103 ...... 103 ...... 105 “Shoeless” Joe Jackson...... 108 Denny McLain...... 112 ...... 112 Amphetamine/Steroid Era...... 120 Amphetamines...... 120 Steroid Era...... 123 The Original Records...... 124 Steroids: What Are They?...... 129 The Effect on Performance...... 131 The New Records...... 146 Players Involved...... 151 I) Admitted To Use...... 151 Mark McGwire...... 151 ...... 158 Alex Rodríguez...... 161 II) Denied Usage...... 169 ...... 169 ...... 179 ...... 187 x ...... 189 III) Others Involved...... 193 ...... 193 Eric Gagne...... 194 Edgar Martinez...... 196 Fred McGriff...... 197 ...... 197 An Accepted Type of Performance Enhancer...... 200 General Discussion...... 203 Implications for Future Research...... 203 Implications for Practitioners...... 208 The Voting Process in Place Needs To Be Altered...... 208

5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH...... 220 Summary...... 220 Conclusions...... 227 Recommendations for Future Research...... 234

REFERENCES...... 238

APPENDIXES APPENDIX A - BASEBALL PLAYERS...... 291 APPENDIX B – ABNER DOUBLEDAY PLAQUES...... 305 APPENDIX C - NON-BASEBALL PLAYERS...... 307 xi LIST OF TABLES

1.1 CAREER HOME RECORD LEADERS...... 17

1.2 SEASON RECORD...... 27

4.1 50-HOME RUN PLATEAU BETWEEN 1961–2009...... 128

4.2 HOME RUNS PER DECADE 1980-2000...... 132

4.3 AARON AND CAREER HOME RUN TOTALS....143

4.4 BARRY BONDS 2001 HOME RUNS...... 147

4.5 ALEX RODRÍGUEZ'S CAREER STATISTICAL MEASUREMENTS.....166 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The Major League Baseball Hall of Fame was created in

1936 as

an independent, non-profit educational institution dedicated to fostering an appreciation of the historical development of baseball and its impact on our culture by collecting, preserving, exhibiting and interpreting its collections for a global audience as well as honoring those who have made outstanding contributions to our national pastime ("Museum Statement," n.d.).

The mission statement “to preserve the sport’s history, honor excellence within the game and make a connection between the generations of people who enjoy baseball

("Museum Statement," n.d.)” serves as a bridge between teaching the children of today the on-field excellence, success and desire the players of yesterday went through which helped mold them into the best players and teammates they could be.

The Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) election rules were put into place so everyone that deserves consideration for being nominated as a Hall of

Fame player gets their due. Rule 5, more commonly known as the Character Clause (McGrath, 2009), states: “Voting shall be based upon the player's record, playing ability, 2 integrity, sportsmanship, character, and contributions to the team(s) on which the player played ("Rules for election," n.d.).”

Clearly, taking into account the creation of, the mission statement and the Rule 5 Character Clause, the Hall of Fame was built to house the best of the best; to remember the greatness that walked on the baseball diamond.

The Hall houses generations of exhibits and statues of some of the greatest players in the sport. Some players have awards named after them; (Appendix A) has the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award, which is award to the “Major

League baseball player who both on and off the field best exemplifies the character of Lou Gehrig ("Lou Gehrig

Memorial," n.d.).” 's (Appendix A) award,

The Rookie of the Year Award, is “given to the individual player from each League who has the best rookie season; pitching, hitting or fielding, that is during his first year of eligibility ("Rookie of the Year Award," n.d.),” and (Appendix A) has the , given to

“honor the best in Major League Baseball ("Cy Young

Award," n.d.)” each season in each of the two leagues. 3

Other players in the Hall have set baseball records that are either still standing today or have been broken recently. (Appendix A) was the last baseball player to have a .400 or better average in a season; .406 in 1941 ("Ted Williams - BR ," n.d.).

Hank Aaron's (Appendix A) career 755 home runs was broken by Barry Bonds (Appendix A) in 2007 ("Barry Bonds - BR" n.d.) and (Appendix A) hit a record 61 home runs in 1961 which was broken by Mark McGwire (Appendix A) in 1998 ("Mark McGwire - BR Bullpen," n.d.).

Recently, other players have risen to stardom within the last 20 years by their extraordinary play;

(Appendix A), Cal Ripken Jr. (Appendix A), Ken Griffey Jr.

(Appendix A), Greg (Appendix A) and

(Appendix A).

The players listed have played through adversity and despair in their careers one way or another. From battling injuries and going to war overseas to playing with the weight of an entire race on their shoulders and having fans send death threats on a daily basis, these guys have had many trials and tribulations to deal with. 4

It is worth noting that some of the greatest players ever to wear a uniform have not been mentioned yet; Babe

Ruth (Appendix A), Mickey Mantle (Appendix A) and Willie

Mays (Appendix A), just to name a few. Either during a game, the baseball season or even the off-season, these players did not live up to the Character Clause in one way or another.

These legends were pioneers in the sport and paved the way for everyone else in the game; they were responsible for some of the most iconic images the sport of baseball has ever seen. Babe Ruth’s “called shot” in the 1932 World

Series where Babe “steps back out of the batter's box for a moment and apparently gestures toward center field… Was

Babe pointing at the spot he planned to land his homer

(Babe Ruth Central, n.d.)?”

How about one of Mickey Mantle’s longest home runs?

It wasn’t just a typical home run; the ball “traveled an incredible 565 feet, cleared the 60-foot-high scoreboard in left-center field, and literally left the Stadium

(Martelli, 2009).”

We certainly cannot leave out Willie Mays’ incredible over the shoulder . In an ESPN article, baseball 5 writer (Appendix C) mentions when his son

Steven asked him what the image was when he saw it in the

Hall of Fame for the first time. Stark so eloquently described,

a baseball disappearing into the shadows. Mays turning and running how many feet? A hundred? Two hundred? The center-field fence, 461 feet from home plate, getting and closer. Mays' cap spinning off his head. And then… . The Pirhouette. The Throw (Stark, 2004).

The most recent iconic images of the game may result in the players that were involved in them not being elected to the Hall of Fame. Included is the celebration on September

8, 1998 when “Sammy Sosa (Appendix A) raced in from right field to hug Mark McGwire during the game after McGwire hit his 62nd home run in 1998 (Bryant, 2010)” to break Roger

Maris’ 37 year old record for 61 home runs in a season.

Another image is a show of sportsmanship; when the Marlins and Yankees stopped the game during the 2003 World to give a retiring Roger Clemens (Appendix A) a standing ovation (Bryant, 2010).

All of these images define baseball. Nobody can take it away from the fans that saw it, the little kids that will be in awe of it and the people that worship it. 6

For all of the great images there are also images embedded into some people’s mind about the drug use, obvious fragrant cheating and other unethical dishonest actions some of our heroes were a part of.

In today’s society, would Babe Ruth, Mickey Mantle or

Willie Mays be elected to the Hall of Fame just as debate has started about Mark McGwire, Roger Clemens and Barry

Bonds because of the Steroid Era and Character Clause?

This thesis may cause a great deal of controversy and spark debates, but every January when the Hall of Fame ballot is announced it stirs controversy about who was elected or who was omitted. “Conventional wisdom says… the debates are just beginning (Antonen, 2010);” after all, debates in baseball are commonplace.

“Debate (is) certain for future Hall classes (Miller,

2010).” The author of the article establishes how he believes the next four years' worth of Hall of Fame elections will play out and what he thinks will either hinder or help certain player’s chances.

Statistics are what separate the elite from the average. While not all Hall of Fame players have the necessary statistics to merit a place amongst the elite, 7 they should serve as a bigger factor in the formula for electing players;

except for the ten-year service requirement, no measurable performance standard has ever been adopted for judgment of a man’s credentials, and all determinants about the significance of a player’s achievement have remained entirely dependent upon the subjective whims of the Hall of Fame electors (Vail, 2001).

As of late, certain statistics have not meant an automatic election into the Hall of Fame as it used to.

The next 15 years, or perhaps even until the height of the steroid-era class… retires, could be intriguing in Cooperstown. Sheer numbers no longer provide an automatic entrance into Cooperstown. Five hundred homers, 3,000 hits and 300 victories are magnificent milestones but offer no guarantee (Nightengale, 2007).

A usually timid (Appendix A), who has hit the

10th most home runs ever in Major League Baseball (577 as of

August 2, 2010) ("Career Leaders & Records for Home Runs," n.d.) over his 20-year career, said,

when I hear people say 500 homers doesn’t get you in the Hall of Fame, that’s a bold statement because 500 homers isn’t something that just happens… I know how much you have to work your butt off to even come close to 500 homers (Curry, 2008).

Some older players’ numbers look way punier compared to the numbers players today are putting up; but remember,

“it's what these players did in THEIR time that we're 8 supposed to be looking at (Stark, 2010),” which is what many believe has escaped the minds of most of the voters.

People are going to have to take a different look at numbers… Hitters should be evaluated by the standard of players during their time… ' (Appendix A) 350 homers means more during his era than players who have 450, 500 home runs now (Nightengale, 2007).

Need For the Study

The reason this topic was chosen is that some Hall of

Fame voters do not use the Character Clause correctly.

"Over the course of time, the BBWAA has maintained the intensely high standards set for election to the Hall of

Fame… The criteria is subjective, which gives veteran writers latitude… Election is more exclusive than the U.S.

Senate (Nightengale, 2007)."

Some voters instead use it when it suits their own agenda (see Chapter 2, subsection (4) How the Hall Of Fame

Voting Committee Has Not Had Consistency in Their Voting) and when it will benefit them more than Major League

Baseball, the Major League Baseball Hall of Fame, the player, the team(s) the player played for, and the fans.

Currently there are players that have been elected to the Hall of Fame that have not performed to the standard of the Rule 5 Character Clause, although their statistics are 9 far beyond other Hall of Famers. “The selections of (some players)… are just absurd, absolutely beyond any kind of logical defense. None of these men should ever have been given anything beyond the most cursory glance by the Hall of Fame (James, 1995)” because of their own actions on and/or off of the field.

In addition, there are retired players (who statistically merit a place in the Hall of Fame) that have been omitted and shun by the voters and current players who are deemed to have no place among the elite by many Hall of

Fame voters because of their conduct. Somewhere along the way inconsistency set in.

Consistency in baseball is what players strive for;

for 22 consecutive seasons Ty Cobb (Appendix A) recorded a of over .320 and set 90 Major League Baseball records during his career, many of which still stand today. He hit over .380 nine times, over .400 three times, and won the Crown in 1909 (Smith, 2008).

Currently Cobb has the highest batting average of any player in MLB history with a .366 batting average (the highest career average for a player that retired within the past 20 years is Tony Gwynn's .338) (Smith, 2008). Being a fixture on a team is no small feat, and it is understood that Cal Ripken Jr. was the master at it. 10

Ripken played in 2,632 consecutive baseball games. That means Ripken played in every Orioles game from June 5, 1982, until September 20, 1998. In fact, Ripken played every of every game from June 5, 1982, until September 14, 1987 (Smith, 2008).

If players are awarded for their consistency, shouldn't the Hall of Fame voters that decide their fate be held to the same standard?

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the research study was to (1) compare the different scandals that have occurred and the different ways of cheating in the sport of baseball, (2) research the

Steroid Era and the players that have their name associated with it, and (3) look at the Major League Baseball Hall of

Fame and explain how the purposes have an affect on being considered a Hall of Fame player using the Rule 5 Character

Clause Hall of Fame entrance criteria.

While many players have been involved in different transgressions throughout their careers, both inside and outside of the game, the Hall of Fame has turned their backs on some that have not lived up to the Character

Clause. The objective was to dig deep and uncover the immoral actions some players in the Hall of Fame have had and then compare them to the transgressions that have kept 11 some players out of the Hall of Fame (or are currently influencing judgment for the upcoming Hall of Fame elections) and prove that there lays no difference. In addition, proving that the voting process in place needs to be altered, as many voters are biased, is a strong argument for a much needed change in the voting structure.

With all of the research that has been done there is enough information that points to various scandals that have taken place in baseball history. Proving (1) there are current scandalous players in the Hall of Fame, (2) there are current scandalous players not in the Hall of

Fame but their actions merit reference, and (3) there are current scandalous players that are still waiting to be inducted into the Hall of Fame is paramount to the objective of the thesis.

The end result of the thesis was to defend the players that are not in the Hall of Fame no matter their actions on or off of the field and defend the players that will be coming up for election within the next 10+ years (which includes the population currently playing baseball or currently retired and awaiting nomination for the ballot). 12

Research Questions

The research questions for this study were the following:

1. What constitutes being considered a scandalous

player in baseball?

2. Who in Major League Baseball history is considered

a scandalous player,

A) Already in the Hall of Fame,

B) Not in the Hall of Fame.

Limitations

1. Electronic media has evolved since the days when

Ty Cobb and Babe Ruth were playing. Back in that

era the sports writers and fans did not make

public any indiscretions or misdeeds by the

players; in society today the news of any slip-ups

by the players gets “Tweeted” or put on YouTube

within minutes of it occurring making headline

news across the world.

2. Not all of the Hall of Fame voters vote when they

receive the ballot which may either increase or

decrease certain players vote percentage (75% is

the minimum to be elected). 13

Delimitations

1. Some of the shameful acts done by Major League

Baseball players were left out because they did

not satisfy the “scandal/cheating” qualifications

relevant to the topic at hand.

2. None of the current Hall of Fame members have been

interviewed regarding their opinion on how to

handle current players in the Hall of Fame that

have not lived up to the Rule 5 Character Clause

standard. Only their opinions (found in published

articles across the Internet and in magazines) on

how to handle the current players (recently

retired or still playing) that have not lived up

to the Character Clause are being used. 14

Definition of Terms

1919 – Played between the champion White Sox and the champion Reds. Although most World Series have been of the best-of-seven format, the was a best- of-nine series. The series is often associated with the , when several members of the Chicago franchise conspired with gamblers to throw World Series games.

1932 World Series - played between the Yankees (American League) and the (National League). The series was otherwise noteworthy for Babe Ruth's "called shot."

2,632 Consecutive Baseball Games – thought to be the one record in baseball that will never be broken. It is held by Cal Ripken Jr., the previous streak was 2,130, held by “Iron Man” Lou Gehrig for 56-years. Ripken broke it on September 6, 1995 when he played in his 2,131st straight game.

2003 World Series - The Marlins defeated the in six games, 4–2. When Roger Clemens finished pitching the seventh inning, it was then thought to have marked the end of his Major League career. With flashbulbs lighting up the stadium, the crowd gave him a standing ovation; the Marlins even paused to applaud in recognition of Clemens' career.

American Association (AA) - was a Major League Baseball league that existed for 10 seasons from 1882 to 1891. During that time, it challenged the National League (NL) for dominance of . Together with the NL, the AA participated in an early version of the World Series seven times.

American League (AL) - one of two leagues that currently make up Major League Baseball.

Baltimore Orioles – A professional baseball team. Past team names and cities played in: Brewers (1894–1901), 15

St. Louis Browns (1902–1953) and (1954– present).

Barnstorming - Refers to sports teams or individuals that travel to various locations, usually small towns, to stage exhibition matches.

Baseball Writers' Association Of America (BBWAA) - is a professional association for baseball journalists writing for daily newspapers, magazines and qualifying Web sites. The organization's primary function is to work with Major League Baseball and individual teams to assure clubhouse and press-box access for BBWAA members. In addition, BBWAA members also elect players to the National Baseball Hall of Fame, which is the organization's most public function. All writers with 10 years of membership in the BBWAA are eligible to vote for the Hall of Fame. The BBWAA also votes annually for the Most Valuable Player Award, Cy Young Award, Jackie Robinson Rookie of the Year Award, and of the Year Award in each of the two major leagues.

Batter - the act of facing the opposing pitcher and trying to produce offense for one's team. A batter or hitter is a person whose turn it is to face the pitcher. The batter stands in the batter's box.

Batter's Box - A rectangle on either side of home plate in which the batter must be standing for fair play to resume. Only a foot and a hand out of the box are required to stop fair play.

Batters - A batter who (at season's end) leads the league in three major categories -- home runs, runs batted in, and batting average.

Batting Average - Batting average (BA) is the average number of hits per at-bat (BA = H/AB).

Beacon Journal - (Akron) Beacon Journal is a four-time Pulitzer Prize winning morning newspaper in Akron, . Founded in 1897. 16

Beadle’s Dime Base Ball Player - Contained the current rules of the sport as per , and the previous year's statistics.

Boston Red Stockings - 19th century baseball team located in , Massachusetts that played in the Players' League in 1890 and in the American Association in 1891. The team took its name from the successful Boston club of the National Association and National League known as the Red Stockings who had changed their name to the Beaneaters in 1883.

Called Shot - The home run hit by Babe Ruth of the New York Yankees in the fifth inning of Game 3 of the , held on October 1, 1932 at in Chicago. The story goes that Ruth pointed to the center field bleachers during the at-bat. It was supposedly a declaration that he would hit a home run to this part of the park. On the next , Ruth hit a home run to center field. 17

Career Home Run Record Leaders – The total column indicates the career home run record at the end of the specified year.

TABLE 1.1 CAREER HOME RUN RECORD LEADERS Name Total Year Name Total Year 4 1871 138 1897-1920 Lip Pike 10 1872 Babe Ruth 162 1921 Lip Pike 14 1873 Babe Ruth 197 1922 Lip Pike 15 1874–1875 Babe Ruth 238 1923 Lip Pike 16 1876 Babe Ruth 284 1924 Lip Pike 20 1877–1879 Babe Ruth 309 1925 Charlie Jones 23 1880–1882 Babe Ruth 356 1926 Jim O'Rourke 24 1882 Babe Ruth 416 1927 Charlie Jones 33 1883 Babe Ruth 470 1928 Charlie Jones 40 1884 Babe Ruth 516 1929 50 1885 Babe Ruth 565 1930 Harry Stovey 57 1886 Babe Ruth 611 1931 65 1887 Babe Ruth 652 1932 Dan Brouthers 74 1888 Babe Ruth 686 1933 Harry Stovey 89 1889 Babe Ruth 708 1934 Harry Stovey 101 1890 Babe Ruth 714 1935-1973 Harry Stovey 117 1891 733 1974 Harry Stovey 121 1892 Hank Aaron 745 1975 Harry Stovey 122 1893-1894 Hank Aaron 755 1976-2006 Roger Connor 126 1895 Barry Bonds 762 2007- present Roger Connor 137 1896

Catch - In baseball, a catch occurs when a fielder gains secure possession of a , and maintains possession until he voluntarily or negligently releases the ball.

Catcher - a position for a baseball player. When a batter takes his turn to hit, the crouches behind home 18 plate, in front of the , and receives the ball from the pitcher.

Center Field - abbreviated CF, is the in baseball who plays defense in center field - the baseball fielding position between left field and right field. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the is assigned the number 8.

Character Clause – see Rule 5

Chicago Black Sox - derived from the team the conspiring to fix the outcome of the 1919 World Series.

Chicago Cubs - Major League Baseball team based in Chicago, . One of the two remaining charter members of the National League. Prior team names: Chicago White Stockings (1870–1871, 1874–1889), Chicago Colts (1890–1897), Chicago Orphans (a.k.a. Remnants) (1898–1901) and Chicago Cubs (1902–present).

Chicago White Sox - Major League Baseball team based in Chicago, Illinois. One of the American League's eight charter franchises, the Chicago team was established as a major league baseball club in 1901. The club was originally called the Chicago White Stockings, after the nickname abandoned by the Cubs, and the name was soon shortened to Chicago White Sox. Prior team names: Sioux City Cornhuskers (1894), St. Paul Saints (1895-1899), (From 1900 to 1903, the official name did not contain the city name of Chicago, although it was based there) White Stockings (1900-1903) and Chicago White Sox (1904–present).

Cincinnati Reds - Major League Baseball team based in Cincinnati, Ohio. The franchise originated in 1882 as a charter member of a defunct 19th century Major League, the American Association. The name "Reds" evolved from their original name, the , baseball's first professional team. The Reds then joined the National League in 1890. Prior team names: Cincinnati Red Stockings (1882–1889), (1890–1953), Cincinnati Redlegs (1953–1958), and again the Cincinnati Reds (1958– present). 19

Cleveland Indians - a professional baseball team based in Cleveland, Ohio. Prior team names: Grand Rapids Rustlers (1894–1899), Cleveland Lake Shores (1900), Cleveland Bluebirds (1901–1902), Cleveland Bronchos (1902, unofficial), Cleveland Naps (1903–1914), and (1915–present).

Colorado Rockies – Major League Baseball team based in Denver, . They were founded in 1993.

Cooperstown, NY – Location of the Major League Baseball Hall of Fame. Founded in 1936 and opened in 1939.

Corked Bats - a specially modified that has been filled with or similar light, less dense substances to make the bat lighter without losing much power.

Cy Young Award – An honor given annually in baseball to the best in Major League Baseball (MLB), one each for the American League (AL) and National League (NL). Named in honor of honor of Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young. Roger Clemens currently holds the record for the most awards won, with seven. (1992–1995) and (1999–2002) share the record for the most consecutive awards won. Clemens, Johnson, Pedro Martínez and Gaylord Perry are the only pitchers to have won the award in both the American League and National League.

Detroit Tigers - Major League Baseball team based in , Michigan. One of the American League's eight charter franchises, the club was founded in Detroit in 1894.

Doctoring Balls - Applying a foreign substance to the ball or otherwise altering it in order to put an unnatural spin on a pitch.

Eagle Baseball Club - One of the first New York baseball clubs, founded in 1854.

Earned Run Average - (ERA) is the mean of earned runs given up by a pitcher per nine pitched. It is determined by dividing the number of earned runs allowed by the number of and multiplying by nine. Runs resulting 20 from batters who reach base on an (even a pitcher error) and later score are called unearned runs, and do not toward ERA.

Elysian Fields – Location of the first two matches of the Eagle Club vs. the New York Knickerbocker Club.

Eras in Baseball – These are the different eras that have been defined in baseball history:

The Early Years (1845-1900) - The evolution of the game. Rules, structures and leagues are formed. Starting pitchers are completing 90% of their starts.

The Dead-Ball Era (1901-1919) - Called the dead-ball era due to the low lack of runs. On the offensive side speedy players and slap hitters dominated are successful. The National and American Leagues are formed.

The Live-Ball Era (1920-1941) - Some consider it the “Between the War” years. A cork-and-rubber center ball began being used replacing the rubber cored ball. Pitchers are no longer allowed to alter the ball and scoring flourishes. Minor league farm teams are formed; night games begin to occur as does radio. In addition the Negro Leagues were created in 1920. Starting pitchers are completing 47% of their starts.

The War Years (1942-1945) - During the period of World War II. Many stars of the game sacrificed chunks of their careers for their country. Many consider the post war years to be “Modern Baseball”.

Transition/Integration (1946-1960) - African- Americans, Asians and Latin’s began playing in the majors. The Negro Leagues die. The Dodgers and Giants move to the West Coast pushing baseball beyond the east and Midwest. Jets replace trains as transportation and television broadcasts become common. Starting pitchers are completing 37% of their starts. 21

Expansion Era (1961-1976) - An enlarged , expansion from 16 to eventually 24 teams cause a reduction in offensive output. The Amateur draft is implemented in 1965 based on reverse order of record. In 1969 the two leagues split into two divisions (East and West) creating a season ending League Championship Series. The mound is again lowered in 1969 due to decreased offense. Starting pitchers are completing 26% of their starts.

Free Agent Era (1976-1994) - Some argue that we are still in this era. Considering that most eras last 15- 20 years that would make this nearly two eras. Players earn the right to free agency after their sixth major league season resulting in increased player movement and salaries that climb. Labor conflicts occur resulting in strikes in 1981 and 1994, resulting in no World Series in 1994. Artificial turf arrives creating an emphasis on scoring via doubles, triples and stolen bases rather then on home runs. All this results in fourteen different teams winning the World Series. Starting pitchers complete 15% of their games.

Long Ball/Steroid Era (1992-Current) – Home runs and increase. New ballparks are created based on retro themes that favor hitters. This results in few complete games and an increase on the amount of relievers used. The leagues split into three divisions. (East, Central, West) Divisional winners and a team will also make the playoffs. The Divisional round is added to the playoffs. In 1997 inter-league play is established in the regular season. Games are played out side of the and for the first time. http://www.tireball.com/behindthedugout/?page_id=46

Fall Classic – also known as World Series.

Fielders Choice - involves a fielder fielding a and, though he has a clear opportunity to throw out the batter-runner at first base in the 's judgment, chooses to try to put out another base runner, thereby allowing the batter-runner to safely reach first base. 22

First Base - or 1B, is the first of four stations on a baseball diamond which must be touched in succession by a base runner in order to score a run for that player's team.

First Baseman - the player on the team playing defense who fields the area nearest first base, and is responsible for the majority of plays made at that base. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the is assigned the number 3.

Florida Marlins - A professional baseball team based in , Florida. Established in 1993 as an expansion franchise.

Gotham Baseball Club - Baseball’s second oldest team after the Knickerbockers; they folded in the 1860's due to stronger teams only to be revived in the mid 1870’s with new management and new players. This second Gotham team was the precursor to the present day (formerly New York) Giants.

Hits - The act of safely reaching first base after batting the ball into fair territory.

Home Run (Homer) - A base hit in which the batter is able to circle all the bases, ending at home plate and scoring a run himself.

Home Runs Per - A way to measure how frequently a batter hits a home run. It is determined by dividing the number of at bats by the number of home runs hit. Mark McGwire possesses the MLB record for this statistic with a career ratio of 10.61 at bats per home run.

Jackie Robinson Award - The Rookie of the Year Award, or Jackie Robinson Award as it became known in 1987, is given to the individual player from each League who has the best rookie season; pitching, hitting or fielding, that is during his first year of eligibility.

Left Field (LF) - The area of the to the left of a person standing at home plate and facing towards the pitcher's mound. 23

Lineup - The , which also lists each player's defensive position.

Los Angeles Dodgers - Major League Baseball team based in , . Established in 1883, the team originated in , New York, where it was known by a number of nicknames before becoming the Brooklyn Dodgers definitively by the 1932 season. The team moved to Los Angeles before the 1958 season. Prior team names: (1883–1884), Brooklyn Grays (1885–1887), Brooklyn Bridegrooms (1888–1890), (1896–1898), Brooklyn Grooms (1891–1895), Brooklyn Superbas (1899–1910), Brooklyn Trolley Dodgers (1911–1912), Brooklyn Dodgers (1913), Brooklyn Robins (1914–1931), Brooklyn Dodgers (1932–1957) and (1958–present).

Lou Gehrig Memorial Award - award is presented annually to the Major League baseball player who both on and off the field best exemplifies the character of Lou Gehrig.

Major League Baseball (MLB) – Also known as National Pastime. The highest level of play in North American professional baseball. Specifically, Major League Baseball refers to the organization that operates the National League and the American League, by means of a joint organizational structure that has developed gradually between them since 1901 (the National League having been in existence since 1876).

Mills Commission - featured Abraham Mills, Morgan G. Bulkeley, Arthur P. Gorman, Nicholas E. Young, Alfred J. Reach and George Wright and James Edward Sullivan. Their task was to find out who invented baseball in 1905.

National Association - The National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (NAPBBP), or simply the National Association (NA), was founded in 1871 and continued through the 1875 season. It succeeded and incorporated several professional clubs from the National Association of Base Ball Players (NABBP); in turn several of its clubs created the succeeding National League, which essentially survives as professional baseball. The NA was the first professional baseball league. Its status as a major league is in dispute. Major League Baseball and the 24

Baseball Hall of Fame do not recognize it as a major league, but the NA comprised most of the professional clubs and the highest caliber of play then in existence.

National Baseball Hall Of Fame – A museum in Cooperstown, New York, it is the central point for the study of the in the United States and beyond. It displays baseball-related artifacts and exhibits, and the honoring of persons who have excelled in playing, managing, and serving the sport. Founded in 1936, it was first opened in 1939.

National League (NL) - is the older of two leagues constituting Major League Baseball, and the world's oldest extant professional team sports league.

Negro Leagues - American professional baseball league comprising teams predominantly made up of African Americans since they were not accepted into the major and minor baseball leagues at first. The term may be used broadly to include professional black teams outside the leagues and it may be used narrowly for the seven relatively successful leagues beginning 1920 that are sometimes termed "Negro Major Leagues." The Baseball Hall of Fame agreed to admit Negro league players on an equal basis with their Major League counterparts in 1971. Many Hall of Famers began their careers in the Negro Leagues. The league folded after the end of the 1946 season and Jackie Robinson was the first African-American to be allowed to play Major League Baseball in 1947.

New York Knickerbockers - Officially formed on September 23, 1845, baseball's longest oldest baseball team.

New York Yankees – A professional baseball team based in , in ; they are one of the American League's eight charter franchises, the club was founded in Baltimore, in 1901 as the Baltimore Orioles, and moved to New York City in 1903, becoming known as the New York Highlanders before being officially renamed the "Yankees" in 1913. Their 27 World Series championships are more than any other franchise in North American professional sports history. Throughout the team's history, the franchise has produced some of the most celebrated 25 players in Major League history, including Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Joe DiMaggio, Mickey Mantle, and . The franchise has seen 44 of its players inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame, and the Yankees have retired the numbers of 16 of its players. Prior team names: Baltimore Orioles (1901–1902), New York Highlanders (1903–1912) and New York Yankees (1913–present).

Olympic Town Ball Club Of - The first Town Ball club to adopt a constitution, founded in 1833. It was formed by combining two associations of Town Ball players.

Performance Enhancing Drugs (PED's) - Performance-enhancing drugs are substances used by athletes to improve their performances in the sports in which they engage.

Pitch - A baseball delivered by the pitcher from the pitcher's mound to the batter as defined by the Official Rules of Baseball, Rule 2.00 (Pitch) and Rule 8.01.

Pitcher (P) - The fielder responsible for pitching the ball.

Pitchers Triple Crown - Leading the league in wins, strikeouts, and average.

Pittsburgh Pirates - A Major League Baseball club based in , Pennsylvania. They are five-time World Series Champions, in addition to the distinction of playing in the first modern World Series. Prior names: Allegheny (1882– 1886), Pittsburgh Alleghenys (1887–1889) and (1891–present).

RBI - "" is a run scored as a result of a hit; a bases-filled walk or hit-by-pitch or awarding of first base due to ; a sacrifice; or a single-out fielder's choice (not a play). Official credit to a batter for driving in a run. Hank Aaron (2,297), Babe Ruth (2,213) and Barry Bonds (1,996) are the top three in career RBI's.

Retired Players – Players who no longer play the game of baseball. 26

Right Field (RF) - is the outfielder in baseball who plays defense in right field. Right field is the area of the outfield to the right of a person standing at home plate and facing towards the pitcher's mound.

Rookie – First year player in baseball.

Rounders – A game which shares more technical similarities to Baseball; dates back to Tudor times in England.

Rule 5 – Hall of Fame stipulation that states “Voting shall be based upon the player's record, playing ability, integrity, sportsmanship, character, and contributions to the team(s) on which the player played.”

Runs - When a player advances around first, second and third base and returns safely to home plate, touching the bases in that order, before three outs are recorded. A player may score by hitting a home run or by any combination of plays that puts him safely "on base" (that is, on first, second, or third) as a runner and subsequently brings him home.

San Francisco Giants - One of the oldest baseball teams, the Giants have won the most games of any team in the history of baseball, 10,270 (1883 – 2009). Prior team names: New York Gothams (1883–85), New York Giants (1885– 1957) and (1958–present).

Sandlot Players – A game that generally follows the basic rules of baseball. More specific rules can be set for games and may vary each time the game is played. These rules are usually agreed upon before the game begins by teams of young boys or girls usually from the same neighborhood. Typically the game is played on a makeshift field, which could be nothing more than an empty piece of land in the area composed of grass, dirt, or sand that is big enough to facilitate the game. Objects used in playing the game can be improvised to take the place of bases, balls, or bats if they are unavailable.

Scandals - Troubles and events which have harmed or threatened to harm the public image of the game or the reputation of a player. In the context of this research 27 design it means any acts performed by players, and/or teams, which violate the Rule 5 Character Clause that exits in the MLB Hall of Fame entrance qualifications.

Second Base - or 2B, is the second of four stations on a baseball diamond which must be touched in succession by a base runner in order to score a run for that player's team.

Shortstop - abbreviated SS, is the baseball fielding position between second and third base. is often regarded as the most dynamic defensive position in baseball, because most hitters have a tendency to hit the ball there.

Shutouts – Not allowing the opponent to score a run. In baseball the term is also used to describe the feat performed by an individual pitcher.

Sign-Stealing – Decrypting signals given by coaches and managers of the other team. The rulebook only prohibits signs being stolen by electronic means, otherwise it is legal in baseball.

Single Season Home Run Record – Most home runs hit in a single season by a player. Here are the top 10 season totals:

TABLE 1.2 SINGLE SEASON HOME RUN RECORD Rank Name Year Total Rank Name Year Total 1 Barry Bonds 2001 73 8 Babe Ruth 1927 60 2 Mark 1998 70 9 Babe Ruth 1921 59 McGwire 3 Sammy Sosa 1998 66 10 Jimmie Foxx 1932 58 4 Mark 1999 65 Hank 1938 58 McGwire Greenberg 5 Sammy Sosa 2001 64 2006 58 6 Sammy Sosa 1999 63 Mark 1997 58 McGwire 7 Roger Maris 1961 61 28

Slugging Average (Or , SLG) - a popular measure of the power of a hitter. It is calculated as divided by at bats. The formula reads: 1B + (2 x 2B) + (3 x 3B) + (4 x HR) SLG = AB

Babe Ruth holds the career record with a .690 career SLG %; Barry Bonds holds the highest seasonal SLG % with .863 in 2001.

Spalding's Official Base Ball Guide And Official League Book – Founded in 1878 by A.G. Spalding, it turned out to be the most important baseball journal ever.

Spikes – Also known as cleats, are the shoes that baseball players wear to help them gain traction while running on the field of play.

Spitballs - A is an illegal baseball pitch in which the ball has been altered by the application of saliva, petroleum jelly, or some other foreign substance.

Stadium – Or arena, is a setting where baseball is played.

Strikeouts - Occurs when a batter receives three strikes during his time at bat. A pitcher receives credit for (and a batter is charged with) a on any third strike, but a batter is out only if any of the following is true: 1. The third strike is pitched and caught in flight by the catcher; 2. On any third strike, if a base runner is on first and there are fewer than two outs; 3. The third strike is bunted foul and is not caught by a fielder.

Swashbuckling - generally describes a fearless romantic archetype, a fictional, adventurous, sword-wielding, male character who seeks to win the heart of a beautiful lady while rescuing society from the clutches of a dastardly villain. A classic swashbuckler exhibits exceptional courage.

Third Baseman - abbreviated 3B, is the player in baseball whose responsibility is to defend the area nearest to third 29 base — the third of four bases a base runner must touch in succession to score a run.

Town Ball - A version of Rounders which dates back to the early 1800's. In this game, the first team to score one hundred "talleys" won the game.

Triple - The act of a batter safely reaching third base after hitting the ball, with neither the benefit of a fielder's misplay nor another runner being put out on a fielder's choice.

Umpires - A referee that has authority to make decisions about play.

Win - Credited to the pitcher for who was in the game when it last took the lead. A must generally complete five innings to earn a win. Under some exceptions to the general rules, the official scorer awards the win based on guidelines set forth in the official rules.

World Series - The annual championship series of the highest level of professional baseball since 1903, concluding the postseason of Major League Baseball.

Yankee Stadium - It serves as the home ballpark for the New York Yankees. The original was built in 1923 and was nicknamed “The House that (Babe) Ruth Built” because his best years as a Yankee coincided with the stadium's opening and beginning of the Yankees' winning history. 30

Historical Necessities

Both determining who invented the game of baseball and the creation of the Hall of Fame did not come without scandal themselves. This section will explain both.

The Invention of Baseball

It is a surprising revelation to many baseball fans that Henry Chadwick (Appendix C), not Abner Doubleday, is the actual “Father of Baseball (Henry Chadwick, 2007).”

If baseball has taught its fans anything, not only is the history behind its conception a long and prosperous one, but the stories surrounding it are as well. By 1860

Chadwick began writing a baseball manual for Beadle Dime called Beadle’s Dime Base Ball Player (Chafets, 2009, p.

24), which became the quintessential baseball guide (Henry

Chadwick, 2007). In the publication, he created

“statistical measures such as batting average and (Chafets, 2009, p. 24),” and also began to expand the baseball box score by making improvements; he included tallies for home runs, games played and some

“other foundational numbers (Chafets, 2009, p. 24)” that are still used today. 31

In 1903, he wrote an article on the .

The game, he argued, had its roots in the two-century- old English game of Rounders, which in the New World had gradually morphed into town ball; the first organized team was the Olympic Town Ball Club of Philadelphia, circa 1833. Town ball had, he concluded, evolved into baseball as it was at the turn of the twentieth century (Chafets, 2009, p. 24).

One of Chadwick's closest friends, A.G. Spalding

(Appendix A) was considered the first superstar in the game.

He broke in as a pitcher with the Boston Red Stockings in 1871 and led the National Association in wins for five straight years… In 1875, his record was 55–5. The following year, he moved to the newly formed National League, where the Chicago team paid him a salary and 25 percent of the gate in return for his services. He led the NL with 47 wins that year. Spalding retired after the next season with a lifetime 253–65 won–lost record… He was 26 years old (Chafets, 2009, p. 25).

Spalding's Official Base Ball Guide and Official

League Book was published in 1878 and Spalding hired

Chadwick as the editor. Not too many years later Spalding was appalled by the notion that Chadwick believed baseball evolved from an Old World game and hand picked a panel to determine the correct origins. This “Mills Commission” included Abraham G. Mills (Appendix C), a businessman and former president of the National League…, U.S. Senators 32

Morgan G. Bulkeley (Appendix C), another former president of the National League, and Arthur Pue Gorman (Appendix C)

(Chafets, 2009), amongst others.

The commission based their final decision almost exclusively on the testimony of a 71-year-old Abner Graves

(Appendix C) who “fabricated his story of 1839, Abner

Doubleday and Cooperstown, where he claimed to have attended school with Doubleday ("The Game," n.d.).” Graves

“recalled seeing drawings of a field in the dirt and on paper by Doubleday ("The Game," n.d.).” His story was published in the April 3, 1905 edition of the Beacon

Journal from Akron, Ohio ("The Game," n.d.), with the title

Abner Doubleday Invented Baseball ("The Game," n.d.).

It strikes as odd that nobody from Mills Commission ever corresponded, interviewed or met with Graves to verify his claims. If they were diligent in their research they would have discovered that Abner Graves was only five years old in 1839 and that Doubleday was enrolled in the military academy at West Point in 1839, not in Cooperstown, NY.

("The Game," n.d.).

On December 30, 1907 it was reported that the Mills

Commission had made their choice that Abner Doubleday had 33 invented baseball in Cooperstown in 1839 (Chafets, 2009).

The public at the time were naive to the origins of the game of baseball; if they were told that the same man who commanded a division at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg was a Civil War hero, an officer who was wounded in battle and who also founded the first cable car company (Chafets,

2009, p. 27) invented baseball, they would believe it.

Doubleday was also a “prolific writer of memoirs and essays, none of which, oddly, ever mentioned playing baseball, let alone inventing it… when he died in 1893 none of his obituaries mentioned anything about baseball

(Chafets, 2009, p. 27).”

Abner Doubleday has never been elected to the Baseball

Hall of Fame, but a statue of him stands there along with two plaques. The first one reads:

Although Doubleday had a distinguished military career, he is best known as the supposed inventor of baseball (Appendix B).

And the second:

Forever known as the mythical inventor of baseball… He never claimed to have anything to do with baseball and may never have even seen a game (Appendix B). 34

Mills, when asked if he had proof of the origins of baseball in 1926 responded that he did not “as far as the actual origin or the game of baseball is concerned

(Chafets, 2009, p. 27).” When Mills made that statement

Abner Doubleday, Henry Chadwick and A.G. Spalding were all deceased (Chafets, 2009, p. 28).

Recently, the website of the Hall of Fame made this statement:

We may never know exactly where baseball was invented, and it’s possible it was not invented in any one place, but rather evolved in several areas over several years. We do know that some of the earliest forms of organized baseball that we are aware of took place in settings similar to that of Cooperstown. In that sense, the village serves as a fitting representation of the heritage of the game, and a fitting home to the Baseball Hall of Fame ("The last word," n.d.).

The Hall of Fame

While the Baseball Hall of Fame itself was not a scandal, it opened amidst one.

Mentioned previously, the Hall of Fame building was created to house its immortalized stars of the game. While the first group of players were elected to the Hall of Fame in January of 1936, the physical structure in Cooperstown,

NY “wasn’t dedicated until June 12, 1939 ("The Game," n.d.);” which is when the first four classes, 1936, 1937, 35

1938 and 1939, were together inducted (Chafets, 2009, p.

33).

Alexander Cartwright (Appendix C) was the founder of one of the earliest baseball teams, the New York

Knickerbockers, in 1840 (Chafets, 2009, p. 33). His grandson, Bruce Cartwright (Appendix C), wrote to the

Baseball Hall of Fame expressing that his grandfather was the true visionary behind the creation of baseball. Along with having his grandfathers' diagrams and written notes

(Chafets, 2009, p. 34), Bruce insisted that Alexander had

“written the rules for the game in 1845 (Chafets, 2009, p.

34).”

Commissioner Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis (Appendix C) became rattled when he received that letter; “he already had his creation story and was sticking to it (Chafets,

2009, p. 34).” The story that he was referring to was having Doubleday, a war hero, commissioned as baseball's founder. In order to hopefully keep the Cartwright's at bay with the letter Bruce sent, Landis made sure that Alexander

Cartwright was among one of the first inductees (Chafets,

2009, p. 34). 36

Bruce Cartwright was scheduled to attend the dedication ceremony to help honor his deceased grandfather. Landis feared that while present at the ceremony Bruce would cause an uproar and provoke the other attendees into a story about the true origins of baseball. However, Bruce died three months before the Hall's dedication and was not on hand for the ceremony (Chafets, 2009, p. 34).

That afternoon, along with the greatest players in the game at the time: Babe Ruth, Ty Cobb, Cy Young (to name a few) (Chafets, 2009, p. 33), , Henry

Chadwick and A.G. Spalding were all inducted to the Hall of

Fame (Chafets, 2009, pgs. 205-206). 37

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The purpose of the research study was to (1) compare the different scandals that have occurred and the different ways of cheating in the sport of baseball, (2) research the

Steroid Era and the players that have their name associated with it, and (3) look at the Major League Baseball Hall of

Fame and explain how the purposes have an affect on being considered a Hall of Fame player using the Rule 5 Character

Clause Hall of Fame entrance criteria.

The research questions for this study were the following:

1. What constitutes being considered a scandalous

player in baseball?

2. Who in Major League Baseball history is considered

a scandalous player,

A) Already in the Hall of Fame,

B) Not in the Hall of Fame.

The review of literature in relationship to the research purpose and research questions are divided into the following sections: (1) Different Types of

Scandals/Ways of Cheating In Baseball, (2) Players That 38

Were Involved in Different Scandals, (3) Major League

Baseball Hall of Fame Entrance Qualifications, (4) How the

Hall of Fame Voting Committee Has Not Had Consistency in

Their Voting, and (5) Current Hall of Famers' Opinions.

The review provided serves as an outline for understanding relevant topics and how they relate to the relevance of this study.

(1) DIFFERENT TYPES OF SCANDALS/WAYS OF CHEATING IN BASEBALL

Believe it or not, scandals and cheating have been a part of baseball since the bat and ball, however Chapter 4 will get into more detail of some of the most reoccurring and unethical actions baseball players have been involved in.

The research that was done uncovered ways of cheating in baseball that, to some, would never seem conceivable.

There have been numerous books written about the subject, but The Cheaters Guide to Baseball, written by Derek

Zumsteg (Appendix C), was a perfect start for the project.

His introduction reflects a very important idealism that the reader of the book, and thesis, needs to know and understand about baseball:

Everything that’s called cheating is not cheating. All cheating is not morally objectionable. 39

A particular act of cheating may not be entirely right or entirely wrong – there is a great deal of room for personal interpretation. Where a person draws the line between cheating and not cheating tells us as much about the person as whether they draw a line at all (Zumsteg, 2007, pg. ix).

Ethical boundaries are a part of baseball and do not necessarily mean that a team or player is cheating.

“Heads-up teams do all kinds of things to make the opponent run when they shouldn’t or stay on base when they should be running. Is this wrong (Zumsteg, 2007, p. xi)?” All of the time pitchers try to fool the batter by throwing an array of pitches, or try to trap the ball

(trapping occurs when the ball bounces into the glove of the fielder, but it happens so close to the ground that players try and convince the umpiring crew that they caught the ball before it bounced). These are not considered cheating although they are considered forms of deception.

“Cheating would be defined by most fans as an act that is forbidden by the rules and gives a player or a team an advantage (Zumsteg, 2007, p. xi).” The main purpose of this book was to serve as a guide to the types of cheating that “threaten the integrity of the game itself (Zumsteg,

2007, p. xiv).” 40

“Changes in the game were cyclical (Bryant,

2006);” since the creation of the game of baseball it has changed numerous times. “Wahoo Sam” Crawford (Appendix A) described playing against John McGraw (Appendix A), who may have been one of the most notable cheaters in the game of baseball. “They’d trip you, give you the hip, and who knows what else. Boy, was it rough. There was only one umpire in those days, see, and he couldn’t be everywhere at once

(Zumsteg, 2007, p. 3).”

Teams in the 1890’s would take advantage of there being only one umpire on the field by “running directly to third from first, holding runners forcefully at their base, using the pretense of a tag to sock a player with a ball, and running into fielders trying to make plays (Zumsteg, 2007, p. 7).” Currently there are multiple umpires on the field at a time to make sure these occurrences do not happen again.

With the understanding of the different types of scandals that have occurred in baseball (outside of the gambling, incidents and Steroid Era) the research was not difficult. 41

One of the searches came about a class that was “taught in the American Studies Department by visiting professor

Willy Stern” ("Ranking baseball’s," 2008) (Appendix C) at

Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota in the Spring of

2008. The curriculum was centered on baseball ethics; the class was given “a list of 133 specific ethical incidents throughout baseball’s history. Over the six-week course, students were required to rank these incidents from least ethically acceptable to most ethically acceptable ("Ranking baseball’s," 2008).”

The title of Stern’s course serves a double purpose.

It captures the essence of different types of scandals that baseball players have been involved in, and is a perfect segue into the next section of the literature review:

An inside look at fighting, cheating, corking, scuffing, sign-stealing, drinking, race-baiting, name- calling, spitting, law-breaking, gambling, spiking, bug-hiding, doping, tomato-dropping, game-fixing, arrow-shooting, grooving, spying, lying, head-hunting, water-logging, freezing, sand-dumping, ridge-building, tacking, greasing, superball-stuffing, skull-smashing, head-pounding, potato-carving, bribing, lemon-tossing, field-burning, filing and other everyday occurrences in our nation’s beloved past-time: A historical analysis of ethics and ethical decision-making in Major League Baseball ("Ranking baseball’s," 2008). 42

(2) PLAYERS THAT WERE INVOLVED IN DIFFERENT SCANDALS

Cooperstown confidential heroes, rogues, and the inside story of the Baseball Hall of Fame, by Zev Chafets

(Appendix C), along with The Cheaters Guide to Baseball by

Derek Zumsteg, were the books of choice for this section.

The titles did not mislead; they both reference scandals that occurred by the same players kids emulate and worship on the . Both of the books had lot of information others lacked.

Chafets’ book listed the scandals and Zumsteg’s book provided insight into the various ways of cheating that exist in baseball. Although neither dove completely into the practical details, Google provided help with the search for journals, newspapers and magazines.

The articles were plenty; ranging from the different disgraceful acts from the late 1800’s all the way to 2010 and the steroid issue, there was a lot more information gathered. In narrowing them down to the relevant subject matter, some of the shameful acts were left out because they did not satisfy the “scandal/cheating” qualifications relevant to the topic at hand. 43

(3) MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL HALL OF FAME

ENTRANCE QUALIFICATIONS

For this section the Hall of Fame website,

(http://baseballhall.org/), proved valuable.

Election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame is possible through one of two ways. The Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) considers the candidacies of players who have played at least 10 major league seasons and been retired five seasons. The considers those players whose careers concluded no later than 21 seasons ago, along with managers, umpires and executives ("BBWAA Election Rules," n.d.).

There are multiple committees for voting players into the Hall of Fame; each votes in different years and has their own rules:

1) Veterans Committee - Pre-World War II Players,

2) Veterans Committee - Post-World War II Players,

3) Veterans Committee - Umpires and Managers and

4) Veterans Committee - Executives and Pioneers.

The yearly elections that usually cause a stir are from the Baseball Writer's Association of America. These elections are governed by the following rules:

1. Authorization: By authorization of the Board of Directors of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Inc., the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) is authorized to hold an election every year for the purpose of electing members to the 44

National Baseball Hall of Fame from the ranks of retired baseball players. 2. Electors: Only active and honorary members of the Baseball Writers' Association of America, who have been active baseball writers for at least ten (10) years, shall be eligible to vote. They must have been active as baseball writers and members of the Association for a period beginning at least ten (10) years prior to the date of election in which they are voting. 3. Eligible Candidates -- Candidates to be eligible must meet the following requirements: A. A baseball player must have been active as a player in the Major Leagues at some time during a period beginning twenty (20) years before and ending five (5) years prior to election. B. Player must have played in each of ten (10) Major League championship seasons, some part of which must have been within the period described in 3 (A). C. Player shall have ceased to be an active player in the Major Leagues at least five (5) calendar years preceding the election but may be otherwise connected with baseball. D. In case of the death of an active player or a player who has been retired for less than five (5) full years, a candidate who is otherwise eligible shall be eligible in the next regular election held at least six (6) months after the date of death or after the end of the five (5) year period, whichever occurs first. E. Any player on Baseball's ineligible list shall not be an eligible candidate. 4. Method of Election: A. BBWAA Screening Committee — A Screening Committee consisting of baseball writers will be appointed by the BBWAA. This Screening Committee shall consist of six members, with two members to be elected at each Annual Meeting for a three-year term. The duty of the Screening Committee shall be to prepare a ballot listing in alphabetical order eligible candidates who (1) received a vote on a minimum of five percent (5%) of the ballots cast in the preceding election or (2) are eligible for the first time and are nominated by any two of the six members of the BBWAA Screening Committee. B. Electors may vote for as few as zero (0) and 45

as many as ten (10) eligible candidates deemed worthy of election. Write-in votes are not permitted. C. Any candidate receiving votes on seventy-five percent (75%) of the ballots cast shall be elected to membership in the National Baseball Hall of Fame. 5. Voting: Voting shall be based upon the player's record, playing ability, integrity, sportsmanship, character, and contributions to the team(s) on which the player played. 6. Automatic Elections: No automatic elections based on performances such as a batting average of .400 or more for one (1) year, pitching a or similar outstanding achievement shall be permitted. 7. Time of Election: The duly authorized representatives of the BBWAA shall prepare, date and mail ballots to each elector no later than the 15th day of January in each year in which an election is held. The elector shall sign and return the completed ballot within twenty (20) days. The vote shall then be tabulated by the duly authorized representatives of the BBWAA. 8. Certification of Election Results: The results of the election shall be certified by a representative of the Baseball Writers' Association of America and an officer of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Inc. The results shall be transmitted to the . The BBWAA and National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Inc. shall jointly release the results for publication. 9. Amendments: The Board of Directors of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Inc. reserves the right to revoke, alter or amend these rules at any time ("BBWAA Election Rules," n.d.).

Rule 5, which says, “voting shall be based upon the player's record, playing ability, integrity, sportsmanship, character, and contributions to the team(s) on which the player played ("BBWAA Election Rules," n.d.)” turns out to be the most relevant topic to the thesis. 46

“It was only when it was realized by the Cooperstown guardians that there was a great danger (Pete) Rose

(Appendix A) might be elected to the Hall while banned from baseball that the rules were amended (in 1989) (Vass,

2008)” to include “Rule 3 (E). Any player on Baseball's ineligible list shall not be an eligible candidate.”

There have been extenuating circumstances in the Hall of Fame voting in the past to ignore one of the most important qualifications under the “Eligible Candidates” heading. “3.C. Player shall have ceased to be an active player in the Major Leagues at least five (5) calendar years preceding the election ("BBWAA Election Rules," n.d.).”

For (Appendix A), the “Baseball

Writers Association of America held a special election and the mandatory five-year waiting period for the Hall of Fame was waived. On Aug. 6, 1973… (he) was posthumously inducted into the Hall (Schwartz, "Clemente," n.d.).” To date,

Clemente is the only player to have a special election called for.

When it comes time to sit and fill out the Hall of

Fame ballots, many of the voters ignore on-field 47 accomplishments and replace it with character of the player instead. Dave Parker (Appendix A), former outfielder for the Pittsburgh Pirates, admitted that he would not be surprised if he never got inducted because of his drug use in the 1980’s (Lackey, 2009).

“It's the Baseball Hall of Fame. That's all. Are people coming to visit the Baseball Hall of Fame without some of the greatest players of the last 20 years? Will people still view it seriously (Posnanski, 2009)?”

"Could he play or couldn't he play (Posnanski, 2009)?"

Negro Leagues player, manager, and spokesman Buck

O'Neil (Appendix A) asked. "That's what matters (Posnanski,

2009).”

(4) HOW THE HALL OF FAME VOTING COMMITTEE HAS NOT HAD

CONSISTENCY IN THEIR VOTING

Marty Bergen (Appendix A) was, by reputation, a good defensive catcher for Boston in the late 1890s. But he only played four years. Why? Because in 1900 he killed his wife and two children with an axe and then committed suicide… Not sure how high he scores in the integrity, sportsmanship or character categories, but he got one vote in 1938 and another in 1939 (Posnanski, 2009).

There were many articles found surrounding the voting process on how some voters vote when it comes time for the

Hall of Fame balloting. 48

Some of the members abuse their privileges; Woody Paige

(Appendix A) admits,

during a visit to in the late , I wanted to talk to Goose (Gossage (Appendix A)) but was told he was cruel and gruff to reporters. I sheepishly introduced myself and said I was from Colorado, his home state, and he talked pleasantly for 30 minutes. We've been good friends since. I would vote for him even if he wasn't deserving… Dale Murphy (Appendix A)… I always vote for Rockies… And he always remembers my name. I'm a sap… (Appendix A)… who I became friends with, so I'm prejudiced. I like voting for friends (Paige, 2007).

Not all of the Hall of Fame voters are biased to their friends or to players that treated them well, however.

The Hall of Fame is filled with people who admitted to using drugs (Appendix A), Ferguson Jenkins (Appendix A), etc.), who willingly cheated (Gaylord Perry (Appendix A) threw , (Appendix A) and (Appendix A) cut , players undoubtedly corked bats), who enthusiastically used illegal performance-enhancers (that would be anyone who ever popped an amphetamine to get a boost, and it's likely that represents a high percentage of Hall of Famers) (Posnanski, 2009).

While the article describes an array of scandalous acts that have occurred in baseball, it also enlightens the reader regarding how some players that have been in violation of the Character Clause have been voted into the

Hall of Fame already.

The clause has been something that voters have embraced and ignored, depending on the mood of the moment. Mark McGwire… hit 583 home runs, broke the single-season 49

home run record, is the all-time leader in home runs per at bat, but almost 80 percent of the voters did not vote for him (Posnanski, 2009).

(5) CURRENT HALL OF FAMERS OPINIONS

Already mentioned, there are various ways to be elected to the Hall of Fame. With five (5) different voting committees, there lies a lot of confusion.

The current Hall of Fame players, however, get to cast their vote for post-World War II players.

The Players committee shall consist of all living National Baseball Hall of Fame members. The Chairman of the Board of Directors of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Inc. shall act as the non-voting chairman of the committee and shall act as non-voting Secretary of the Committee ("Rules for election," n.d.).

To define it in simpler terms, the current living Hall of Fame players get to vote for their peers after they have exhausted their time on the Baseball Writer's Association of America ballot, not while they are on the ballot.

“Baseball's Hall of Fame may consider changes to its

Veterans Committee election process after no one received the necessary 75% vote for the third consecutive election

(Bodley, 2007).” Hall of Fame Board of Director’s chairwoman Jane Forbes Clark (Appendix C) said, "we're 50 disappointed that no one has been elected in three voting cycles (Bodley, 2007)."

The current Hall of Fame players are not in favor of lessening the requirements to be entered into the Hall of

Fame though. “Awarding (some players) baseball’s highest honor and putting their names and plaques along side the true immortals of the game makes a mockery of everything that the Hall stands for (Kapur, 2008);” after all, it is a sacred award for only the most elite players of the game.

Some players may have already slipped through the cracks, such as (Appendix A). “Nobody can think of a good reason why the Veteran’s Committee elected

Bancroft to the Hall in 1971, other than the fact that

Bancroft had been a good friend and teammate of then- presiding Committee poobah (Kapur, 2008).”

It seems as if the players have a better grasp of who belongs in the Hall of Fame over the writers.

After no one was selected for the third consecutive election in 2007, Hall of Famer (Appendix A) said, “The same thing happens every year. The current members want to preserve the prestige as much as possible, 51 and are unwilling to open the doors ("Cooperstown keeps,"

2007)" to players not deserving.

Everyone with a computer, Internet connection and the ability to understand how to create a has an opinion on the MLB Hall of Fame, who belongs and who does not.

Those opinions are a good example of how fans perceive the

Hall of Fame and its entrants.

Current Hall of Famers’ opinions are important too; they have played on field with the nominated players and have the opportunity to vote with no bias. They can relate to the performance standards and know what it takes to succeed.

Current Hall of Famer players have mixed reviews.

Goose Gossage said “there should be no place in the Hall for… any… player who used performance-enhancing drugs…

Cheating is not part of integrity (Blum, 2010).” Willie

McCovey (Appendix A) noted that “whether he took steroids or not, (McGwire) did so much for baseball… He almost helped (U.S.) baseball for a few years there (Blum,

2010).” Finally, (Appendix A) came out and said,

the guys who did steroids had all those great numbers, made all the money, and the guys who didn’t do steroids and just had good years, didn’t make as much money… Now at the end of their careers when you have to compare 52

those numbers to the guys who did do steroids, they’re going to get hurt again as far as the Hall of Fame is concerned. So I can’t in my own mind excuse what happened, whatever the reason (Blum, 2010).

Taking into account all of the factors from the five literature review topics, the thesis now has a direction. 53

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of the research study was to (1) compare the different scandals that have occurred and the different ways of cheating in the sport of baseball, (2) research the

Steroid Era and the players that have their name associated with it, and (3) look at the Major League Baseball Hall of

Fame and explain how the purposes have an affect on being considered a Hall of Fame player using the Rule 5 Character

Clause Hall of Fame entrance criteria.

The research questions for this study were the following:

1. What constitutes being considered a scandalous

player in baseball?

2. Who in Major League Baseball history is considered

a scandalous player,

A) Already in the Hall of Fame,

B) Not in the Hall of Fame.

The intended design around the research methods of the purpose statement was to find that (1) there are current scandalous players in the Hall of Fame, (2) there are current scandalous players being kept out of the Hall of 54

Fame, and (3) there are current scandalous players that are still waiting to be inducted into the Hall of Fame.

The research methodology presented includes the research design, the quantitative data analysis, as well as some relevant scandals that were researched.

Nearly all information was available via books, newspapers or magazine/journal articles; there was no qualitative research needed as it was found in the research previously done by others.

Research Design

The research design was straightforward; outside of reading books on the subject, Google provided a lot of pertinent information.

From articles to New York Times articles from the early 1900’s, all of the information created a trail of infinite information into the inconsistent voting procedures that have been used by Hall of Fame voters on players that have not met all of the standards for election.

Quantitative Data Analysis

Mentioned in Chapter 2: Review of Literature already, the ethics class that was taught by Professor Willie Stern 55 proved to be a good way to pinpoint different scandals from a quantitative view. His class already took care of the qualitative aspect. The website, www.hardballtimes.com/thtstats/other/ethics.php, narrowed down the scandals to weed out the irrelevant ones for the research.

Tango's Book Blog ("List of Ethical Transgression," n.d.) used the same 133 scenarios as Stern’s class at

Carleton College ("Ranking baseball’s," 2008) and came up with a ranking of their own when they offered readers to rank them. The site “received more than 35,000 votes

("Ranking baseball’s," 2008)” using the website for the voting.

“Voters were presented with two scenarios at a time and asked to choose the 'least ethical' of the two. We developed our rankings by calculating the percentage of time each scenario was chosen as the least ethical

("Ranking baseball’s," 2008).”

The was one of the unnecessary ones to continue to research. On June 28, 1994, Matt Williams

(Appendix A) picked off the Dodgers’ Rafael Bournigal;

(Appendix A) “he asked me to step off the bag so he could 56 clean it,” Bournigal said (Zumsteg, 2007, p. 67). Williams then tagged him out when he stepped off. The play is legal, and considered "acceptable" by baseball veterans.

Another unethical action against an opponent is name- calling.

Throughout most of baseball's history, nasty name- calling and offensive ethnic slurs were daily occurrences. There were effectively no limits on the scope of derogatory comments which bench jockeys hurled at Jews, Italians, Irish, dark-complexioned players or other groups. Even every-day nicknames, printed in the newspapers, could be mean-spirited. A deaf player was called "Dummy." A fat player went by "Blimp." A fellow with a large nose was called "Schnozz." And so on ("List of Ethical," n.d., ID #33).

While we are all taught that name-calling is not very nice, it does not reflect a scandal or establish a means to purposely not vote for a player for the Hall of

Fame. “There were a lot of bigots in baseball (and in

America) in those days (Chafets, 2009, pg. 50).” Current

Hall of Fame players Ty Cobb and (Appendix A) were both racists and Speaker was a “sheet-carrying member of the Ku Klux Clan (Chafets, 2009, pg. 52).”

Interpreting the qualitative surveys that were done by sources ESPN.com and Sports Illustrated.com, while important, are geared more towards readers’ opinions and 57 the public image that baseball players convey, not towards the facts.

Public image, if anything, is paramount for athletes.

Lora Banks (Appendix C) of Pro Athlete Magazine Writer said,

The power of the press can make or break an athlete’s career. For a pro athlete, a good public image translates into higher off-the-field income. You can, to a degree, control how you are perceived by the press and the public… Fans will be more tolerant and the media gentler when an athlete who is seen as likeable is dealing with a or controversy (University of Nebraska, 2000, pg. 6).

For instance, a recent Sports Illustrated article describes what occurred in Pittsburgh with their star Ben Roethlisberger (Appendix C) (who has been involved in a multitude of problems of his own). This proves that the media, at times, covers up high priority stories.

A reporter and a cameraman… that broadcasts (Pittsburgh) Steelers games, were driving on I-376 in Pittsburgh when they saw two men on motorcycles and recognized one as Roethlisberger, who was not wearing a helmet. They began shooting footage, which showed Roethlisberger giving them the finger as he sped away, but the video never aired. The station's news director at the time… deny that any such tape existed… sources believe the story was killed out of fear that it would damage (the station's) relationship with the Steelers. 'If we had been the other affiliate [which doesn't broadcast the games],' says one of the people who saw the tape, 'it would have been A-1 news' (McCallum, Dohrmann, Epstein, Lawrence, & Segura, 2010). 58

It wouldn't be the first time a media outlet has protected a star athlete, either, as later it gets discussed more in-depth later in Chapter 4.

Scandals

One of the many articles found lists a few different scandals that are relevant to the topic at hand; “The game has a long history of players and teams trying to gain an , ranging from spitballs, sign-stealing, corked bats, doctoring balls, altering field conditions and using performance enhancing drugs (Billson, 2008).”

“For every ‘illegal substance’ allegation concerning the records of Mark McGwire, Rafael Palmeiro (Appendix A) and Sammy Sosa, there are 'illegal substance' allegations regarding the pitching records of (Hall of Fame players)

Whitey Ford, Don Sutton and Gaylord Perry (Billson, 2008).”

On top of those different types of scandals also lies gambling, crimes against humanity, Prohibition drinking tours, womanizing, blatant cheating, and game fixing

(Billson, 2008). 59

Summary

From all of the research that has been done there is enough information to prove that the Hall of Fame voters were not consistent in their voting using the Rule 5

Character Clause.

Much of the information found would be enough to prosecute a regular Joe in a court of law, but as far as the court of the Baseball Hall of Fame goes, some miscreants were allowed in instead. 60 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Different Scandals in Baseball

Wake up the echoes at the Hall of Fame and you will find that baseball's immortals were a rowdy and raucous group of men who would climb down off their plaques and go rampaging through Cooperstown.

-Zev Chafets, Cooperstown Confidential, 2009

The purpose of the research study was to (1) compare the different scandals that have occurred and the different ways of cheating in the sport of baseball, (2) research the

Steroid Era and the players that have their name associated with it, and (3) look at the Major League Baseball Hall of

Fame and explain how the purposes have an affect on being considered a Hall of Fame player using the Rule 5 Character

Clause Hall of Fame entrance criteria.

The research questions for this study were the following:

1. What constitutes being considered a scandalous

player in baseball? 61 2. Who in Major League Baseball history is considered

a scandalous player,

A) Already in the Hall of Fame,

B) Not in the Hall of Fame.

The review of literature in relationship to the research purpose and research questions are divided into the following sections: (1) Different Types of

Scandals/Ways of Cheating In Baseball, (2) Players That

Were Involved in Different Scandals, (3) Major League

Baseball Hall of Fame Entrance Qualifications, (4) How the

Hall of Fame Voting Committee Has Not Had Consistency in

Their Voting, and (5) Current Hall of Famers' Opinions.

Previously it was said that proving (1) there are current scandalous players in the Hall of Fame, (2) there are current scandalous players not in the Hall of Fame but their actions merit reference, and (3) there are current scandalous players that are still waiting to be inducted into the Hall of Fame is paramount to the objective of the thesis. This was accomplished by answering the research questions posted in Chapter 1. 62 Discussion of the Research Questions

1. What constitutes being considered a scandalous

player in baseball?

2. Who in Major League Baseball history is considered

a scandalous player,

A) Already in the Hall of Fame,

B) Not in the Hall of Fame.

1. What Constitutes Being Considered a Scandalous Player

in Baseball?

Acts considered scandals and/or cheating are “those… that threaten the integrity of the game (Zumsteg, 2007, p. xiv).” The Hall of Fame takes it a step further and considers whether or not a player has acted with integrity and sportsmanship with no regard to the distinction between less than desirable conduct (alcoholics or spousal abusers) by players and conduct effecting on-field performance

(performance enhancement).

Bill James (Appendix C) who “has become part of baseball legend (McGrath, 2003)” wrote in his book,

Whatever Happened to the Baseball Hall of Fame, that he

“drew up a list of questions that might be used to evaluate 63 where a player stands as a potential Hall of Famer (pgs.

274-275)?” His Question #15 asked, “Did the player uphold the standards of sportsmanship and character (pgs. 274-

275)?”

In order to properly answer the above proposed question, “What Constitutes Being Considered a Scandalous

Player in Baseball,” one must look at the sportsmanship, integrity and character of the players themselves.

2. Who in Major League Baseball History is Considered a

Scandalous Player?

A) Already in the Hall of Fame?

(Listed Alphabetically By Player)

Grover Cleveland Alexander (Appendix A)

Alexander, tied with the third most wins in baseball history with 373, ("Career Leaders & Records for Wins," n.d.) did not always pitch in a sober state of mind.

Author (Appendix C) said it best, “Grover

Cleveland Alexander drunk was a better pitcher than Grover

Cleveland Alexander sober (Chafets, 2009, pg. 55).”

In 1911 “he was struck by a pitch and had to deal with bouts of epilepsy the rest of his life ("Baseball Greats: 64 Pitchers" n.d.).” Alexander still ended the season with 28 wins, which stands as a rookie record even to this day.

“World War I saw him being taken away from the game of baseball in 1918 where he suffered shell shock, worsened seizures and as bad as his drinking was before, it became far worse afterwards ("Baseball Greats," n.d.).” After returning to the game in 1920 he would win his third Triple

Crown but would sour his relationship with several teams ("Baseball Greats," n.d.).

His question of character now comes into play.

Clearly, conduct that occurs during a player’s career is the most relevant to assessing his character as it relates to baseball and will have the most impact on his reputation

(Marshall, 2009).

Obviously, his on-field performance is measured with greatness: he is second in the history books with 90 career shutouts ("Pete Alexander," n.d.), his 373 wins are tied for first in the National League record book ("Wins

Records," n.d.), and he won the National League Pitcher's

Triple Crown in 1915, 1916 and 1920 ("MLB Triple Crown

Winners," n.d.). In 1999 he ranked number 12 on The 65 list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players

("TSN Presents," 1999), and was a nominee for the Major

League Baseball All-Century Team ("Grover," n.d.).

His off field reputation was filled with alcoholic binges, especially after he retired from the game. He became “chronically broke and occasionally jailed for public drunkenness (Chafets, 2009, pg. 55).”

For his Hall of Fame induction ceremony in 1939 that included Ruth and Cobb, among others, Alexander barely had the money to make it there (Chafets, 2009, pg. 55). The

Hall of Fame, realizing that he was broke, offered him a job as a security guard there but he “turned it down and hit the road, drifting (Chafets, 2009, pg. 55)” instead.

Wade Boggs (Appendix A)

“In the , it wasn't uncommon for baseball players to have girlfriends on the side… that issue didn't get much discussion… until Margo Adams (Appendix C) filed a $6 million palimony suit against… star Wade Boggs in 1988

("Biggest sports," n.d.).”

“She traveled with the Red Sox on the road, sometimes at team expense (Chafets, 2009, pg. 70).” When the affair 66 ended, she came out, on national television and in a national publication, to tell of Boggs’ infidelity

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 71).

Boggs owned up to infidelity and memorably portrayed himself as a sex addict. Against all odds, Wade's wife

Debbie rode out the controversy and stayed at his side. Do the voters use the Rule 5 Character Clause if players exhibit a sense of good character after years of immoral judgments?

Wade Boggs was elected to the Hall of Fame in 2005, with a “91.9 percent (vote). His career accomplishments left little room for debate: 3,010 hits, a .328 lifetime batting average, five American League batting titles, 15 seasons with a .300-plus average. His greatness is beyond question (Bauman, 2005).”

The infidelity scandal, updated almost daily for more than a year in the news, “tarnished Boggs' image. It led to a scuffle with some of his Boston teammates, prompted rumors and drew catcalls and hate mail (Nipps, 2005).”

Boggs’ wife said he “was up front and honest from the very beginning of the ordeal, something she appreciated 67 during a time she felt they were being attacked (Nipps,

2005)” therefore was understanding and accepted his apologies. "Not that it didn't break my heart… It did

(Nipps, 2005)” she remarks.

“After all, how much can a voter hold adultery against a guy… if his wife takes him back? Cooperstown’s real character rule: don’t get caught. And if you do… get a note from your wife (Chafets, 2009, pg. 71).”

Ty Cobb

Ty Cobb was one of the most egregious players to ever play the game of baseball. While his on field play as a fierce competitor is currently admired, his unsportsmanlike conduct is not. “He sometimes got into fights on the field…

Cobb was a sociopath, a nasty drunk, a raving racist and maybe a murderer (Chafets, 2009, pg. 50).”

Cobb was a hater (Chafets, 2009, p. 51). , one of his teammates, said he “never stopped fighting the

Civil War (Chafets, 2009, p. 51).” He was “convicted for assault and for slapping a black construction worker… he slapped the black elevator operator and slashed the black night manager with a knife (Chafets, 2009, p. 68 51)” at a hotel in Cleveland. In an article published

October 14, 1909 by ,

Ty Cobb… did not accompany his teammates… because of his desire to avoid Cleveland. Manager Jennings (Appendix A) of Detroit received information that the Cleveland authorities intended to arrest Cobb as he passed through Cleveland… Cobb had trouble with a hotel watchman in Cleveland recently… it is reported than an indictment for felonious assault had been brought against Cobb by the Grand Jury ("Two More Players Fined," 1909).

A few years later in New York, Cobb ran into the stands and beat a man bloody (Chafets, 2009, p. 51) for calling him “half a nigger (Chafets, 2009, pg. 52).” That man had previously lost one hand in a work place accident and had three fingers missing on his other hand. For the assault he was suspended indefinitely (Chafets, 2009, pg. 52) by

Major League Baseball, however, his team wanted him in the lineup. After playing one game without him they went on strike. Faced with a fine if they forfeited any future games, Detroit fielded a replacement team composed mostly of sandlot players (Chafets, 2009, pg. 52) and “after a brutal loss the players ended the strike, while Cobb still remain suspended for the next ten days (Schwartz, "He was a pain" n.d.).” 69 There are stories that had Cobb “filing his spikes to razor sharpness… to cut who blocked his path… he never denied these tales until after he retired… the image of him sliding into a base with sharp spikes gave him a psychological advantage (Schwartz, "He was a pain" n.d.).”

Some of his other off-the-field antics were:

• “In 1907, Cobb, fought a black groundskeeper over the

condition of the Tigers' field… and

ended up choking the man's wife when she intervened

(Schwartz, "He was a pain" n.d.).”

• “Three men jumped Cobb and his wife… Cobb pulled his

gun, but it wouldn't fire. He chased down one of the

fleeing thieves and beat the man's face to an

unrecognizable pulp with the butt of his pistol

(Schwartz, "He was a pain" n.d.).”

• Upon retiring, He continued to argue with waitresses,

cashiers, customs officials, policemen and old

friends. When he drank, his behavior was even worse

(Schwartz, "He was a pain" n.d.).

Cobb was also involved in a cheating scandal with fellow superstar Tris Speaker, player/manager for Cleveland 70 at the time. In 1919 the “alleged misdeed consisted of being leading participants in the fixing of the Cleveland-

Detroit game played on September 25 (Blaisdell, 2005, p.

1).”

Pitcher, at the time for the Tigers, Hubert (Dutch)

Leonard, (Appendix A) said that “Cobb and Speaker (met)… after the September 24 game. There they agreed that

Detroit would win the next day and to bet a large sum of money on the result (Blaisdell, 2005, p. 2).”

From the end of that 1919 season Cobb and Leonard had a rocky relationship. Seven years later, in 1926, Leonard was playing for then manager Cobb and was angered when Cobb refused to take him out late in a game that he was pitching, and losing badly, when Leonard complained about arm stiffness. After that game Leonard refused to pitch again for Cobb. As a result, the Tigers put Leonard on waivers, and when no team picked him up, his baseball career ended (Stump, 1994).

Furious, Leonard contacted Commissioner Landis and accused Cobb (along with manager Tris Speaker of the

Cleveland Indians) of being involved in gambling and game 71 fixing. Leonard claimed that the two of them conspired before a 1919 Tigers-Indians game to allow the Tigers to win, clinching third place in the American League pennant race ("Ty Cobb and Speaker," 1926).

To verify his accusations, Leonard produced two letters, one was from a pitcher for Cleveland who was also said to be in on the scandal and the other by Cobb ("Ty

Cobb and Speaker," 1926). “These letters made evident that

Leonard and Wood had bet on the game and perhaps implied that more than betting had been involved (Blaisdell, 2005, p. 2).”

Commissioner Landis called Cobb to testify at a hearing, where he denied Leonard's allegations. Cobb noted that Leonard “had the reputation in the past of being a

Bolshevik on the club (Stump, 1994, p. 382).” Leonard refused to present his arguments because he feared that

Cobb would do him physical injury.

In addition to his fear of Cobb, Leonard may have realized that in any verbal confrontation, he would be bound to be the loser, since three denouncing one as a liar would have a much greater impact than the reverse. At any 72 rate, Leonard's adamancy caused Landis to place little faith in his word. (Blaisdell, 2005, p. 2) In the absence of Leonard's testimony, Landis found Cobb and Speaker not guilty.

One of the greatest players ever to play the game of baseball, Ty Cobb is the owner of the highest lifetime batting average, at .366 ("Career Leaders & Records for

Batting Average," n.d.). Elected to the Hall of Fame in the inaugural class of 1936, his average is “a measure of professional greatness that will last as long as baseball

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 50).”

According to an e-mail from Freddy Berowski (Appendix

C), Research Associate at the National Baseball Hall of

Fame & Museum, “the Hall of Fame Rules for Election first appeared in written form for the first time accompanying the ballot for the 1946 election. Character was included.”

When Ty Cobb was elected, at a 98.23% ("Baseball Hall of Fame Members," n.d.), which remains as the 4th highest percentage in Hall of Fame History, there was no Character

Clause. If the sportswriters of the 1930s and 40s would have been as judgmental as they are today, people like Ty 73 Cobb may have never stood a chance ("In The History Books,"

2010).

Joe DiMaggio (Appendix A)

DiMaggio “was more than the most complete all-around player of his generation (The Official Site of Joe

DiMaggio, n.d.).” For his 13-year career with the New York

Yankees, he captivated the city, and the country, with his onfield abilities.

During his career, he put up some astonishing numbers.

Some of his accolades list 9 world championships, 3 MVP awards (1939, 1941 and 1947) and was voted greatest living player in 1969 (The Official Site of Joe DiMaggio, n.d.).

He is also “the only athlete in North American pro sports history to be on four World Championship teams in his first

4 full seasons (The Official Site of Joe DiMaggio, n.d.).”

His most famous achievement, however, is the 56 consecutive game in 1941 ("Consecutive," n.d.).

Off the field, “his connections to the Sicilian Mafia were a matter of New York gossip and speculation (Chafets,

2009, pg. 65).” DiMaggio’s biographer, Richard Ben Cramer

(Appendix C), detailed how “mobster Frank Costello 74 (Appendix C) had set up a ‘trust fund’ at the Bowery Bank

(Madden, 2000)” for him.

Outside of being associated with the mob, DiMaggio was married to Marilyn Monroe (Appendix C) whom he “struck… on occasion, and in the years following their divorce, he stalked her (Madden, 2000).”

“Mobster Joe Adonis (Appendix C)… regularly supplied

DiMaggio with hookers in every American League city

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 65)” that he visited. The writers, of course, never made that public, for if any had, “you’d be finished-washed up with DiMag, probably non grata with the rest of the Yanks-and maybe with the mob too (Chafets,

2009, pg. 65).”

Jimmie Foxx (Appendix A)

& Other Alcoholics

Foxx was a great ballplayer; he was a 3-time AL MVP, in

1932, 1933 & 1938 ("Jimmie Foxx - BR Bullpen," n.d.) and

“is generally considered the best first baseman of all time other than Lou Gehrig ("Jimmie Foxx - BR Bullpen," n.d.).”

Outside of his great achievements on the field of play 75 he “was a degenerate drunk who often went to bat with a flask in his pocket (Chafets, 2009, pg. 61).”

“The roster of Hall of Famers who were also hall of fame-quality boozers is long and distinguished (Chafets,

2009, pg. 61).” One such player, (Appendix A) drank during games (Chafets, 2009, pg. 61) and

(Appendix C) was praised by his manager at the time, Casey

Stengel (Appendix A), for being a graceful baseball player because “he could without breaking the bottle on his hip (Chafets, 2009, pg. 61).”

Rabbit Maranville (Appendix A) was beloved by baseball writers for his drunken antics… (Appendix A)… once drove a small automobile directly down the stairs of a speakeasy as a joke… Manager Joe McCarthy (Appendix C) drank himself out of a job… John McGraw was arrested for assault as a result of a drunken brawl during Prohibition (Chafets, 2009, pg. 62).

Even the baseball writers thought that these antics were a joke, “Chicago columnist Mike Royko once suggested moving (Appendix A)) to first base so that he

‘wouldn’t have so far to stagger to the ’ (Chafets,

2009, pg. 62).”

For a sport based on “high morals and character

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 62)” there seems to be many players in 76 the Hall of Fame that did not live up to the Rule 5

Character Clause because of alcoholism.

“(David) Wells (Appendix A) also admits he was ‘half- drunk' and had a ‘raging, skull-rattling hangover' when he pitched his perfect game against Minnesota in May 1998

("Wells' book," n.d.).” When that was revealed in his book he was fined $100,000 (Curry, 2003) and Commissioner Bud

Selig (Appendix C) said he “did not attempt to discipline

Wells because he was comfortable with the way the Yankees were handling the situation (Curry, 2003).”

Wells concedes that he was “ready to pitch. I certainly wasn't drunk… anyone who knows me understands that I only intended to write the book in the spirit of fun. I am sorry that the book hasn't been taken in that vein (Curry, 2003).”

With the exception of Wells, the aforementioned players received no punishment or fine, even the ones that drank during a game, yet they are in the Hall of Fame.

Rogers Hornsby

“Known as the Rajah, Hornsby was one of the greatest hitters in National League history. His lifetime average, .358, is second only to (Ty) Cobb’s (Chafets, 77 2009, pg. 56).” Similar to Cobb, he was also disliked around baseball. “He brawled with opponents… ignored his own teammates… as a manager… generally hated by his players

(Chafets, 2009, pgs. 56-57).”

Commissioner Judge Landis was just getting over the effects of the Black Sox scandal in 1919 (detailed more under “Shoeless” Joe Jackson) and did not want to associate gambling with baseball anymore (Chafets, 2009, pg. 57).

Hornsby's hobby was racetrack gambling and Landis had to warn him to quit it.

Hornsby has been described by , a baseball writer, historian, and statistician, as “the biggest horse’s ass in baseball history ahead even of Cobb

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 57).”

Chafets mentions that “(Ty) Cobb, (Babe) Ruth… (Tris)

Speaker, and () Alexander were all inducted before the Character Clause was formally instituted. So was Rogers Hornsby (Chafets, 2009, pg. 56).”

Does he mean that in baseball today these iconic figures would not make the Hall of Fame cut because of the

Character Clause? 78 Ferguson Jenkins

Jenkins was a great pitcher in his day. “During his

19-year career Ferguson Jenkins became the only pitcher in major league history to strike out more than 3,000 batters while walking fewer than 1,000 (Bias, 2003).”

While on field he was a player to learn from but off the field he wasn't a role model. He was once charged in

Canada with “possession of four grams of cocaine, two ounces of marijuana and two ounces of hashish (Tucker,

1980).”

Many believe that arrest had delayed Jenkins' induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame, which eventually came in

1991.

He had become the first unanimous inductee into the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame in 1987. Jenkins was eligible for the Cooperstown Hall in 1989, and thought to be a shoe-in by many sports commentators, given his superior record on the mound. Some sports writers charged the lack of votes to a bias against Jenkins for his conviction for drug possession (Walsh, 2005).

Mickey Mantle

Perhaps the most famous baseball boozer of all time,

Mantle was one of the most beloved players in all of New

York Yankee history. Mantle’s life, however, was one of 79 contradictions. “On the field, he reveled in his fans’ adoration, but outside the stadium walls, he was a drunk who was serially unfaithful to his loving wife and an often-absent father to his children (Begos, 2010).”

Just as the New York sportswriters did for Babe Ruth,

“(they) had covered up for (Mantle) for years, attributing his frequent absences to 'injuries' and dismissing his nocturnal antics as good-old-fashioned high spirits

(Chafets, 2009, p. 179).”

Mantle was “tormented by a fear of cancer, which had sent many of the men in his family to an early grave… and was convinced he was going to die young, Mantle lived life hard (Begos, 2010).” After his father developed cancer, the fourth member of his family to do so, “it left Mantle feeling as if the disease was his destiny (Begos, 2010).”

He lived his life expecting to die at an early age,

“when I was drinking, I thought I was funny — the life of the party. But as it turned out, nobody could stand to be around me. I was loud… everything that came out of my mouth was rude and crude (Mantle & Leiber, 1994).” 80 Mantle drank so much and caused such a ruckus, even in his own restaurant/bar, “there were many nights when they had to sneak me out the back door (Mantle & Leiber, 1994).”

His on-field play was superb, “perhaps the most notable, yet rarely discussed of Mantle's achievements, concerns his World Series home run total (18), a number, which, one baseball writer said years ago, will never be surpassed ("Mickey Mantle - BR Bullpen," n.d.”).”

On the road (fellow New York Yankee) (Appendix A) and I were wild men. We drank up a storm and didn't go to bed until we were ready to fall into bed… With Billy and me, drinking was a competitive thing. We'd see who could drink the other under the table (Mantle & Leiber, 1994).

During his career Mantle suffered from multiple injuries, most notably a bad knee suffered in the 1951

World Series. “After I'd had a knee operation, the doctors would give me rehab work to do, but I wouldn't do it. I'd be out drinking (Mantle & Leiber, 1994).”

Doctor Max Jacobson (Appendix C), most notably known as

Doctor Feelgood, (Chafets, 2009, pg. 179) President John F.

Kennedy's (Appendix C) doctor on a few occasions, had injected Mantle with a home made concoction that “could 81 (have) been dangerous; nobody knew exactly what was in it

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 179)” at the time.

Mantle “got a vitamin shot from a quack that used an unsterile needle and almost missed a World Series with a bleeding abscess on his hip (Chafets, 2009, pg. 179).” The needle, if clean, would have kept him in the lineup in those September games in 1961 when Mantle and Maris were both on the verge of Babe Ruth's home run record; Mantle

“might have been the first to break Babe Ruth's 60 in a season-with chemical assistance (Chafets, 2009, pg. 180).”

The concoction, the same injection given to President

Kennedy, was a mixture of “thirty to fifty milligrams of amphetamine mixed with multivitamins, steroids, enzymes, and solubilized placenta, bone marrow and animal organ cells (Chafets, 2009, pg. 179).”

In 1995 Mantle had a liver transplant, but the cancer had spread to other organs and he passed away from what he feared, cancer, later that year. (Appendix C) said during Mantle's eulogy, “Mickey Mantle… finally came to accept and appreciate the distinction between a role model and a hero. The first he often was not. The second 82 he always will be… 'cause God knows no one's perfect

(Costas, n.d.).”

During his career he was not a role model for the fans that looked up to him, instead he was their hero.

He became a role model only a few months before he died when he said, “Please don’t do drugs and alcohol. God only gave us one body, and keep it healthy (Begos, 2010).”

His off field problems are often overlooked during conversation.

In his last season, which was a miserable season, Mickey was cheered the most. The mere mention of his name in visiting ball parks elicited acclamation. He was elected to the Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility, which is not surprising. He was the most exciting player of his era because whenever he stepped into the batters box, fans didn't know if he would hit the longest home run ever hit or if all his tremendous power would merely make the air move violently (Friend, 2008).

Gaylord Perry

Perhaps the most famous Hall of Fame player who will readily admit that he cheated, Perry had “spent most of his career denying that he did anything illegal… (but) finally came clean in a 1974 book (Armour, n.d.).”

“One either cheats or does not. Degrees of cheating exist, which means different penalties for cheating are 83 necessary, but an illegal pitch paved Gaylord Perry’s path to the Hall of Fame (Friend, 2008).”

He was “one of the premier pitchers of his generation, won 314 games and struck out 3,524 batters, but his place in baseball history rests mainly with his notorious use of the spitball, or greaseball… for two decades (Armour, n.d.).” Perry was a good cheater as well. For admitting that he threw pitches with foreign substances on them,

“Perry was caught throwing an illegal pitch only once in his career (Gammons, 1989).”

When the rules committee finally outlawed “a pitcher putting his hand to his mouth anywhere on the pitcher's mound (Armour, n.d.),” Perry had to adopt not only a new way of pitching but also a new way of using a foreign substance.

Perry made headlines when he was warned and then ejected during a game in the 1982 season, “for throwing two allegedly illegal pitches… the first and only time Perry, a

21-year veteran… had been kicked out of a ballgame for his famous pitch (Armour, n.d.).” “He became one of the very 84 few pitchers to be suspended for doctoring the ball

("Biggest cheaters" n.d.).”

“He'd… (touch) his cap or his sleeve, either loading up the ball or trying to convince batters he was doing so…

Perry's catcher… said the ball was sometimes so loaded he couldn't throw it back to the mound ("Biggest cheaters" n.d.).”

Like Cobb did when he played (convinced the infielders on the opposite team that he had sharpened his spikes to intimidate them when he slid into a base), Perry also liked to intimidate the batters that he faced.

Dave Duncan (Appendix A)… Perry's catcher… in 1974… claims Perry threw only one spitter that year. ‘He had a great and just kept up the act [his fidgeting on the mound] to make hitters believe he was loading up the ball… they focused on trying to catch him cheating instead of concentrating on how he was pitching them (Gammons, 1989).

Among the substances admitted to having used on baseballs: K-Y jelly, Vaseline, saliva, fishing-line wax, resin, sweat and dirt (Gammons, 1989).

(Ferguson) Jenkins and (Gaylord) Perry would have been locks for Cooperstown if they had been judged as (Babe) Ruth… simply on the basis of performance. Jenkins and Perry will be eligible again next year. Let's hope the many voters who this year refused to vote for them on 85 moral grounds will include them on their ballots in 1990 (Gammons, 1989).

Together, Jenkins and Perry were inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1991 ("Hall of Famers," n.d.).

Kirby Puckett (Appendix A)

Quite possibly the greatest player to ever play for the

Minnesota Twins and one of the most feared hitters of his generation, Puckett “led the… Twins to two World Series titles before his career was cut short by glaucoma ("Kirby

Puckett dies," 2006).”

Puckett wasn't only grateful to his fans; he had founded charitable organizations, but also to the media.

“When you talked to Kirby… he knew your name and what you said to him the last time you met. He cared what you thought too. Not a lot of superstars are like that

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 66-67).”

“He was given the Award and the Roberto

Clemente Man of the Year Award — both for service to the community — and inducted into the World Sports Humanitarian

Hall of Fame (Deford, 2003).” Puckett was so beloved that

“when a local magazine listed ‘The 100 Best Things about the Twin Cities,’ Puckett was the top-rated citizen, ranked 86 fifth overall, just ahead of the Mississippi River and

Betty Crocker (Deford, 2003) (Appendix C).”

Post retirement, however, Puckett led a life of disarray. He became the attention of “reporters whose beat includes the police blotter (Chafets, 2009, pg. 66).”

Being retired

meant being able to spend more time with his mistress of many years, who nobody seems to have known existed, because Kirby was, of course, an ideal family man—even though, truth be told, he wasn't even an ideal scoundrel, because he also had cheated on his mistress of many years with a passel of other sad and lonely women… She was so shocked at his perfidy, the mistress of many years, that she began to seek comfort in commiseration with the wife (Deford, 2003).

Puckett’s mistress of many years claimed that he tested the limit of his status in the community and wanted to see what antics he could get away with.

He started to become full of himself and very abusive… began to perform lewd acts in public, such as going to a fancy shopping center, parking there, then opening his car door and stepping out and peeing in plain view of other people (Deford, 2003).

His mistress also ended up obtaining “a temporary restraining order against him after he threatened her

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 66).” 87 Things got to be so bad that he was charged with “false imprisonment, a felony; fifth-degree criminal sexual conduct, a gross misdemeanor; and fifth-degree assault, a misdemeanor ("Puckett Denies," 2003)” after being accused of forcing a woman “into a men's room stall and grabbed her breast, causing bruises on her breast, arm and ankle

("Puckett Denies," 2003).” He was cleared of all charges on April 4, 2003 ("Puckett Is Cleared," 2003).

Unfortunately, this was not the only accusation of sexual harassment brought against Puckett. “Shortly before

(he) was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in January

2001, a female employee of the Twins threatened to file a sexual harassment suit against the team because of

Puckett’s… behavior ("The Other Kirby," 2003).”

Puckett’s ex-wife told Sports Illustrated that

he had also tried to strangle her with an electrical cord, locked her in the basement and used a power saw to cut through a door after she had locked herself in a room. Once, she said, he even put a cocked gun to her head while she was holding their young daughter ("The Other Kirby," 2003).

When the time was approaching for him to be on the Hall of Fame ballot, some of the “Twins' front office were aware 88 of Puckett's transgressions, which if exposed would surely jeopardize his chances for induction (Deford, 2003).”

He even went so far as to ask his mistress to hold off on filing for a paternity test to see if her son was his

(the first test proved negative but she was attempting to bribe him into helping support her son) until after his induction to the Hall of Fame, (Deford, 2003) and she obliged.

Puckett, and the Twins organization, were very much aware that he was not conducting himself with the integrity standard set forth in the Character Clause. They all feared that if word leaked that he was this bad of a person off of the baseball field he would not be elected to the

Hall of Fame.

“Kirby Puckett was already in the Hall of Fame when the story of his secret life hit, and it is lucky for him that

Cooperstown has no mechanism for removing and remortalizing its members (Chafets, 2009, pg. 68).” 89 Babe Ruth

Babe Ruth never took steroids or any performance enhancing drugs, nor did he ever bet on a baseball game that he played in. For all of the great feats that The

Babe did on the baseball field he is looked upon as the

“greatest role model in baseball history (Chafets, 2009, pg. 53).”

On the baseball diamond he played like a beast; he was

the first to reach 30 homers, 40, 50, 60. Twelve times he led the American League in homers; 11 times he hit more than 40, four times more than 50. From 1920-33, he slugged 637 homers, an average of 45.5 per season. From 1926-31, from ages 31 to 36 when he was supposedly past his prime after a sub par 1925, he averaged 50 homers, 155 RBI, 147 runs and a .354 batting average (Schwartz, "Lovable Ruth" n.d.).

Many of the younger fans of the game do not realize that he was also a pitcher in his early days. “His record of 29 and two-thirds innings of shutout pitching in World

Series play is ridiculous… Ruth still has a 3-0 record with a .87 ERA in 31 World Series innings (Abdalla, 2010, No. 2:

World Series shutouts).” “His ERA still ranks third all- time for career series statistics ("Babe Ruth" n.d.).”

Off of the baseball diamond Ruth “was far from a saint”

(Stanton, n.d.); He had a litany of “PR men whose job it 90 was to keep Ruth's less-virtuous acts out of the newspaper…

Some scribes even took part in Ruth's orgies, joined his wild and, during Prohibition, illegal pub crawls (Chafets,

2009, pg. 53).”

“When the public somehow did learn about Babe Ruth’s whoring… these lapses were spun by reporters as harmless

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 58).”

The Babe was not a man known for restraint or any romantic notions about fair play. I'm pretty sure there were no steroids for Ruth to take. But my question is: If we found out that he did, would that change the way baseball fans everywhere view Babe Ruth's career? Would everyone say: Well, NO WONDER he put up those ridiculous numbers? I mean the guy hit more home runs than ENTIRE TEAMS for crying out loud. We should have known (Posnanski, "The 10 greatest hitters ever," 2009).

Not to take away from any of the great acts that he performed off of the field, “he visited sick kids in the hospital… handed out autographs to waifs outside the ballpark… cautioned little children to stay in school and obey their parents and teachers (Chafets, 2009, pg. 53).”

All of these good deeds made the newspapers.

The public was aware that Ruth was a bad boy both on and off the field, however. In 1923, he was caught using a corked bat (Chafets, 2009, pg. 54); since 1987 four players 91 have been caught with a corked bat and their suspensions were eight games, seven games twice and 10 days

("Unsplendid splinter," 2003). Ruth was suspended… ”for seven weeks… in 1922 for going on an illegal barnstorming tour after the previous World Series (Chafets, 2009, pg.

54).”

“Ruth also was absent multiple games, citing a bellyache, which his pals the beat writers knew perfectly well were alcohol-related (Chafets, 2009, pg. 54).”

In May of 1922, he threw dirt in an umpire's eyes, took off after a heckler in the stands, and when the crowd booed him, he stood on the dugout roof shaking his fist and yelling, You're all yellow! Once again he was suspended. In September he had another run-in with a fan, and was suspended again ("Babe Ruth Facts" n.d.).

While married, he also “entertained groups of naked women in his hotel room (James, 1995, pg. 357).”

New York Mayor James J. Walker (Appendix C), in 1922, decided to host a public and highly humiliating intervention (Chafets, 2009, pg. 54) for Ruth as his behavior was becoming highly erratic. In his speech he said:

Babe Ruth is not only a great athlete, but also a great fool. His employer, Col. (Appendix C), makes millions of gallons of beer, and Ruth is of the 92 opinion that he can drink it faster than the Colonel and his large corps of brew masters can make it…

You are making a bigger salary than anyone ever received as a ballplayer. But the bigger the salary, the bigger the fool you have become. Here sit some forty sportswriters and big officials of baseball… These men, your friends… You have let them down.

But worst of all, you have let down the kids of America… You carouse and abuse your great body (Chafets, 2009, pg. 54-55).

Ironically, that same evening, Ruth got served with a paternity suit filed by a nineteen-year old (Chafets, 2009, pg. 55).

Not all of our heroes were, or are, saints. Everyone has blemishes. Bill Veeck called Babe Ruth

A swashbuckling hero. A man of gigantic appetites: he ate more, drank more, chased more girls… caught more too. A fellow of infinite capacity to rise to an occasion… built up not only a baseball team but a stadium and maybe is responsible for the popularity of baseball today (Veeck, 2003).

The acts that Ruth performed off the field would today be perceived in a negative way by the media. Ruth's off field infidelities are comparable to ' (Appendix

C) infidelities.

Mentioned above, Babe Ruth paid the journalists to keep his personal affairs secret. In the 1920's there was no 93 Internet, no cell phones or texting, and no television, let alone cable television. Unless a fan was out at the bar, worked at a hotel Babe visited, or was in the same vicinity as Ruth, they would have not known anything about what he was doing, which could by why there were no negative public opinions of him.

The fallout from Woods' sex scandal has been immense, and proves that not all media covers up stories. “He already has had three sponsors drop him… while other companies… have suspended promotions of Woods (Ferguson,

2010).”

In another case of the media causing a ruckus,

Mariners superstar Ken Griffey Jr. was the subject of recent embarrassment by a reporter and the team did not take kindly to it. Opposite of the media covering for Ruth or Joe DiMaggio for fear of being blacklisted from the

Yankees clubhouse, this reporter spilled the beans on

Griffey, which had the feared effect of what the rest of the team would do.

The original story said, “The… News Tribune report cited two 'younger players' on the Mariners that said he 94 was sleeping in the clubhouse during a game last week

(" blackball," 2010),” however the team insists that was untrue.

One day after a report in the Tacoma News Tribune that Mariners outfielder Ken Griffey Jr. was unavailable to pinch hit in a recent game because he was sleeping in the clubhouse, the team gave the silent treatment to the reporter responsible for the article…

After the Mariners' win over the Baltimore Orioles on Tuesday, pitcher started to address the media before stopping and saying he couldn't go on until the News Tribune's (reporter) left the room.

Other members of the team followed Lee's lead at their lockers, according to multiple reports ("Seattle Mariners blackball," 2010).

Today, some journalists do what they can to denounce superstars and make a name for themselves, no matter the consequences for them or the publication they write for.

Not to compare baseball and golf, but defining the impact that these two players (Ruth and Woods) have had in their respective sports, golfer (Appendix C) said that Tiger Woods was the “Greatest Player Ever… he'll probably wind up as that (Reilly, 2009)” whereas Babe is considered as the greatest baseball player ever (Sexton,

2005) in some circles. 95 2. Who in Major League Baseball History is Considered a

Scandalous Player

B) Not in the Hall of Fame

The Bossard Family (Appendix C)

Cheating also entails altering the field, which falls under the category of the groundskeeper. The Bossard family, who, from the -present, have served as groundskeepers for the Cleveland Indians and the Chicago

White Sox ("Biggest cheaters in baseball," #7), were notorious for these shenanigans. While they are not in the

Hall of Fame, their actions had direct impact on Hall of

Fame players.

When the Indians moved (Appendix A) to first base, where he had never played, Bossard and his staff softened the ground… to slow any balls hit to him… by the mid-1950’s (the field) was as hard as concrete unless a was scheduled to start… when suddenly it would soften up again to deaden balls beaten into the dirt (Zumsteg, 2007, p. 18).

The Bossard’s even took the Yankees out of their comfort zone when they visited. “The most famous Yankee,

Babe Ruth, yelled (at the Bossard’s)… (they) turned right field into a swamp and messed with the batter’s box so Ruth couldn’t get set (Zumsteg, 2007, p. 19).” 96 Hall of Fame manager for the Indians,

(Appendix A), said, “I wouldn’t be surprised if he

(Bossard) helped us win as many as ten games a year

(Zumsteg, 2007, p. 19).”

For reference, in 1948 the Indians won the American

League by one game over the and were 2.5 games over the Yankees, on the way to winning the 1948

World Series ("1948 American League Season Summary," n.d.).

Drug/Cocaine Scandals

Many of the players involved in the Drug Scandals in baseball are not Hall of Fame worthy. The necessity in touching upon the topic of drug use, however, is to show how it ruined careers of players that started out with Hall of Fame potential.

Seeing as there were so many players involved in the cocaine problem, it was easier to group them together in this section rather than separate them.

I guess cocaine is for the birds… the Pittsburgh

Pirates mascot, that is.

The bird became embroiled in baseball's cocaine scandal of 1985 when it was revealed before a grand jury in Pittsburgh that he'd introduced assorted members of the Pirates to a local drug peddler and had even 97 distributed a little Peruvian coco powder himself (“Baseball’s All-Scandal Team,” n.d.).

The list of players that were involved in the cocaine scandal is endless. “Four , including a former American League batting champion (

(Appendix A)) and a once sensational pitcher (

(Appendix A)), were sent to prison for cocaine use and other players were implicated but not prosecuted (Magnuson,

2001),” for example.

Cocaine was so rampant in baseball that Keith Hernandez

(Appendix A), the 1979 NL Most Valuable Player, admitted

“he believed that approximately 40% of players in the big leagues were using coke as well (Ray, 2008).”

Hernandez said that he used “‘massive’ amounts (of cocaine) starting in 1980 after he and his wife separated… there was a ‘love affair’ between baseball players and cocaine in 1980 (Magnuson, 2001).”

Steve Howe (Appendix A), who won the Rookie of the Year award in 1980, “fought a long, hard battle with cocaine that included seven suspensions… in 1992 (he) became the second player ever to be banned for life due to (“Baseball’s All-Scandal Team,” n.d.).” 98 LaMarr Hoyt (Appendix A), former pitcher for the San

Diego Padres, was “arrested… and charged with possession with intent to distribute cocaine and marijuana ("Hoyt

Arrested," 1987).” His career started out as a promising one; in 1982 he won a league high 19 games, and in 1983 he won the Cy Young Award (“La Marr Hoyt - BR Bullpen,” n.d.), but “he violated probation by testing positive for cocaine use… Baseball Commissioner (Appendix C) suspended Hoyt for the 1987 season because of the… drug abuse, but the suspension was reduced to 60 days ("Hoyt

Arrested," 1987).”

While there are more players that were involved in the cocaine scandal of the 1980’s (it is unconfirmed how many other mascots were involved as well), Darryl Strawberry

(Appendix A) and Dwight “Doc” Gooden (Appendix A) both had the most promising careers of anyone associated.

First up, Darryl Strawberry. The career leader in home runs and RBIs ("Darryl Strawberry concerned," 2010) was “heralded as a can't-miss superstar upon his 1983 arrival in the bigs, (his career) was pockmarked by constant conflicts with teammates, drug 99 suspensions, rehabs, arrests, jail time, a paternity suit and accusations of spousal abuse and tax evasion

(“Baseball’s All-Scandal Team,” n.d.).”

Strawberry admitted that not only did he have sex and receive oral sex during baseball games but his teammates did as well (Emen, 2009). Somehow, this lacks character and integrity.

In 2002 he was sentenced for “violating his probation on a 1999 conviction on drug and solicitation of prostitution charges ("Strawberry Sentenced," 2002).”

According to a chronological timeline of Strawberry’s misdeeds, outside of the drug world, some of them included

("Darryl Strawberry Chronology," n.d.):

• In 1987 his wife files a petition for legal separation in Los Angeles. She accuses him of breaking her nose after a game in October 1986, • In 1990 he was arrested for alleged assault with a deadly weapon during an argument with his wife, • In 1993 he was arrested for allegedly striking Charisse Simons (Appendix C), the 26-year-old woman he lived with, • In March of 1994 he was investigated by the IRS and U.S. Attorney's Office for allegedly failing to file tax returns for in excess of $300,000 of income, • December of 1994, he and his agent Eric Goldschmidt (Appendix C) were indicted on federal tax evasion charges alleging that Strawberry failed to report more than $500,000 in income earned from 1986 through 1990 and 100 • In 1999 he was charged with possession of cocaine and soliciting a prostitute. According to police, Strawberry allegedly solicited an undercover officer for sex for $50. Upon being searched, 0.3 grams of powder cocaine was found inside of his wallet. ("Darryl Strawberry Chronology," n.d.)

Tampa psychologist Sidney Marin (Appendix C) claimed that some of his negative actions “doesn't make him an immoral individual (Chachere, 2001)," because he had suffered brain damage from all of the drug use.

The expectation among fans during the first half of his career because of his play was that he would get into the

Hall of Fame ("Darryl Strawberry - BR Bullpen," n.d.).

“Strawberry was a near-lock for the Hall of Fame

(Gregory, 2009),” Time Magazine once wrote. The reporter and Strawberry sat down for an interview and one of the questions was about his drug use hindering Hall of Fame consideration, even though his statistics were consistent with other Hall of Fame players. Realizing that the use of drugs ruined his promising career, Strawberry admitted, “I use a line from Mickey Mantle all the time. ‘If I would have known I was this good, I would have taken better care of myself’ (Gregory, 2009).” 101 Dwight Gooden showed a lot of promise when he entered the Major Leagues. In his rookie year he went 17-9 with a

2.60 ERA and had a league high 276 strikeouts to win the

Rookie of the Year award, which is generally won by non- pitchers, and finished second in the Cy Young voting

("Dwight Gooden," n.d.). His second season was even more spectacular; he won a league high 24 games, losing only 4, had a 1.53 ERA, 16 complete games, led the league in strikeouts again and capped the season off with the pitchers triple crown, Cy Young Award and finished fourth in the MVP voting ("Dwight Gooden," n.d.).

After those two remarkable seasons his career started to go south. During the next fourteen seasons he started racking up numerous “suspensions, rehab stints, jail time and arrests for everything from fighting with cops to DUI to punching his girlfriend ("Baseball's All-Scandal

Team").” He also failed a cocaine test in 1987

("Baseball's All-Scandal Team").

On March 24, 2010, he was charged with “driving under the influence of drugs, endangering the welfare of a child, 102 leaving the scene, reckless driving and DWI with a child passenger (Sandoval & McShane, 2010).”

Both he and Darryl Strawberry were inducted into the

New York Mets Hall of Fame on August 1, 2010 (Harper,

2010). It seems as though with their drug filled background that this is the only Hall of Fame that they will be enshrined in as their promising careers were ruined by the use of cocaine.

In researching the drug incidents that are keeping players out of the Hall of Fame, ESPN.com had transcripts of e-mails between Jayson Stark and (Appendix

C), two of the most prolific baseball journalists ever, regarding Tim Raines (Appendix A).

In 1982, Raines admitted using cocaine “before, after and even during games and said that he would slide head first because he had bags of cocaine in his pocket that might fall out if he slid feet first (Friend, 2007).”

Raines, along with current Hall of Famer

(Appendix A), “towered over the leadoff hitters of their generation (Stark & Gammons, 2007).” Stark argues,

he finished in the top five in steals nine times, in the top five in on-base percentage six times and in the 103 top five in most times reaching base six times. He finished first or second in runs scored four times. He finished in the top three in three batting races… I have no doubt that if he was a member of the 3,000-hit club, he'd cruise on into Cooperstown (he finished his career being 395 hits away and during his career Major League Baseball was notorious for not playing complete seasons)… every eligible player who reached base as many times as Raines did, and had as high an on-base percentage as he had, is in the Hall of Fame (Stark & Gammons, 2007).

Clearly, Tim Raines has put up the statistics that are worthy of being inducted into the Hall of Fame. As of 2010 he has two remaining years left on his ballot eligibility and it is unclear if the voters are keeping him out because of the drug problems or his lack of career statistics.

“Dave Parker is a player whose hitting credentials seem to make him a strong Hall of Fame candidate ("Dave Parker -

BR Bullpen," n.d.)” but he was involved in a drug scandal during his career, which has probably diminished his vote.

Parker was sued in Federal court by the Pirates, who were irked by the fact that they were on the hook for $5.3 million at a time when the slugger was proving that cocaine was not exactly a performance-enhancing drug. (His production had tailed off and he'd become bloated and prone to injury.) ("Baseball's All-Scandal Team").

Baseball-Reference.com lists Orlando Cepeda (Appendix

A) as a similar player to Parker. “Orlando Cepeda also had 104 drug problems, but eventually ended up in the Hall of Fame

("Dave Parker - BR Bullpen," n.d.).”

Cepeda was charged during a traffic stop after the police found

marijuana in addition to a ‘usable’ amount of a white powder substance, believed to be methamphetamine or cocaine, and a syringe… He was arrested on suspicion of felony possession of a controlled substance, possession of a hypodermic needle or syringe and possession of marijuana, both misdemeanors ("Baseball Star Orlando" 2007).

After not being charged with driving under the influence of drugs, “His attorney said that the baseball star doesn’t use drugs and that the marijuana found in the car was medical marijuana used by a family member for diabetes ("Baseball Star Orlando" 2007).”

In 1975, Cepeda was “arrested at San Juan airport after trying to pick up more than 150 pounds of marijuana… He served 10 months in a state prison ("Orlando Cepeda - BR

Bullpen," n.d.).”

Cepeda was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in

1999, 14 years after being arrested for the possession of

150 pounds of marijuana. Dave Parker is still waiting to be inducted to the Baseball Hall of Fame. 105 Steve Garvey (Appendix A)

Garvey was once considered a “shoo-in” (Chafets, 2009, pg. 68) for the Hall of Fame. “In my first year of eligibility the Dodgers were so sure I’d get in that they were going to hold a luncheon (Chafets, 2009, pg. 69),” he once said in an interview at Cooperstown.

That year he only received 40% of the vote, falling 35% short of the necessary 75% to be inducted.

His career is similar to many current Hall of Fame players; “he was the National League’s Most Valuable player… he won the (awards for)… combining good play and ability and the award that best exemplifies character and integrity (Chafets, 2009, pg. 69).” In 1986, The Sporting

News asked major-league managers, “Which players in your league… have accomplished enough to merit selection to the

Hall of Fame (Chafets, 2009, pg. 68)?” Garvey was on that list.

His image was a respectable one around the baseball community. “If there had been a Hall of Fame for people who looked like they belong in a Hall of Fame… (he) would have been a first ballot choice (Chafets, 2009, pg. 70).” 106 During the 1985 cocaine scandal Garvey pushed for a

“one-strike-and-you’re-out policy (Chafets, 2009, pg. 69).”

He said that he was most concerned with “influencing the next generation of fans. If we allow players to take drugs and then come back what does that tell the kids (Chafets,

2009, pg. 69)?”

Unfortunately, while Garvey may have been an ideal role model on the field of play, off the field he had his vices.

“He got hit with two paternity suits with two different women who weren’t his wife (Chafets, 2009, pg. 70).”

In violation of a court ruling, Garvey unilaterally decided to cut in half the amount of child support he was ordered to pay for a son he had out of wedlock… a judge threatened to jail Garvey if he failed to make payments in the future (Glover, Lait, Hiserman, & Henson, 2006).

“Records show that the Garvey’s have made a habit of dodging payments on almost every type of expense. Phone, gas and electric bills have been delinquent. Checks to the local supermarket have bounced (Glover, Lait, Hiserman, &

Henson, 2006).” It is not uncommon for retired athletes to go broke, even bankrupt. “He blamed his debt on a combination of… financial support for most of his nine children and stepchildren and costly legal battles over 107 business and personal affairs (Glover, Lait, Hiserman, &

Henson, 2006).”

Even the “pediatrician wrote a letter in March 2003 stating that any future medical services provided to their children would be on a ‘cash-only’ basis (Glover, Lait,

Hiserman, & Henson, 2006).”

While he was struggling to make payments to creditors and others that he owed money to,

Garvey and his wife lived in a $5-million mansion overlooking Utah's world-renowned ski resorts… 14,000- square-foot home… The estate came with its own name: The Boulders. It had a commanding view of the Deer Valley ski resort. The Garvey’s frequented the Stein Eriksen Lodge and drove luxury SUVs -- a Lexus and a Land Rover. Their staff included a nanny, a groundskeeper, a handyman and Bilbrey, who served as a personal assistant to Steve (Glover, Lait, Hiserman, & Henson, 2006).

On top of owing money to creditors “he owed $937,000 in back taxes, penalties and interest… he owed $10,000 to his ex-wife Cyndy, $40,000 to his current wife's parents, and another $40,000 to his former accountant (Glover, Lait,

Hiserman, & Henson, 2006).”

To this day Steve Garvey still has not been elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. "Garvey understands that in the ever-changing world we live in there is a great necessity 108 of being a man of honor, integrity and quality (The

Official Website of Steve Garvey, n.d.)." The honor and integrity he promotes as a motivational speaker.

Shoeless Joe Jackson (Appendix A)

Joe Jackson, who received his nickname Shoeless when he played a minor league game in his stockings because a “new pair of spikes had given him blisters on his feet the previous day ("Fast Facts," n.d.),” was one of the best hitters to ever play baseball. He holds the third best career batting average at .3558 ("Career Leaders & Records for Batting Average," n.d.) and the highest ever for a rookie with .408 ("Career Highlights," n.d.).

Coming into the prime of his career Jackson batted .395 and led the American League with 26 triples in 1912, a feat he would accomplish again in 1916 and 1920 ("Career

Highlights," n.d.). The next year Jackson “led the league with 197 hits and .551 slugging average ("Career

Highlights," n.d.).”

His career numbers are similar, if not better, to those of Hall of Fame players (Appendix A), Earle

Combs (Appendix A), and (Appendix A) ("Shoeless 109 Joe Jackson," n.d.) yet Jackson's plaque is nowhere to be found in the Baseball Hall of Fame. “Jackson received at least three write-in votes for the Hall of Fame in the

1930s and 1940s, but after a while those voters just stopped writing his name down ("Joe Jackson Facts," n.d.).”

What could possibly be keeping one of the greatest baseball players out of the Hall of Fame? In 1919, Jackson was involved with what is called the Black Sox Scandal, derived from when he and seven Chicago White Sox teammates, conspired to fix the outcome of the 1919 World Series against the Cincinnati Reds ("Sporting News: Baseball," n.d.). Those eight players became forever known as the

“'Black Sox' ("Sporting News: Baseball," n.d.).”

“The highly favored White Sox suddenly became underdogs

-- aroused curiosity, as did swirling rumors that something might be amiss in certain players' on-field effort

("Sporting News: Baseball," n.d.).” The series, ended up lasting eight games “because of an intense postwar interest in the Series, baseball's bigwigs decided to make the 1919

World Series a best-of-nine affair ("Sporting News:

Baseball," n.d.).” 110 Throughout the 1919 regular season Jackson hit for an average of .351 ("Statistics," n.d.), but during the series he played even batter and batted .375 with perfect fielding

("Career Highlights," n.d.).

The Black Sox weren’t trying to get swept, after all, just lose the series; Jackson batted .545 in their three victories but .286 in the five losses, .267 in the first four defeats. The decisive Game 8, (was when) Jackson did most of his damage ("BASEBALL: Shoeless" 2000).

As far as Jackson was concerned, he was to receive a payment of $20,000, but instead received only $5,000

(Investigation, 1920) for not winning the World Series.

On September 7, 1920 a Cook County Grand Jury was originally convened to investigate the “possible fixing of a Chicago Cubs' game a week earlier (Swaine, n.d.)” but instead the focus shifted to the 1919 World Series.

Two players, (Appendix A) and Shoeless

Joe Jackson, confessed their participation in the scheme to the Chicago grand jury on September 28, 1920,

(Investigation, 1920) however, prior to the trial, key evidence went missing from the Cook County Courthouse including the signed confessions of Cicotte and Jackson. 111 As there was no evidence, the players subsequently recanted their confessions (Asinof, 1987, pg. 289-291.).

In 1921 A Chicago jury acquitted both from helping to fix the 1919 World Series. Kenesaw Mountain Landis, the first commissioner of Baseball, went against the ruling and banned all eight players, including Joe Jackson, from baseball for life;

regardless of the verdict of juries, no player that throws a ballgame; no player that undertakes or promises to throw a ballgame; no player that sits in a conference with a bunch of crooked players and gamblers where the ways and means of throwing games are planned and discussed and does not promptly tell his club about it, will ever play professional baseball ("This Day In Sports," 2010).

As it is highlighted in more detail in the section with

Pete Rose, there was a clause enacted in 1990 by the Hall of Fame added to its eligibility rules stating that players who were on Baseball's ineligible list could not be considered as candidates (Lahman, n.d.). While Jackson was

“eligible” for the Hall of Fame for 69 years (1921-1990) he was banned from baseball for life which could be reason why he was never elected prior to the 1990 rule. 112 Denny McLain (Appendix A)

McLain is not considered a Hall of Fame player, although he is two-time Cy Young-winner, and the last pitcher to win 30 games in a season (“Baseball’s All-

Scandal Team,” n.d.). Diving into his shopping list of illegal and immoral actions is relevant in comparing what

Hall of Fame players have done as it is unsure how many other players he had an influence over.

His rap sheet is one that cannot go unnoticed in the world of baseball scandals.

(McLain) was suspended three times in 1970 for consorting with reputed gamblers with mob ties, dumping water on sportswriters, and packing heat on a team flight. After injuries derailed his career, McLain got 23 years in prison for racketeering, extortion, conspiracy, and cocaine possession. His 1985 sentence was overturned two years later and he plea bargained his freedom, but returned to the big house in 1996 for six years on an embezzlement rap (“Baseball’s All- Scandal Team,” n.d.).

Pete Rose

“The most famous exclusion from the Hall of Fame is, of course, Pete Rose (Chafets, 2009, pg. 95).” In 1963 he was awarded the Jackie Robinson Award ("Pete Rose Statistics," n.d.), awarded to the Rookie of the Year. In 1969 he won the ("Pete Rose Statistics," n.d.) which is 113 “given to the Major League ballplayer that best exemplifies the fighting spirit and competitive desire ("Hutch Award," n.d.),” and in 1976 he won the , given “to recognize a player who combines outstanding skills on the field with devoted work in the community

("Roberto Clemente Man" n.d.).”

Rose is the career leader in hits (4,256), singles (3,215), at-bats (14,053) and games played (3,562). He is second all-time in doubles, fourth in runs, and collected at least 100 hits in his first 23 seasons, a record. He had more than 200 hits in a season 10 times, also a record, led the league in hits in seven seasons… He is the only player to play 500 games at five different positions and was named the Player of the Decade for the 1970s (Wolpin, n.d.).

Nicknamed “Charlie Hustle” because “of his seemingly boundless enthusiasm (Wolpin, n.d.),” Rose was voted onto the Baseball All-Century Team ("ESPN.com: MLB," 1999) in

1999 by the fans.

When Major League Baseball partnered with DHL Shipping in 2006 for The Hometown Heroes program, Rose was selected for the Cincinnati Reds by the fans as the “all-time greatest player (, 2006),” “from baseball's oldest professional franchise.” (Sheldon, 2006) The contest was

a widespread effort to celebrate a player -- either past or present -- from each of the active clubs whose 114 combination of on-field contributions, character and leadership make him stand out from the rest. Fans were given a list of five nominees for each club (Newman, 2006).

Pete Rose, evidently, is considered one of the greatest baseball players to play the game; however, it is unfortunate that he may never be elected to the Hall of

Fame. It's understood that his gambling addiction is responsible for his being banished from baseball, which is reason he needed to receive special permission from Major

League Baseball to take part in the All-Century Team ceremony (Rulon, 2007).

February 21, 1989 was the beginning of the end of

Charlie Hustle's baseball career. “Rose (left) spring training… to meet with Baseball Commissioner Peter

Ueberroth and other league officials, including (National

League president, Bart) Giamatti, in New York. The topic of the meeting: Rose's gambling habits ("Pete Rose timeline,"

2004).”

The case against Pete Rose was

Baseball started an investigation… into allegations that Rose had been betting on sports, including baseball. These allegations came from one of Rose's friends, Paul Janszen (Appendix C), and bookie Ron Peters (Appendix C)… Both offered documentary 115 evidence of Rose's betting to support their claims. Former federal prosecutor John Dowd (Appendix C) was hired to conduct an investigation.

Dowd uncovered… evidence which indicated Rose had used other "runners" besides Janszen to place his bets… Rose had placed bets with other bookies, including several with ties to organized crime. Dowd also discovered evidence of hundreds of mysterious financial transactions between Rose and these bookies.

Perhaps most damning was the testimony of Rose himself, given during two days of deposition in February 1989. He admitted gambling on college and pro and NFL games, and described a system where he would have runners place the bets for him, to protect his privacy (Lahman, n.d.).

In late August of 1989, after a six-month investigation of his gambling by Dowd, Rose agreed to

Be placed on the list of people who were 'permanently ineligible'. Like others on the list, he would be allowed to apply for reinstatement after one year. Major League Baseball agreed that there would be no ruling as to whether or not Rose bet on baseball (Lahman, n.d.).

In February 1990, Rose, “pleaded guilty to two felony counts of filing false income tax returns ("Pete Rose timeline," 2004)” and in July was sentenced to “five months' imprisonment, one year of supervised release… 1,000 hours of community service and continued psychiatric treatment for Rose's admitted gambling addiction. Rose was also fined $50,100 (Lieber & Wulf, 1990).” 116 A month after Rose was released from prison in January

1991 the “12 members of the board of directors of the Hall of Fame vote unanimously to bar Rose from the ballot ("Pete

Rose timeline," 2004).” After the banishment, the only way that he would be considered eligible for reinstatement would be through the commissioner’s office.

He had applied for reinstatement in September 1999 but there has been no verdict as of yet from the commissioners office ("Sources: Pete Rose," 2009).

Baseball Rule “21 (d) BETTING ON BALL GAMES” specifically states,

Any player, umpire, or club official or employee, who shall bet any sum whatsoever upon any baseball game in connection with which the bettor has no duty to perform shall be declared ineligible for one year.

Any player, umpire, or club or league official or employee, who shall bet any sum whatsoever upon any baseball game in connection with which the bettor has a duty to perform shall be declared permanently ineligible ("Major League Rule 21," n.d.).

For many years Rose has adamantly said he never bet on his own team, although In his autobiography, My Prison

Without Bars, “admits for the first time publicly that he placed bets with bookies on Cincinnati Reds games as often 117 as five times a week while managing the team in 1987

("Rose: I bet on baseball," 2004).” He verified that claim in an interview with Commissioner in 2002 when he was asked if he had ever bet on baseball; his response,

"Yes sir, I did bet on baseball… Four or five times a week. But I never bet against my own team, and I never made any bets from the clubhouse ("Rose: I bet on baseball,"

2004).”

However, a few years later, in 2007, he came forward with this statement, "I bet on my team every night. I didn't bet on my team four nights a week. I was wrong

("Rose admits," 2007)."

"I really thought I was going to be reinstated.

Something changed [Selig's] mind ("Rose admits," 2007),"

Rose says.

Many believe that his decision to finally come clean was to preserve his time on the Hall of Fame ballot, but others believe that

The Hall of Fame (in 1990) added a clause to its eligibility rules stating that players who were on Baseball's ineligible list could not be considered as candidates. Critics argued that this action was taken to specifically keep Rose out of the Hall of Fame. Supporters argue that this was just a clarification, 118 formally acknowledging what had been an unwritten rule since the Hall of Fame's inception (Lahman, n.d.).

Rose says he believes he should be reinstated because he understands now that he made a mistake. "If I had been an alcoholic or a drug addict, baseball would have suspended me for six weeks and paid for my rehabilitation… baseball had no fancy rehab for gamblers like they do for drug addicts ("Rose: I bet on baseball," 2004).”

Nobody knows why Rose has not been reinstated as of yet, or if he will ever be, although “Selig was angered both that Rose came clean… on the same day the Hall of Fame released the 2004 vote, overshadowing the election of Paul

Molitor and (Rogers, 2009).”

If Selig does reinstate him,

Rose then would become eligible for the Hall of Fame, but on the Veterans Committee ballot, as his 15 years on the Baseball Writers ballot expired during his time on the ineligible list. He would thus have to be elected by his peers, the 65 living members in the Hall of Fame (Madden, "MLB commissioner," 2009).

One of the frequently asked questions about Pete Rose from the Baseball Archive website is

16) Do Rose's stats warrant his election to the Hall of Fame?… there is some dispute as to how great he was… at one end of the spectrum are a small group of fans who argue that he is the greatest hitter in baseball 119 history… the other end is a… group who believes that he was overrated and that his records are due more to longevity than skill (Lahman, n.d.).

Many current Hall of Fame players have different reactions to Rose being eligible for the Hall of Fame; “not all of whom agree with (Hank) Aaron, (Joe) Morgan and

(Frank) Robinson (Appendix A) that Rose has done his time.

“Thanks to the behind-the-scenes lobbying from some of the most influential Hall of Famers, Commissioner Bud Selig is said to be seriously considering lifting Pete Rose's lifetime suspension from baseball (Madden, "MLB commissioner," 2009).”

Pete rose said,

If you're gonna put these guys that supposedly did steroids into the Hall of Fame, I mean I gotta get a shot somewhere… I've been suspended 18 years for betting on my own team to win… I was wrong… but these guys today, if the allegations are true, they're making a mockery of the game (Rulon, 2007).

“It's hard to say if he would get the necessary 75% for election… there are still guys who feel strongly against him (Madden, "MLB commissioner," 2009).”

Even if Rose is reinstated and eligible for the Hall of

Fame, his jail time in 1990 for tax evasion (Brioso & 120 Barzila, 2004) certainly does not help the integrity aspect of the Character Clause either.

Amphetamine/Steroid Era

Amphetamines

Outside of the steroid problem, it is important to first talk about the amphetamine problem that has plagued baseball as well.

“Steroids and baseball. The two seemed to be inextricably jointed at the hip. Whenever one is mentioned, the other is sure to be brought up… Before there were steroids in the game… there were amphetamines (Emen,

2007).”

First, what are amphetamines?

Also known as “greenies (Emen, 2007),” they were the first performance enhancing drug floating around baseball clubhouses. MLB Commissioner Bud Selig says that they have been around in baseball for "seven or eight decades (Emen,

2007).”

Former baseball player (Appendix A)

detailed the usage of greenies for a multitude of causes or symptoms. Whether it be a hangover from a night of partying, general fatigue or a player in need 121 of a boost of home run swatting energy-- greenies were the friends of ballplayers everywhere (Emen, 2007).

“In 1964, aided by uppers, (Bouton) led the American

League in starts (Chafets, 2009, pg. 178).” Bouton recalls in his book, , that once, a player “received a supply of five hundred amphetamine pills (Chafets, 2009, pg. 178).” He admitted that “just about the whole

Baltimore (Orioles) team takes them. Most of the (Detroit)

Tigers. Most of the guys on (his team) (Chafets, 2009, pg.

178),” too.

Amphetamines (like steroids) were illegal without prescription in American society but were just a part of the baseball culture. Best I can tell, amphetamines are performance enhancing drugs that, many people feel, sharpen focus and increase energy levels and help an athlete overcome exhaustion (Posnanski, 2010).

The great Willie Mays admitted,

I would go to the doctor and would say to the doctor, ‘Hey, I need something to keep me going. Could you give me some sort of vitamin?’ I don’t know what they put in there, and I never asked a question about anything (Posnanski, 2010).

Just about every player used amphetamines. “Pete Rose did. Hank Aaron admitted trying it (Posnanski, 2010).”

While amphetamines were not banned from baseball until

1971 (Chafets, 2009, pg. 178), former Royals outfielder 122 Brian McRae (Appendix A) recalled how amphetamines have become a part of the clubhouse scene. “There were always two pots of coffee brewing in the clubhouse -- one conventional and the other laced with (Crasnick,

2006).”

As for the repercussions, “Under baseball's amphetamines policy… players are not publicly identified for a first positive test. A second positive test for amphetamines results in a 25-game suspension ("Report:

Bonds," 2007).”

Before amphetamines there was , “an upper that came into commercial use in the mid-1930's and was given to

American troops during World War II to increase stamina and enhance battlefield performance (Chafets, 2009, pg. 178).”

I have never understood why many people are so outraged about baseball players’ steroid use and so unperturbed by amphetamine use. I guess it makes some sense on a gut level — injecting yourself with steroids seems so much more villainous than popping a couple of greenies to get a boost (Posnanski, 2010).

Hall of Famer (Appendix A) says,

steroids have been illegal in the United States since 1990 when Congress passed the Anabolic Steroids Act, yet Major League Baseball chose to ignore the problem for nearly 15 years, leading to what is now known as the Steroid Era (Bunning, 2009). 123 Steroid Era

The previous sections listed scandals and actions by players that lacked character and integrity from past eras in baseball.

The Steroid Era, 1992–present, is one that is filled with controversy moreover than any of the other eras in baseball.

After the U.S. Congress raises penalties for steroid possession, Commissioner (Appendix C) sends a memo to each team indicating that steroids would be added to Major League Baseball's banned list. The memo stated: 'The possession, sale or use of any illegal drug or controlled substance by Major League players or personnel is strictly prohibited… This prohibition applies to all illegal drugs… including steroids (Roberts, n.d.).'

Records were broken and careers were tarnished.

Mark McGwire broke Roger Maris' 37-year old record for most home runs in a season in 1998 when he hit 70 ("CNN/SI

- Baseball MLB," 1998). Three years after that Barry Bonds eclipsed both totals when he hit 73 home runs, ("Bonds moves," 2007) Four years later Bonds was at it again when he hit his 756th career home run to break Hank Aaron's record of 755 career home runs ("Bonds moves," 2007). 124 There lies other players that are considered first ballot Hall of Fame players that have been linked to steroids: Roger Clemens, Rafael Palmeiro, Manny Ramirez

(Appendix A) and Alex Rodríguez (Appendix A), to name a few

(Heyman, 2009).

In order to properly explain the Steroid Era its needs to be broken into a few parts; The Original Records,

Steroids: What Are They, The Effect on Performance, The New

Records and Players Involved.

The Original Records

The records that Babe Ruth set transcended the game.

From hitting 60 home runs in 1927, to a Major League record

714 career home runs, both of these numbers have since been eclipsed.

During the 1927 season Babe Ruth hit 14% of the home runs in Major League Baseball. To put that into perspective, “for a player to hit 14% of the league's home runs in a single season today he would need to hit over 300 home runs ("Babe Ruth Facts" n.d.).”

For thirty-four years Ruth's other record stood. In

1961, the infamous year of the M&M boys (Mickey Mantle and 125 Roger Maris, who both played for the New York Yankees), there was a slug-fest between the two teammates of who would eclipse “” first. Roger Maris emerged the winner when he hit 61 home runs ("Roger Maris Statistics," n.d.).

For forty-seven years his other record, 714 career home runs, stood. When Hank Aaron broke it, in 1974, he was 39- years old ("Hank Aaron," n.d.); the same age Babe Ruth was when he hit his 714th ("Babe Ruth Statistics" n.d.). Hank

Aaron would ultimately finish his career with 755 home runs

("Hank Aaron," n.d.), a number many said would never be contested.

Two records set by Babe Ruth and two records broken by other players amid scandal. While both of these are not scandalous acts that are relevant to the topic of integrity and character that engross the topic at hand, they are deemed scandals, but of a lesser degree.

Maris was entangled in two “scandals.” The first was that he was "not a true Yankee ("Roger Maris - Biography," n.d.)." He was traded in the December 1959 off season from the Kansas City Athletics to the New York Yankees ("Roger 126 Maris - BR Bullpen," n.d.), and lacked the high profile personality of a home run king, which his challenger, the great Mickey Mantle, had in spades. The Yankees were

“'Mickey Mantle's team' and Maris was ostracized as the

'outsider' ("Roger Maris - Biography," n.d.).”

Second, Maris' record 61 home runs were hit in 162 games; Babe Ruth hit his 60 home runs in 154 games ("Roger

Maris - BR Bullpen," n.d.). The commissioner at the time,

Ford Frick, decided to put an (*) on the end of

Roger Maris' home run total because it took him eight more games to reach that plateau and did not feel that Maris' new home run record was appropriately acquired ("Roger

Maris - BR Bullpen," n.d.).

The scandal surrounding Hank Aaron was when he was approaching Babe Ruth's 714 career home runs. Aaron was the recipient of death threats and a large assortment of hate mail from people who did not want to see a black man break the Babe's record (Ladson, 1999). He was not the one that broke any character flaw rules; in fact, his character of standing up to and not being threatened by the abuse 127 given to him was what made him a national hero during the home run chase.

After 1961, the closest any player came to the record of 61 home runs from 1962–1992 was Willie Mays with 52, in

1965 ("Home Runs Single," n.d.). Before the 1998 season the only player that came close to the 60 home run milestone was Mark McGwire in 1997 with 58.

Coincidentally, Ken Griffey Jr., in the same season, hit 56.

The chart below shows that there was a total of four seasons (five players) when a player eclipsed the 50-home run plateau from 1961–1992, a span of 31-years. From 1993-

2009, a span of 16-years, there was at least one 50-home run hitter in 11 of those years and an astonishing number of players, fourteen, hit for over 50 home runs in a season

("Home Runs Single," n.d.). 128 TABLE 4.1 50-HOME RUN PLATEAU FROM 1961–2009 YEAR NAME HRs YEAR NAME HRs 1961 Mickey Mantle 54 1999 Sammy Sosa 63 1961 Roger Maris 61 1999 Mark McGwire 65 1965 Willie Mays 52 2000 Sammy Sosa 50 1977 52 2001 Alex RODRÍGUEZ 52 1990 51 2001 Luis Gonzalez 57 1995 50 2001 Sammy Sosa 64 1996 50 2001 Barry Bonds 73 1996 Mark McGwire 52 2002 Jim Thome 52 1997 Ken Griffey, Jr. 56 2002 Alex RODRÍGUEZ 57 1997 Mark McGwire 58 2005 51 1998 50 2006 54 1998 Ken Griffey, Jr. 56 2006 Ryan Howard 58 1998 Sammy Sosa 66 2007 50 1998 Mark McGwire 70 2007 Alex RODRÍGUEZ 54

Highlighted in the chart above, between 1961-2009 the sacred home run mark of 60 in a season, set by Babe Ruth, was reached by four players (Maris, Sosa, McGwire and

Bonds) in four seasons (1961, 1998, 1999 and 2001)

("Home Runs Single," n.d.).

In order to properly examine the ethical steroid issues associated with the records set in the game of Baseball and the ethical dilemma's associated, first one must understand what steroids are, and how they effect your body and on field performance. 129 Steroids: What Are They?

Steroids, “the popular name for synthetic (man-made) substances related to the male sex hormones, promote muscle growth and the development of male sexual characteristics

("Steroids Fast Facts," n.d.).” Only available when prescribed legally, they “treat conditions such as delayed puberty, some types of impotence, and body-wasting in patients suffering from AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). Steroids are abused, often by athletes, to enhance athletic performance and to improve physical appearance ("Steroids Fast Facts," n.d.).”

In the game of baseball, steroids sometimes are referred to by its alias, Performance Enhancing Drugs, or

PED's.

When abused, steroids are associated with a range of physical and emotional problems. Physical consequences include

liver tumors and cancer, jaundice, high blood pressure and increases in cholesterol levels, kidney tumors, fluid retention, and severe acne. Men may experience shrinking of the testicles, reduced sperm count, infertility, baldness, breast development, and increased risk of prostate cancer ("Steroids Fast Facts," n.d.). 130 The emotional problems associated with steroid use include “dramatic mood swings (including manic symptoms that can lead to violence called ‘roid rage), depression, paranoid jealousy, extreme irritability, delusions, and impaired judgment ("Steroids Fast Facts," n.d.).”

“Reports indicate that use of anabolic steroids promotes lean muscle mass, strength, and ability to train longer and harder ("Steroids - Health," n.d.).”

Sometimes steroid abusers 'stack,' which is when users

“frequently combine several different types of steroids to maximize their effectiveness while minimizing negative effects ("Steroids Facts," n.d.).” Anabolic steroids are taken orally (by a tablet) or injected (liquid form).

Athletes and other abusers take them typically in cycles of weeks or months, rather than continuously, in patterns called cycling. Cycling involves taking multiple doses of steroids over a specific period of time, stopping for a period, and starting again ("Steroids Facts," n.d.).

Now that we know what steroids are, how do they affect baseball players' on field performance? 131 The Effect on Performance

Here's the great irony of the Hall of Fame steroids debate: There is no proof at all that steroids, or other PED's, improve baseball performance in a way that changes the competitive balance of the game or alters the measure of “greatness”… I'm talking about actual empirical data. There is no evidence that anabolic steroids or other chemicals help a hitter hit or a pitcher pitch. None (Chafets, 2009, pg. 183).

Anti-steroid expert, Gary Wadler (Appendix C), said that it was “impossible to quantify the possible advantages provided by anabolic steroids to baseball players (Chafets,

2009, pg. 185).” He does, however, believe that a players first step may be quicker and their bat swing may quicken, but as far as other advantages he claims that “he is pretty sure that steroids can help players, especially pitchers, come back from injuries more quickly (Chafets, 2009, pg.

185).”

“Athletes who may use these substances (steroids) illegally claim that anabolic steroids give them a competitive advantage and/or improve their physical appearance ("Steroids," n.d.).”

The chart below shows the amount of home runs hit each decade from the 1980's (the decade before steroids were 132 rampant in baseball) to 2009 ("Major League Baseball

Batting," n.d.) .

TABLE 4.2 HOME RUNS HIT PER DECADE 1980-2000 1980s xxx0 3,087 3,317 5,693 xxx1 1,781 3,383 5,458 xxx2 3,379 3,038 5,059 xxx3 3,301 4,030 5,207 xxx4 3,258 3,306 5,451 xxx5 3,602 4,081 5,017 xxx6 3,813 4,962 5,386 xxx7 4,458 4,640 4,957 xxx8 3,180 5,064 4,878 xxx9 3,083 5,528 5,042 TOTAL 32,942 41,349 52,148

AVG 3,294 4,135 5215 % CHANGE xx 25.5% 26.1%

There was an average of 3,294 home runs hit per year in the 1980's, and the '90's saw an average of 4,135.

Comparing that to the average number from 2000–2009, an average of 5,215 per season, a 25.5% and a 26.1% increase from decade to decade.

Some believe that the amount of home runs depend on the new ballparks opening; “Major League outfield distances vary from 302 feet to 435 feet and outfield fence heights 133 vary from 4 feet to 37 feet… the effect of Major League ballpark configurations (make it easier to hit) home runs

("Home Runs and Ballparks").”

“Tiny ballparks, tightly-wound balls… competition on the mound,” these are all variables that have had an effect on the surplus of home runs hit since the Steroid Era began

(Jackson, 2010).

“Yes, the era may be defined by steroids, but steroids… were not the only reason that people hit a bunch more home runs. There are a lot of reasons people hit home runs

(Posnanski, "Iron Fisk," 2010).”

Past player, Tony Olivia (Appendix A), former American

League batting champ and current hitting consultant said,

“What I do know is the ballparks (today) are smaller and the ball is harder. I know those are two reasons for more home runs ("Do steroids," 2006).”

“The 2009 New York Yankees hit more home runs than any

Yankees team ever. More than any of the Steroid Era Yankees teams. More than the 1961 Yankees. Fifty percent more than the ‘27 Yankees (Posnanski, "Iron Fisk," 2010).” At home the Yankees hit 46 more home runs in '09 (the inauguration 134 year of the new ballpark) than in '08 (Posnanski, "Iron

Fisk," 2010). One would have to argue that maybe “the new ballpark played a role in the record-setting home run numbers… this is the point that I can’t help but think people miss all the time (Posnanski, "Iron Fisk," 2010).”

Not all feel that it is just the emergence of smaller ball parks and baseball's wound so tight they could travel further than previous years.

With steroid testing in place, the numbers were supposed to drop, yet they increased. In the National League, players hit more home runs in 2004 than in 2002 by nearly 10 percent… In 2004, there were 141 more home runs hit in the American League than in 2002 (Bryant, 2006).

Curt Schilling (Appendix A), a former pitcher, proclaims that “we're playing in an environment… tailored to produce offensive numbers… When you add in steroids and strength training, you're seeing records not just being broken but completely shattered (Verducci, Yaeger,

Dohrmann, Llosa, & Munson, 2002).”

Former Red Sox great Ted Williams, “considered by many to be the best all-around hitter to ever play the game… define(d) what it takes to hit a home run (Nishihara, 135 n.d.).” Here are his three key elements to hitting a baseball effectively:

a good hitter must identify a pitch to hit, know enough about the pitcher and the game situation to give himself the best chance to succeed, and put hands and hips into motion to drive the pitch. Nowhere does Williams mention that muscle mass aides in any of those critical elements (Nishihara, n.d.).

Hitting a baseball still requires hitting a round ball with a rounded off wooden stick with proper hand-eye coordination.

A cannot hit a home run if he cannot hit the ball. And hitting a baseball is a unique skill in the world of sports. It is a powerful act that does not require extraordinary muscle strength. Instead, it is primarily dependent on technique, reflexes, and hand-eye coordination, not brute strength. It is a correlation that so many people are failing to make these days (Nishihara, n.d.).

Thomas Boswell (Appendix C), of the Post, wrote that José Canseco (Appendix A) “is the most conspicuous example of a player who has made himself great with steroids ("Timeline," n.d.)” by producing the first ever 40/40 season is baseball history, which is hitting at least 40 home runs and stealing at least 40 bases.

However, the home run is what collates baseball and steroids. Looking at baseball seasons that have had a 40+ 136 home run hitter, it has been done a total of 300 times, up until the end of the 2009 season ("Single-Season Leaders," n.d.).

• From 1920-1991 it was done 145 times and

• From 1992-2009 it was done 155 times; not exactly a smoking gun proving that steroids assisted the home run hitters during the “Steroids Era.”

For the 50+ home run seasons it has been done a total of a total of 41 times ("Single-Season Leaders," n.d.),

• From 1920-1991 it was done 18 times and

• From 1992-2009 it was done 23 times.

Again, not exactly hard evidence that the Steroid Era players have had help via performance enhancing drugs.

Most people fail to realize that in 1997, the year before the McGwire/Sosa race to 61 ordeal in 1998, that there were “MORE homers hit per game than in 1997, the year

McGwire hit 58 and Griffey hit 56” than the next

(Posnanski, "Iron Fisk," 2010). The 10th biggest home run season ever was in 2009 “which supposedly represented a return to normalcy (from players taking steroids) and 137 because nobody in either league hit 50 home runs, and nobody in the AL hit 40 (Posnanski, "Iron Fisk," 2010).”

Normal baseball fans cannot hit a 90+ mile per hour , yet hit it so hard it travels nearly 350 feet, or more, in the air, but baseball players can, which is what makes them special athletes.

In a survey of 568 baseball players, “79% said they believed steroids played some role in record-breaking performances by high-profile players. And 27% said they believed the illegal performance-enhancing drugs were a

'major contributor' to recent statistical achievements

(Jenkins, 2005).”

However (Appendix A) said about having the new records wiped out of the record books, "(when) somebody comes up with facts, then we can talk. Other than that, it's a waste of time (Jenkins, 2005)."

Coincidentally, Sheffield is also accused of steroid use

("Historically Speaking," 2006).

Former player (Appendix A), the 1996

National League MVP while playing for the Padres, detailed the health consequences he suffered from steroid 138 use; he told Sports Illustrated that his testicles shrank and retracted (Verducci, Yaeger, Dohrmann, Llosa, & Munson,

2002). Doctors had found that his body had virtually stopped producing its own testosterone and that his level of the hormone had fallen to 20% of normal (Verducci,

Yaeger, Dohrmann, Llosa, & Munson, 2002).

Early in the 1996 season Caminiti tore his rotator cuff when he landed hard on his elbow and shoulder, causing him not being able to move his arm for six to seven days

(Verducci, Yaeger, Dohrmann, Llosa, & Munson, 2002). For the next month and a half he played in what he calls “pure pain (Verducci, Yaeger, Dohrmann, Llosa, & Munson, 2002)” until he remembered what other players have told him about how to control it, steroids. Seeing as he was playing in

San Diego it was easy for him to drive into Mexico to purchase enough to last him through the second half of the

1996 season (Verducci, Yaeger, Dohrmann, Llosa, & Munson,

2002).

The results had an enormous impact on the way he played the game when he returned. Not only did he win the MVP

Award unanimously ("Ken Caminiti," n.d.), he put up 139 astounding statistics. After the All-Star break he hit 28 home runs (in his previous nine years playing he never even eclipsed 26 home runs in an entire season) ("Ken Caminiti," n.d.), totaling 40 for the season ("Ken Caminiti," n.d.),

120 RBI's (his previous season high was 94) ("Ken

Caminiti," n.d.), and his batting average was 24-points higher than his previous high, finishing at .326 ("Ken

Caminiti," n.d.).

He never had another season quite like that one, partly because he was never able to play a full season without making a trip to the disabled list.

In the SI article he says that in 1998

I showed up at spring training as big as an ox… I got really strong, really quick," he says. "I pulled a lot of muscles. I broke down a lot. I'm still paying for it. My tendons and ligaments got all torn up. My muscles got too strong for my tendons and ligaments (Verducci, Yaeger, Dohrmann, Llosa, & Munson, 2002).

Most of his injuries were muscular, straining his hamstring, quadriceps, and calf muscle to name a few. In

2004 he needed to be legally prescribed shots of testosterone on a weekly basis because his body was unable to make the hormone (Verducci, Yaeger, Dohrmann, Llosa, &

Munson, 2002). 140 said, "as a pitcher, I won't ever object to a sleepy-eyed middle beaning up to help me win.

That may not be the politically correct spin on the practice, but I really couldn't care less ("Boomer bombshell," 2003)."

In 1996 Brady Anderson (Appendix A), center fielder for the Baltimore Orioles, hit an astonishing 50-home runs batting from the lead-off position. Between 1993 and 1995, the prior three seasons, he hit only 41 home runs combined

("Brady Anderson Statistics," n.d.)! Anderson has never been linked to steroids or any performance enhancing drugs but does not stop from people accusing him. Hall of Fame pitcher (Appendix A) said, “You're trying to have a level playing field and maintain the integrity of the game. I'm sure it was a great year for Brady… but you just wonder… it's a concern when you have aberrations in people's performances ("Hall of Famer suspicious," 2004)."

To put Anderson's season into perspective,

(Appendix A), while playing for the in 1996, had his best ever season by hitting 24 home runs and having

99 RBI's ("Kevin Elster," n.d.). Those stats are not 141 glamorous to any other player but considering that between

1988 and 1993 he only hit a total of 27 home runs, ("Kevin

Elster," n.d.) to him, they are. “Little middle infielders

(which Elster was) can suddenly achieve excellent power numbers without the help of steroids or even necessarily bulking up (Glab, 2005),” but because his teammates were

Ivan “Pudge” Rodríguez (Appendix A) and Juan Gonzalez

(Appendix A), both having been implicated with steroids

("Historically Speaking," 2006), he has been stereotyped as a Steroid Era performer.

When Roger Maris hit his 61 home runs the pitchers played a small part in helping him reach that milestone.

He hit home runs off of a pitcher who “led league in losses

FOUR STRAIGHT YEARS. Consecutively, (the pitcher) lost:

18, 19, 18, 20 (games) (Posnanski, "Iron Fisk," 2010),” and

“a pitcher who gave up 32 homers that year (Posnanski,

"Iron Fisk," 2010). To summarize, pitchers do play a role in how effective a batter is at the plate.

People wonder if Barry Bonds used steroids to enhance his home run totals, but what about him facing pitchers that were on performance enhancers? How about if both he 142 and the pitcher were on steroids; wouldn't that cancel out the non-even playing field?

I recall the story of Eric Gagne (Appendix A) of the Dodgers facing Barry Bonds in San Francisco – both were later linked to PED. Gagne’s first pitch was 99 mph and Bonds pulled it foul for what would have been a home run if hit 30 feet to the left. Gagne’s next pitch registered 101 mph and Bonds drove it deep into the San Francisco night for a home run. For those who want to take away the records, you can count that one – the playing field was evenly skewed (Jackson, 2010).

During testimonies in front of the House Government

Reform Committee in 2005, on the topic of steroids in baseball, there were a few accused baseball players there;

Mark McGwire's testimony was simply, "Asking me or any other player to answer questions about who took steroids in front of television camera’s… will not solve the problem," although he did acknowledge that steroids use was happening in baseball; Rafael Palmeiro's testimony consisted of repeating "I have never used steroids, period" while pointing his finger at the committee, which was ironic because since that day he was found guilty of taking steroids, as well as never played a single game of baseball since then. Sammy Sosa “barely speaks (Bryant, 2006 p.

391).” 143 Hall of Fame pitcher Jim Bunning, who was at the hearing said,

when I played with Henry Aaron, Willie Mays… they didn't put on 40 pounds… and they didn't hit more home runs in their late thirties as they did in their late twenties. What's happening in baseball is not natural, and it's not right.

While they may not have put on 40 pounds, looking at the following charts of Hank Aaron ("Hank Aaron," n.d.) and

Willie Mays ("Wins Records," n.d.), it looks as if Jim

Bunning was wrong.

TABLE 4.3 HANK AARON AND WILLIE MAYS CAREER HOME RUN TOTALS HANK AARON WILLIE MAYS Year Age HR Year Age HR Year Age HR Year Age HR 1954 20 13 1964 30 24 1951 20 20 1961 30 40 1955 21 27 1965 31 32 1952 21 4 1962 31 49 1956 22 26 1966 32 44 1954 23 41 1963 32 38 1957 23 44 1967 33 39 1955 24 51 1964 33 47 1958 24 30 1968 34 29 1956 25 36 1965 34 52 1959 25 39 1969 35 44 1957 26 35 1966 35 37 1960 26 40 1970 36 38 1958 27 29 1967 36 22 1961 27 34 1971 37 47 1959 28 34 1968 37 23 1962 28 45 1972 38 34 1960 29 29 1969 38 13 1963 29 44 1973 39 40 1951 20 20 1970 39 28 Total 342 Total 371 Total 299 Total 349

Hank Aaron hit 47 home runs, the most home runs he ever hit, at the age of 37; at the age of 27 he only hit 34 home runs ("Hank Aaron," n.d.). Looking at the home run chart 144 above he hit more home runs in his 30's (30 – 39) than he did in his 20's (20 – 29).

Similar with Willie Mays; he hit 50 more home runs from age 30 – 39 than he did age 20 – 29. His career high of 52 home runs in a season came when he was 34 years old.

Mentioned before, both Aaron and Mays admitted to ingesting amphetamines during their playing days. Why is the Baseball Hall of Fame holding Mark McGwire (admitted steroid user) and Barry Bonds (highly accused steroid user) accountable for their actions when Hank Aaron and Willie

Mays were not? “Yes, players were using steroids, and that use of steroids does indeed… make their numbers inauthentic… Did illegal amphetamines that were apparently a part of every day baseball in the 1960s, ‘70s, 80s, 90s make those numbers inauthentic (Posnanski, "Iron Fisk,"

2010)?”

Jim Bunning's comment mentioned their late 20's and late 30's. From age 24–29 Hank Aaron hit the same amount of home runs (232) as he did from age 34 – 39. At the same age, Willie Mays hit 8 more home runs (183) from 24–29 than at 34–39 (175). Not a significant difference. 145 Hall of Fame player also commented, “you don't get better as you get older (Chafets, 2009, pg.

184).” Obviously a handful of Hall of Fame players did not get that memo while they were playing;

Warren Spahn (Appendix A) pitched almost 260 innings and went 23-7 at the age of forty-two. Ted Williams hit .388 when he was thirty-eight, led the American League again the following year, and finished his career at forty-one hitting .316-with a higher on-base percentage than he had as a twenty-year-old rookie… Pitcher (Appendix A) went 22-10 at the age of thirty-nine. (Appendix A) had a better statistical year in 1962 that he did in 1942. (Appendix A) struck out 203 batters at forty-four. If great geriatric performance is a proof of chemical dependency, what were these guys on (Chafets, 2009, pg. 184)?

Many Hall of Fame players seem to not believe that some players get better, or stay as productive, when they age.

Since turning 36-years old Babe Ruth hit 149-home runs

("Babe Ruth Statistics" n.d.) and Hank Aaron hit 201 ("Hank

Aaron," n.d.). Barry Bonds hit 268 ("Barry Bonds

Statistics" n.d.). 146 The New Records

The summer of 1998 proved to be one of the most storied seasons in all of baseball history. Mark McGwire and Sammy

Sosa were intertwined in an epic chase for baseball immortality. That season, arguably, could be the most exciting season in Baseball's storied 126 years. Mark

McGwire hit 70 home runs, which, at the time, was the most in a single season and Sammy Sosa hit 66 ("Single-Season

Leaders," n.d.). It was a race to see who would eclipse the 60-home run mark and who would break Roger Maris' season total of 61 home runs first.

Barry Bonds slugged 73 home runs in 2001, which currently stands the most in a season. McGwire finally came clean and admitted to the steroid use (during the 1998 season) and Bonds is still at the center of an investigation into steroid use during the 2001 season.

Bonds, who many believe is the poster boy for the use of steroids, hit 494-home runs in the first 15-years of his career, 1986–2000, an average of 33-home runs/year. Not too bad for a Hall of Fame career if he retired then. From

2001-2007, when he stopped playing, he hit a total of 268- 147 home runs; a 38-home run average per year ("Barry Bonds

Statistics" n.d.).

In 2001 (age 37) he broke the 500-home run plateau, in

2002 (age 38) the 600-home run plateau, and he surpassed the 700-home run milestone in 2004 (age 40) becoming only the 3rd player in history to do so ("Barry Bonds Statistics" n.d.).

ESPN's Page 2 ran a chart of all Barry Bonds' home runs from 1999–2005 and “mapped their distances against the ballpark ("ESPN.com - Bonds," 2006).” For their scientific analysis they “subtracted nine feet off each home run and an additional nine feet on all home runs from August through October ("ESPN.com - Bonds," 2006).”

During his record breaking 73 home run season in 2001 there are a total of 23 home runs that can been removed from his total (highlighted), leaving him with 50 on the season (see chart below) ("ESPN.com - Bonds," 2006) using

Page 2's theory.

TABLE 4.4 BARRY BONDS 2001 HOME RUNS HR # DATE FEET STILL HR? HR # DATE FEET STILL HR? 1 Apr 02 420 Yes 38 Jun 20 347 Yes 2 Apr 12 417 Yes 39 Jun 23 380 NO 3 Apr 13 440 Yes 40 Jul 12 429 Yes 4 Apr 14 410 Yes 41 Jul 18 320 NO 148 HR # DATE FEET STILL HR? HR # DATE FEET STILL HR? 5 Apr 15 390 Yes 42 Jul 18 360 Yes 6 Apr 17 417 Yes 43 Jul 26 375 NO 7 Apr 18 420 Yes 44 Jul 26 370 NO 8 Apr 20 410 Yes 45 Jul 27 440 Yes 9 Apr 24 380 Yes 46 Aug 01 400 Yes 10 Apr 26 430 Yes 47 Aug 04 405 Yes 11 Apr 29 370 Yes 48 Aug 07 430 Yes 12 May 02 420 Yes 49 Aug 09 350 Yes 13 May 03 400 Yes 50 Aug 11 396 NO 14 May 04 360 NO 51 Aug 14 410 Yes 15 May 11 410 NO 52 Aug 16 380 NO 16 May 17 420 Yes 53 Aug 16 430 NO 17 May 18 391 NO 54 Aug 18 415 Yes 18 May 19 416 Yes 55 Aug 23 380 NO 19 May 19 440 Yes 56 Aug 27 375 NO 20 May 19 410 Yes 57 Aug 31 400 Yes 21 May 20 415 Yes 58 Sep 03 435 NO 22 May 20 436 Yes 59 Sep 04 420 NO 23 May 21 430 Yes 60 Sep 06 420 Yes 24 May 22 410 Yes 61 Sep 09 488 Yes 25 May 24 400 Yes 62 Sep 09 361 NO 26 May 27 390 Yes 63 Sep 09 394 Yes 27 May 30 420 Yes 64 Sep 20 410 NO 28 May 30 410 Yes 65 Sep 23 411 NO 29 Jun 01 420 Yes 66 Sep 23 365 NO 30 Jun 04 410 Yes 67 Sep 24 360 Yes 31 Jun 05 410 Yes 68 Sep 28 440 Yes 32 Jun 07 450 Yes 69 Sep 29 435 Yes 33 Jun 12 320 Yes 70 Oct 04 480 Yes 34 Jun 14 430 NO 71 Oct 05 440 Yes 35 Jun 15 380 NO 72 Oct 05 410 NO 36 Jun 15 375 Yes 73 Oct 07 380 NO 37 Jun 19 375 NO

Page 2 determined that by removing a total of 98 home runs (83 total using their scientific approach, including 149 the 2001 season, and then subtracting another 15 for increased confidence ("ESPN.com - Bonds," 2006)) from his career total, leaving him with 664 career home runs (762 –

98 = 664) ("Barry Bonds Statistics" n.d.). That total would still rank Bonds as 3rd all time behind Hank Aaron

(756) and Babe Ruth (714) ("Career Leaders & Records for

Home Runs," n.d.) for career home runs.

Sports Business Journal came up with a similar analysis, “if Bonds' increased strength due to working out with steroids enabled him to hit a ball farther… lets estimate how many home runs during the steroids era became home runs due to a steroid-strength effect? Five feet?

Ten feet (Billingsly, 2006)?”

Both ESPN.com and Sports Business Journal shared ideas on how to judge the home runs hit by Barry Bonds, and both publications came up with removing, on average, ten feet from each home run to gauge if it still would be one.

Until there is sufficient evidence on what effect the

Steroid Era produced, “leave baseball history alone

(Billingsly, 2006).”

Others share different opinions. 150 José Canseco admits that “during his seventeen-year career, steroids were a known fact from the commissioner all the way down to the bat boys (Bryant, 2006, p. 373).”

He played for the from 1985–1991 with current Hall of Famers Dennis Eckersley, ,

Rickey Henderson, and Don Sutton ("1 Steps

Away," n.d.). When Canseco played with the Texas Rangers he played with Hall of Famer Nolan Ryan and while a member of the in 1999 he played with Wade Boggs ("1

Steps Away," n.d.). None of these players he admits to injecting; however, he does admit to injecting “many players including and Juan Gonzalez, Hall of

Fame caliber players Mark McGwire, Rafael Palmeiro, and

Ivan Rodríguez ("List of Players," n.d.),” all of whom denied the claim.

The following section, Players Involved, includes different players that have been affected by the Steroid

Era who are separated into three categories, (I) Admitted to Use, (II) Denied Usage and (III) Others Involved. 151 Players Involved

(I) ADMITTED TO USE

Mark McGwire

Mark McGwire was not the first player to take steroids in Major League Baseball, but, just as the title reads of an article in Sports Illustrated, “McGwire wasn't a victim of the Steroid Era, he was a creation of it (Jenkins,

2010).”

Backing up to 2005 and the House Government Reform

Committee hearings for a moment, Mark McGwire, Sammy Sosa, and Rafael Palmeiro were there to answer questions about

“the use of steroids in the major (leagues) (Barrett,

2005).” The three of them were top echelon players at the time; McGwire was the first to break Roger Maris' 37-year old record of 61 home runs in 1961, Sosa was the first player in history “with three career 60-home run seasons

("Famous Baseball," n.d.)” and Palmeiro who later that year would become “only the 4th player in Major League Baseball history to collect over 500 home runs and 3,000 hits in his career in July of 2005 ("Rafael Palmeiro - BR Bullpen," n.d.);” were accused of being linked to steroids. 152 When William Clay (Appendix C), St. Louis congressman, asked McGwire “whether he could assure fans he had played

'with honesty and integrity,'” McGwire replied, "I'm not going to go into the past or talk about my past. I'm here to make a positive influence on this (Barrett, 2005)."

Mark McGwire's past (pre-1998) was a storied one in the history of Major League Baseball. He was a highly touted player who “achieved fame… as a player at the University of

Southern California, a participant on the 1984 Olympics baseball team, and a key player on the Oakland Athletics teams of the 1980's and 1990's ("Mark McGwire - BR

Bullpen," n.d.).” Before playing Major League Baseball and the 1984 Olympic team he also “played for Team USA in the

1983 Pan American Games… as the USA won a Bronze. In the

1983 Intercontinental Cup, he helped the USA win a Silver

("Mark McGwire - BR Bullpen," n.d.).”

His rookie season in 1986 McGwire led all of baseball with 49 home runs ("Mark McGwire," n.d.), which still remains a record for rookies ("Mark McGwire - BR Bullpen," n.d.). Between that year and 1998 he led the league in home runs only one other time, 1996, when he hit 52 ("Mark 153 McGwire," n.d.) before being traded to the St. Louis

Cardinals, of the National League, in 1997 ("Mark McGwire -

BR Bullpen," n.d.). While he was a popular player among fans during those eleven years, his stardom skyrocketed in

1998.

In 1998 Mark McGwire was caught on camera with a bottle of androstenedione in his locker after a game (Passan,

2008). "Androstenedione may have been illegal in the

Olympics… illegal in the , and maybe its effects did resemble those of steroids, but andro was a legal supplement easily purchased at a local health store (Kakutani, 2005)," the media aptly made public.

A few days after the revelation surfaced that McGwire was using androstenedione, Bud Selig's pharmacist “pointed to a bottle of androstenedione and said… it's legal

(Bryant, 2006, p. 141),” to verify any suspicions he may have had.

Did McGwire really break any sacred character or integrity characteristics?

Major League Baseball proved to be the last major sports body to implement a comprehensive drug testing policy -- the league started survey testing in 2003, but it wasn't until December 2005 that the players' 154 union voted to approve a tougher policy -- so Big Mac and a bevy of other ethically challenged players technically didn't violate any rules (Fish, 2010).

On January 11, 2010 Mark McGwire admitted to what all of the baseball world thought for “more than a decade of denials and evasion ("Mark McGwire admits," 2010),” he took steroids.

In his press conference, and subsequent interviews, he admitted that “he used steroids and human growth hormone on and off for a decade, starting before the 1990 season and including the year he broke Roger Maris' single-season home run record in 1998 ("Mark McGwire admits," 2010).”

McGwire added "there's no way a pill or an injection will give you hand-eye coordination or the ability or the great mind that I've had as a baseball player ("Mark

McGwire admits," 2010).”

His steroids use began “'on occasion throughout the nineties' to recover from injuries, but (he) was adamant that they did not improve his performance (Roberts, 2010).”

Some of McGwire's statement was:

I used steroids during my playing career and I apologize. I remember trying steroids very briefly in the 1989/1990 off season and then after I was injured in 1993, I used steroids again. I used them on occasion 155 throughout the nineties, including during the 1998 season.

During the mid-90s, I went on the DL seven times and missed 228 games over five years. I experienced a lot of injuries… I told myself that steroids could help me recover faster. I thought they would help me heal and prevent injuries too.

I'm sure people will wonder if I could have hit all those home runs had I never taken steroids. I had good years when I didn't take any and I had bad years when I didn't take any. I had good years when I took steroids and I had bad years when I took steroids. But no matter what, I shouldn't have done it and for that I'm truly sorry (Roberts, 2010).

McGwire firmly believes that “he would have hit exactly as many home runs, had the same career, had he not used

PED’s.” (Roberts, 2010) , one of the most influential personalities to work with the sport of baseball said, “if you tell me steroids help you hit major league pitching more often and farther, I see no evidence.

None whatsoever (Bryant, 2006, p. 385).”

This fact remains true. “There never has been any kind of decent testing of the same player, for example, with and without steroids, over a stretch of time, so you can judge his performance (Bryant, 2006, p. 386).”

The only study that has been done was by “Jonathan R.

Cole (Appendix C), a professor of sociology at Columbia, 156 and Stephen M. Singer (Appendix C), a professor of statistics at the University of Chicago (Chafets, 2009, pg.

184).” The two of them analyzed the performances of the players named in the . Their findings,

of the twenty-three pitchers, sixteen had higher ERA's in the year they are suspected of first using drugs than they did the previous season. Among forty-eight hitters, home runs and batting average were actually lower in the “after” season than in the “before”… The authors concluded that there is “no example of a mediocre player breaking away from the middle of the pack and achieving stardom with the aid of drugs (Chafets, 2009, pg. 184).”

Bob Costas uses this analogy with a New York Times writer, “If Aristotle (Appendix C) were reincarnated and you gave him credit for everything he had done, and then

Aristotle proclaimed two plus two is five, would you be forced to consider the validity of that statement, just because he was Aristotle (Bryant, 2006, p. 386)?”

Whether or not McGwire was considered a Hall of Fame caliber player pre-1998 is a moot point to many Hall of

Fame voters. The voters feel that he cheated his way into the record books and broke the character and integrity commandments. 157 Current Hall of Famer Jim Bunning admits that “if players who cheat to gain entrance into baseball's most elite club are given a free pass, it sends a terrible message… that it is OK to cheat. I don't think that's right

(Bunning, 2009).”

Writer Bob Rosen (Appendix C) of the Elias Sports

Bureau said that McGwire doesn't belong in the Hall of Fame even if you ignore any steroid use: “I can't elect a guy for home run hitting alone. If a guy doesn't have 2,000 hits… or a guy who had a remarkable career that was ended by unfortunate circumstances, I can't vote for him ("Mark

McGwire - BR Bullpen," n.d.)."

Another sportswriter, Jim Hawkins (Appendix C), said:

"The one thing - the only thing - that makes him worthy of

Cooperstown consideration is the home run total. And that statistic is so tainted, I can't take it seriously ("Mark

McGwire - BR Bullpen," n.d.)."

Two different opinions yet both agree that he is not a

Hall of Fame caliber player.

As of now McGwire is off of the Hall of Fame ballot because he did not receive enough votes to remain on. If 158 he were to be elected it would then be up the Veterans

Committee to make that decision.

Andy Pettitte (Appendix A)

Along with Sammy Sosa's corked bat incident being isolated (listed below under his heading), it may be said that Pettitte's HGH use was isolated as well. In 2002

Pettitte had an elbow injury and “used human growth hormone to recover ("Pettitte admits," 2007).” He was one of the

85 players listed on “George Mitchell's investigation into steroids and performance-enhancing drugs ("Pettitte admits," 2007).”

Two days after the report was released Pettitte issued a statement through his agent “confirming McNamee's account and saying that was the only time he used HGH ("Pettitte apologizes," 2008).”

Pettitte says, "In 2002 I was injured. I had heard that human growth hormone could promote faster healing for my elbow ("Pettitte admits," 2007),” and “asked the trainer he shared with Roger Clemens, Brian McNamee (Appendix C), to help him with HGH while on the disabled list early in the season ("Pettitte admits," 2007).” 159 He continues,

I felt an obligation to get back to my team as soon as possible. For this reason, and only this reason, for two days I tried human growth hormone. Though it was not against , I was not comfortable with what I was doing, so I stopped. This is it -- two days out of my life; two days out of my entire career, when I was injured and on the disabled list. I wasn't looking for an edge. I was looking to heal ("Pettitte admits," 2007).

To recall, HGH wasn't banned by baseball until January

2005. Technically, Pettitte did not break any rules of integrity, or Major League Baseball, by asking for help in returning to his team from an injury since he “was not linked to steroids in the report ("Pettitte admits,"

2007).” “He said he would not have taken HGH had it been banned at the time ("Pettitte apologizes," 2008).”

That is not the only time he has used HGH in his career for an injury; "in 2004, when I tore the flexor tendon in my pitching arm, I again used HGH two times in one day out of frustration and in a futile attempt to recover

("Pettitte says," 2008).”

While Pettitte does not consider himself a cheater

("Pettitte apologizes," 2008), it will be up to the Hall of

Fame voters to make that determination when Pettitte's name 160 surfaces on the ballot. In his 16 years of being a major league pitcher ("Andy Pettitte - BR" n.d.) he used a legal substance, HGH, to help recover from an injury only twice.

Although he currently is still an active player for the

Yankees, it will be quite a few years until the time comes to pass judgment on his Hall of Fame status. Hopefully by then the Hall of Fame voters will have a better handle on how to deal with players from the Steroid Era.

His career statistics are not bad as he currently has

240 wins, as of August 2, 2010 ("Andy Pettitte - BR" n.d.), with surely more on the way as he is still playing at a highly competitive level. Where he excels most, however, is in the postseason; Pettitte has won five World Series and ranks number one in all time postseason wins, with 18

("Andy Pettitte - BR" n.d.).

Comparing his stats to current Hall of Fame pitchers, he already has more wins than (224), Don

Drysdale (209) and (165) ("Baseball Hall of

Fame Pitchers," n.d.). 161 Alex Rodríguez

Rodríguez is one of the biggest stars in Major League

Baseball; “he has established himself as one of the game's best players, having won three MVP awards and passing several important career milestones, including 500 career home runs and 1,500 RBI ("Alex Rodríguez - BR" n.d.).”

Outside of his three MVP awards, the statistics that he has put up speak for themselves in the aura of his legacy once he retires. He reached 400 home runs at the age of

30, which is a rare achievement, he was the youngest player to hit 500 home runs and one of only four 40/40 players (40 home runs and 40 stolen bases in the same season) in Major

League Baseball history. Rodríguez also holds the record for most home runs in a season while playing two different positions, in 2002 as a shortstop he hit 57 and in 2007 as a he hit 52 ("Alex Rodríguez - BR" n.d.).

Already with 599 home runs in his career as of August

2, 2010, good enough for 7th on the all-time career list

("Alex Rodríguez - BR" n.d.), he is poised to surpass the

600 home run plateau this season; a feat only done by six other players. 162 A 2007 interview with Katie Couric (Appendix C) on 60

Minutes could change the character perception of Rodríguez from saint to sinner, and a 2009 interview with Peter

Gammons could remove the integrity characteristic in which he has played with during his career.

Dec. 16, 2007 Katie Couric: "For the record, have you ever used steroids, human growth hormone or any other performance-enhancing substance?" Alex Rodríguez: "No." Couric: "Have you ever been tempted to use any of those things?" Rodríguez: "No (Wojciechowski, 2009).”

Feb. 9, 2009 Peter Gammons: "What's the truth?" Rodríguez: "I did take a banned substance. And for that I'm very sorry and deeply regretful." Gammons: "So you're saying the time period was 2001, '2 and '3?" Rodríguez: "That's pretty accurate, yes (Wojciechowski, 2009)."

From 2001 to 2003, while playing for the Texas

Rangers, Alex Rodríguez took performance enhancers; “I was stupid for three years. I was very, very stupid

(Wojciechowski, 2009),” he admits.

Why did he do it?

When I arrived in Texas in 2001, I felt an enormous amount of pressure. I felt like I had all the weight of the world on top of me and I needed to perform, and perform at a high level every day… Back then, 163 [baseball] was a different culture… It was very loose. I was young. I was stupid. I was naive. And I wanted to prove to everyone that I was worth being one of the greatest players of all time ("A-Rod admits" 2009).

In 2001 he signed a “$252 million contract”

(Wojciechowski, 2009) with the Rangers and blamed both the contract and himself “for his decision to use PED's

(Wojciechowski, 2009).”

In the three years when he was on steroids (2001-2003) he hit 156 home runs, had 395 RBIs, won a MVP award (2003), and set the stage for his contract with the Yankees in

2007, a “$275 million (contract) over 10 years… which (was) the biggest baseball contract ever (Chass, 2007).”

During Rodríguez's entire time spent with the Rangers, he was on steroids so it is not surprising that Rangers owner Tom Hicks (Appendix C) said Rodríguez's admission caught him by surprise. “I feel personally betrayed. I feel deceived by Alex (Wojciechowski, 2009)."

Even President Obama (Appendix C) had something to say about Rodríguez' admission, "If you're a fan of Major

League Baseball, I think it tarnishes an entire era, to some degree… And it's unfortunate, because I think there 164 were a lot of ballplayers who played it straight ("A-Rod admits," 2009)."

Since signing with the Yankees, Rodríguez said, "I've played the best baseball of my career… I've won two MVPs since and I've never felt better in my career. Of that I'm very proud of (Wojciechowski, 2009)."

On the flip side of the coin, Rodríguez's workout ethic and determination is said to be excellent. In a blog written by ESPN acclaimed writer, Rob Neyer, he takes a passage from 's (Appendix A) (Rodríguez's manager from 2003-2007) and 's (Appendix C) book, The

Yankee Years.

Rodríguez did impress his teammates with a relentless work ethic. They found him to be the baseball equivalent of a gym rat. He knew everything going on around baseball and he never stopped working. One night in 2007 he showed up in the dugout 10 minutes before the first pitch with blood dripping from his hands and knees. "What the hell happened to you?" somebody asked.

Rodríguez explained that he just had been running full tilt on the treadmill in the weight room when the belt broke and he went flying off the back end of the machine, skinning his hands and knees as he was thrown into a wall. Who the hell ran at sprinting speed on a treadmill right before a game was about to start? The most talented player in baseball did. That was A-Rod, too. 165 "Nobody has ever worked harder in my memory than this guy," [Joe] Torre said. "Jeter, I'm sure he does his weight work in the wintertime. In the summertime he gets dressed and gets the hell out of there. He doesn't hang out. Nobody's in better shape than Alex. Nobody works harder than Alex. For a star player, who gets there as early as he gets there, and still he might hear (Appendix A) say, 'You need to take groundballs.' And he'll do whatever it takes. He'll do it all the time. He's just a workaholic."

Said Bowa, "If he missed on a slow roller, the next day he's out there early and we're working on slow rollers. If he missed a backhand, the next day we're working on backhands. This guy would be the first one to admit, 'I need to work on that,' or, 'I didn't approach that ball the right way, so let's go work on it.' And that's why he was such a great player (Neyer, 2009)."

His steroid admission came only when it was reported that “Rodríguez was on a list of 104 players who tested positive for banned substances in 2003, the year when Major

League Baseball conducted survey tests to see if mandatory, random drug-testing was needed in the sport (Wojciechowski,

2009).”

Was his steroid use responsible for the work out intensity? The only studies that have been done between steroids and working out are that they help the body rest quicker after intense workouts whereas the only studies 166 that have been done in baseball are stats comparisons.

There have not been any studies done linking the two.

Below are his career statistics broken into three sections; the first 3-years represent the Steroids years, the second column represents his 3 MVP years (note, in 2003 he both won the MVP and was on steroids, so that season is represented in both the first and second column). The last column, NON, represents the years that he did not win a MVP nor was on steroids, 1996-2000, 2004, 2006, 2008 (note,

1994-95 and 2010 seasons are not included because they are not full seasons) ("Alex Rodríguez," n.d.).

TABLE 4.5 ALEX RODRÍGUEZ'S CAREER STATISTICAL MEASUREMENTS 3-yrs 3-yrs NON 2001-'03 '03,'05,'07 '96-2000, '04, (Steroids) (MVP Seasons) '06, '08 Games/season 162 160 144 Batting avg. .305 .311 .304 Homers/season 52 50 36 Slugging .615 .618 .558

Highlighted are his best career averages; as you can see he averaged the most games and the most home runs when on steroids. He was more of a complete player, hitting for average and had a better slugging percentage when he won his last 3-MVP awards. 167 A-Rod has (556) homers (when this article was written in 2009), but 47 of those were hit in 2003, the same MVP season he allegedly tested positive for testosterone and Primobolan. He hit 52 homers in 2001 and 57 more in 2002 -- the other two seasons that he admits he took PED's. How many of those combined 156 home runs should we deduct? Half? All (Wojciechowski, 2009)?

That is a job for the Hall of Fame voters to rummage through. While Rodríguez is still playing the game, at an extremely high level, after being caught with usage of steroids is he still considered a Hall of Fame player?

Even as an 18-year old, Rodríguez had the power and prestige of a superstar in the making. (Appendix

A), Alex's first hitting coach with the Seattle Mariners in

1994 said, "Alex had bat speed through the hitting area that I had never seen before… When he hit it, I mean, it didn't matter. It was gone (Mitchell, 2009)."

“A-Rod was probably going to have problems with a lot of the writers on the character and sportsmanship issues, but his numbers would be just too overwhelming to deny him election to the Hall (Madden, "A-Rod a total bust," 2009).”

In comparing his steroid use to the allegations of others, 168 He can continue to amass Hall-of-Fame caliber numbers, but he's not going there any more than McGwire, Bonds, Clemens and the rest of the cheats who stained the game are going there. And baseball and its fans are the poorer for it (Madden, "A-Rod a total bust," 2009).

Lee Elia also said that it is “very difficult to believe that whatever he did would have any bearing on the talent this guy has displayed offensively. We recognized it the minute we saw him. The guy is just God-gifted -- he can hit (Mitchell, 2009).”

Point is: It's the Baseball Hall of Fame. That's all. Are people coming to visit the Baseball Hall of Fame without some of the greatest players of the last 20 years? Will people still view it seriously? I sort of doubt it. Baseball has been a messy game for more than 100 years… Many cheated to get ahead (Posnanski, 2009).

If he does make it into the Hall of Fame is that unfair treatment to the other players that admitted to, tested positive for, or suspected of steroids if they are not in the Hall of Fame? 169 Players Involved

II) DENIED USAGE

Barry Bonds

“Fashion designer and entertainment entrepreneur (Ecko,

2009)” Marc Ecko (Appendix C) bought Barry Bonds' 756th home run ball and ended up donating it to the Hall of Fame

(Ecko, 2009), where it belongs with the rest of baseball history. In the article, he wrote that the steroids debate is not “about Barry (Bonds) or the record… It's about a system that rewards bad behavior and is complicit in its deception of the fans (Ecko, 2009).”

It is unclear what system he talks about, but one can argue that it's baseball. Steroids were made illegal in

1990 by Congress and after Canseco's book surfaced the New

York Daily News uncovered “Greg Stejskal (Appendix C), an

FBI Agent who claims to have warned baseball in 1995 about the burgeoning steroid problem within the sport (Bryant,

2006, p. 378).” Bud Selig, it is said, knew about the steroid problem but didn't do anything about it; he “stuck his head in the sand when steroids whispers first surfaced in the mid-1990s (Mariotti, 2010).” 170 The deception of fans that Ecko speaks about is what is really important. What if the system that he is talking about isn't baseball, but the Hall of Fame? Will the deception of fans include certain cheaters and players that violated the “sacred” Character Clause already being in the

Hall of Fame when the talents of Barry Bonds are left out?

Former Hall of Fame president Dale Petroskey (Appendix

C) admitted in 2007 that “accepting the (756th home run) ball did not mean the Hall in Cooperstown, N.Y., endorses the viewpoint that Barry Bonds used drugs ("Designer to brand,"

2007).” If the Hall of Fame, which is an impartial institution, maintains that they will accept a piece of history that they deem was not made by performance enhancers, why is it a problem from the viewpoint of Hall of Fame voters?

Back in 1992 Sports Illustrated said about Bonds,

“there is not a better player in baseball” (Rushin, 1992) while he was a member of the Pittsburgh Pirates. At the end of the 1991 season Bonds had amassed 142 home runs in six years, averaging 27 per year ("Barry Bonds Statistics" n.d.). 171 He already had one MVP award under his belt and would win two more in the next two years (1992 and 1993), ("Barry

Bonds Statistics" n.d.) his third coming when he would lead the league in home runs with 46 and RBIs with 123 ("Barry

Bonds Statistics" n.d.) in his first season with the San

Francisco Giants, in 1993.

At the end of the 2000 season he would fall four home runs shy of the 500 career home run standard that determines greatness. “The Sporting News (named) him the best player of the 90s (Schmidt, 2009).”

Over the next few years Bonds would hit home runs at an astounding pace; in a season and a half span he would hit over 100 home runs! In 2001, when he would hit his record breaking 73 home runs in a single season, he eclipsed the

500 home run mark. One year later he would surpass 600 home runs, “joining Hank Aaron, Babe Ruth and Willie Mays as the only players ever to hit 600 home runs (Rawitch,

2002).” Bonds says, “they're considered the greatest baseball players to ever live and to be in that select group is great (Rawitch, 2002).” 172 If the 600 home run plateau wasn't enough, he decorated his mantle at home with more MVP Awards.

Barry Bonds began his reign of consecutive MVP'S in 2001. Bonds finished the season with a .328 batting average, and 73 home runs… Bonds took home the MVP for the second straight year in 2002 and batted .370 with 46 home runs… Bonds won the MVP again in 2003 with a . 341 batting average and 45 home runs (Berkshire, 2009).

In 2004 Bonds was dominant again finishing with a .362 batting average and 45 home runs en route to winning his last MVP Award, giving him a record seven and fourth consecutive. As of 2009 no other major league player has won more than three ("Bonds oldest," 2004).

With the records that he set and the distinction of being one of the best players in all of baseball history, his Hall of Fame entrance should have been all but cemented. “In 2001, Bonds hit 73 homers, which isn't suspicious at all except that he averaged 32 fewer (home runs) during his previous 10 seasons and averaged 40 fewer during the previous 15 seasons (Wojciechowski, 2009).”

Unfortunately for Bonds, however,

according to a transcript of Bonds' Dec. 4, 2003, testimony… prosecutors confronted the slugger with documents allegedly detailing the steroids he used -- "the cream," "the clear," human growth hormone, Depo- Testosterone, insulin and a drug for female infertility 173 that can be used to mask steroid use ("Bonds testified," 2004).

Bonds did admit to taking “a clear substance and a cream supplied… but he said he never thought they were steroids… He claims he was told they were the nutritional supplement flaxseed oil and a rubbing balm for arthritis

(Williams & Fainaru-Wada, 2004).”

Bonds' lawyer says that a close friend, and his trainer, Greg Anderson (Appendix C), "knew what Barry's demands were. Nothing illegal… This is Barry's best friend in the world. Barry trusted him… He trusts that he never got anything illegal from Greg Anderson ("Bonds testified,"

2004)."

His lawyer also admitted that “even if the substances

Bonds took were steroids… they were not banned by baseball at the time… Bonds also maintains the substances did nothing to aid his rise as one of the game's greatest home run hitters ("Bonds testified," 2004).”

Jeff Boris (Appendix C), Bonds' agent, said that “Barry was tested several times (in 2004) and the results of those tests were negative ("Bonds testified," 2004)." 174 As much as these accusations on Bonds seemed to be without merit after his lawyer and trainer came forward,

Prosecutors also questioned Bonds about "doping calendars" and other documents showing he used illegal substances that were seized from Anderson's home in a September 2003 raid. But the slugger denied knowing the drugs were steroids and said he had no knowledge of the doping calendars, which contained his name and notes about performance-enhancing substances. He also said he had never discussed steroids with the trainer; had never asked what the products he was given contained; and was certain Anderson wouldn't give him illegal substances without his knowledge ("Bonds testified," 2004).

Bonds made a statement regarding using any products given to him by his trainer, "it was in the ballpark… in front of everybody… I mean, all the reporters, my teammates. I mean, they all saw it. I didn't hide it

("Bonds testified," 2004)." He maintained that he was unaware what he was putting in his body and had no idea it was illegal.

Some players make an argument for Bonds' place in the

Hall of Fame. Cincinnati Reds shortstop

(Appendix A), a former Bonds teammate, doesn't think the controversy should diminish Bonds' accomplishments. "He appreciates the integrity of the history of the game and would do nothing to hurt it… I don't think any of this 175 controversy should diminish his accomplishments (Jenkins,

2005).”

Others argue that Bonds is the greatest player of all time — even if you “adjust” for alleged steroid use by taking away 25% of his home runs over the last 25% of his career. "He was a great player for two decades, far before steroids was part of the landscape (Jenkins, 2005).”

“For those of you that want to diminish Bonds' achievements I point out what experts said: No steroid ever made a player a batter hitter (Billingsly, 2006).”

Recently, Bonds was “indicted for perjury and of justice… and could go to prison instead of the Hall of Fame for telling a federal grand jury he did not knowingly use performance-enhancing drugs (Quinn, Levy,

& Assael, 2007).” The indictment, “culminating a four-year investigation into steroid use by elite athletes, charged

Bonds with four counts of perjury and one of obstruction of justice (Quinn, Levy, & Assael, 2007).”

“The 10-page indictment mainly consists of excerpts from Bonds' December 2003 testimony before a federal grand 176 jury… (citing) 19 occasions in which Bonds allegedly lied under oath (Quinn, Levy, & Assael, 2007).”

The article continues,

the government obtained the results of positive steroids tests for Bonds during a search of BALCO facilities. The source said the positive results did not come from confidential testing conducted by Major League Baseball and the players' association. In approximately 2001, MLB conducted tests to gauge the level of substance problems among players. The government subpoenaed those records.

The indictment does not explain where prosecutors obtained those results, but they likely were conducted at BALCO. Bonds first visited BALCO in November 2000 and submitted to the series of urine and drug tests conducted by BALCO founder Victor Conte on every athlete who went through the lab (Quinn, Levy, & Assael, 2007).

According to the indictment, “Bonds… denied taking steroids when prosecutors showed him the results of a test from November 2000 that showed a 'Barry B' testing positive for two types of steroids.” (Quinn, Levy, & Assael, 2007)

Bonds maintains, “I've never seen these documents… I've never seen these papers (Quinn, Levy, & Assael, 2007)."

It strikes odd that Bonds, however, “has never been identified by Major League Baseball as testing positive for steroids (Quinn, Levy, & Assael, 2007).” In 2007, “Bonds… was still one of the best players in baseball. He hit 28 177 home runs in just 340 at-bats… led the National League in on-base percentage, with a colossal .480. Since 1950 only four players have bested (that) (Chafets, 209, p. 124).”

The Hall of Fame currently has an exhibit dedicated to

Bonds' record-breaking 756th home run. "As a historic museum, we have no intention of taking the exhibit down

(Quinn, Levy, & Assael, 2007)," Hall vice president Jeff

Idelson (Appendix C) said.

Steroid accusations aside, Bonds was not a player that followed the character and/or integrity creed anyway. As many other baseball players had, Barry Bonds had a mistress on the side, Kimberly Bell (Appendix C), for nine years that “spanned both of his marriages (Bryant, 2006, p.

386).” Bell says that

people want to portray me as his mistress. He was single when I met him. He brought me home to his parents and his family. I was around his children, his friends, his family, his attorney, [Giants manager] . Everybody knew who I was. None of this was secret (Deitsch, 2007).

Bell testified at the federal grand jury in March 2005 that “we were standing in my apartment and he was showing me what looked like a tumor… on his elbow. He said… it was from steroids (Deitsch, 2007)." She says that he took them 178 because he wanted to heal faster from injuries and that his injuries in 1999 and 2000 were caused by steroid use

(Bryant, 2006, p. 386).

While the next part of her testimony was self- incriminating in illegal acts, she pressed on, explaining how “Bonds instructed her to deposit cash payments (into her account)… he told her never to exceed $10,000… (because that) represents a red flag to the IRS. (He) taught her how to avoid the IRS and by extension paying his taxes

(Bryant, 2006, p. 386).” For reference, the money that was earned by Bonds was from selling memorabilia (Bryant, 2006, p. 386).

Even if Bonds is never elected to the Hall of Fame as a player with his outstanding accomplishments because of his immoral acts, at least his record breaking home run ball will be there for all to see.

Only time will tell if his attributed body change was from steroid use or just plain hard work at the gym.

However, Bonds, along with Roger Clemens, “were superstars even when they were as skinny as foul poles (Jenkins,

2010)” and before the steroid accusations. 179 Roger Clemens

If Barry Bonds is considered one of the most prolific hitters in his generation, then Roger Clemens is the prolific pitcher. “Winner of 354 games and perhaps the greatest pitcher of all-time (Gregory, 2007),” Clemens

“notched over 300 wins and 4000 strikeouts and winning an unprecedented seven Cy Young Awards for four different teams ("Roger Clemens - BR Bullpen," n.d.).” In only his second season he won both the Cy Young award and the MVP

("Roger Clemens - BR Bullpen," n.d.), a feat only done nine times (Sullivan, 2009).

Since 1997 Roger Clemens pitching record was an astonishing 162-73 (a .689 ), while he won 4-Cy Young awards. Before the accusations of being a steroid user, he was “a six-time 20-game winner, Clemens was considered by most to be a first-ballot Hall of Famer before the allegations ("Clemens: I Never," 2007).”

On January 6, 2008 Roger Clemens (RC) speaks with Mike

Wallace (Appendix C) (MW) about his involvement with the steroid scandal on an episode of 60 Minutes. 180 “One of (Clemens') former trainers, Brian McNamee, says that he himself injected Clemens with steroids and human growth hormone. McNamee's accusations were the biggest revelations in George Mitchell's report on steroid abuse for Major League Baseball (Wallace, 2008).”

Here is an excerpt of the episode, focusing on the conversation regarding the accusations in the Mitchell

Report (Wallace, 2008).

MW: He (McNamee) gave very specific examples of times he says that he injected you with steroids. During the '98 season, you were pitching for the Blue Jays. McNamee was their strength and conditioning coach. From the Mitchell Report, quote: 'Clemens approached McNamee, and for the first time, brought up the subject of using steroids. Clemens said that he was not able to inject himself and he asked for McNamee's help. McNamee injected Clemens approximately four times in the buttocks over a several week period, with needles that Clemens provided. Each incident took place in Clemens' apartment in the Sky Dome.'

RC: Never happened… Never happened. And if I have these needles and these steroids and all these drugs, where did I get 'em? Where is the person out there gave 'em to me? Please, please come forward (Wallace, 2008).

MW: Mitchell Report, quote: 'According to McNamee, from the time (he) injected Clemens with Winstrol, a steroid, through the end of the '98 season, Clemens performance showed remarkable improvement. Clemens told McNamee that the steroids, quote, had a pretty good effect on him. McNamee said Clemens was also training harder and dieting better during this time.' 181 RC: Never. I trained hard my entire career. It just didn’t happen… (Wallace, 2008).

In 2001, Tom Verducci wrote an article in Sports

Illustrated about Clemens' workout regimen, “throughout almost 18 major league seasons… Clemens has been a fitness fanatic. He so refined his training sessions with… strength coach Brian McNamee that catcher… nicknamed them

'Navy SEAL workouts' (Verducci, 2001).” Clemens won his fourth and record fifth Cy Young Awards with the Blue Jays in 1997 and 1998 ("Roger Clemens - BR Bullpen," n.d.). In

1999 Clemens was traded to New York Yankees and then they hired “McNamee as… assistant strength coach (Verducci,

2001).” On July 2, 2000, after Clemens returned from straining his right groin muscle, “he'd gone 27-3 over 46 starts (Verducci, 2001).”

Clemens would win two more Cy Young Awards, in 2001

(age 38) with the Yankees and in 2004 (age 41) with the

Houston Astros ("Roger Clemens - BR Bullpen," n.d.).

To stay in shape between pitching starts, “Clemens religiously adhere(d) to McNamee's tightly choreographed program of distance running, agility drills, weight 182 training, 600 daily abdominal crunches and assorted other tortures (Verducci, 2001).”

Clemens said that the hardest he trained was when

McNamee “wanted me to ride a stationary bike, and I told him I never thought it gave you much of a workout. He told me, 'Give me 17 minutes.' After 17 minutes I thought my legs would explode (Verducci, 2001)."

MW: Again, from the Mitchell Report, quote, 'According to McNamee, during the middle of the 2000 season, Clemens made it clear he was ready to use steroids again. And during the latter part of the season, McNamee injected Clemens in the buttocks four to six times with testosterone. Also injected Clemens four to six times with human growth hormone.'

RC: My body never changed. If he's putting that stuff up in my body, if what he's saying which is totally false, if he's doing that to me, I should have a third ear coming out of my forehead. I should be pulling tractors with my teeth.

MW: The next season, 2001. It's from the Mitchell Report, quote, 'According to McNamee, Clemens advised him in August of 2001 that he was again ready to use steroids. And shortly thereafter, McNamee injected Clemens with a steroid on four to five occasions at Clemens’ apartment'… In two of the three years that McNamee claims that he injected you - ’98 and 2001 - you won 20 games and the Cy Young Award as the American League's best pitcher.

RC: I won-in 1997, I won the Cy Young Award. 2004 when he supposedly, I wasn't doing it (Wallace, 2008). 183 While “Clemens was his league's best pitcher during two of the alleged steroid years (Wallace, 2008),” he was also his league's best a year before and three years after the claim of him taking steroids.

RC: Why didn't I keep doing it if it was so good for me? Why didn't I break down? Why didn't my tendons turn to dust? That's all it's good for. It's a quick fix. I don't believe in that. I don't do it.

MW: George Mitchell says he believes McNamee and this is why: McNamee got caught up in a federal steroids investigation, and the federal prosecutors agreed not to charge him if he told the truth about his involvement with steroids. But they would charge him if he gave any false information. So Mitchell says McNamee had strong incentives to tell the truth. What did McNamee gain by lying?

RC: Evidently not going to jail.

MW: Jail time for what?

RC: Well, I think he's been buying and movin' steroids (Wallace, 2008).

Clemens said that he learned from the Mitchell Report about (fellow Yankee pitcher) Andy Pettitte who “also trained under McNamee… said he'd injected Pettitte twice with human growth hormone. After the report came out,

Pettitte confirmed that McNamee had given him two HGH shots to recover from an elbow injury (Wallace, 2008).” When pressed on about the Pettitte admission Clemens responded 184 with, "Andy's case is totally separate. I was shocked to learn about Andy's situation. Had no idea about it

(Wallace, 2008)."

Clemens admitted that McNamee “did in fact inject him

(Clemens) but only with 'Lidocaine and B-12. It's for my joints, and B-12 I still take today.' (Wallace, 2008)”

Clemens told 60 Minutes he got legal injections from team trainers, mostly painkillers;

RC: The number of shots that you get over the course of a season, which was many for me. Whether they be vitamins or for pain, Toradol. Pain shots. To go out and perform. I had one of my biggest arguments with Joe Torre. He's wanting to scratch me on one of the biggest starts of the season. Had a small tear in my hamstring and a in my elbow”… Joe Torre and I were in the trainers' room and he basically shut the door and said, 'I don't need any damn heroes here. You didn't tell me how bad you're hurtin'. I notice you’re hurtin'… I told… Torre that I'll be damned if 15 minutes before I'm gonna start a World Series game I'm gonna go out there and look my teammates in the eye and tell 'em I can't go. I said, 'As long as the other team doesn't know that I'm hurting, I can get people out throwin' 85 without using my leg. And get you six innings under my belt.' I'm gonna take this Toradol shot and hope it works. And mask some of this pain so I can get out there and do my job. That's the things I put my body through. And I'm not ashamed of that because I get paid a lotta money to go out and perform. And I appreciate that they put that kind of trust in me (Wallace, 2008). 185 Clemens said that he was worried about “all the Vioxx pills various trainers gave him. (Because) Vioxx was a widely used anti-inflammatory and painkiller, before it was taken off the market for causing heart attacks and strokes

(Wallace, 2008).”

RC: I was eating Vioxx like it was Skittles. And now these people who are supposedly regulating it tell me it’s bad for my heart. I don't know what the future holds because of the medicine that I've eatin', but I trusted that it was not harmful. And I didn't wanna put anything in my body that was harmful (Wallace, 2008).

He also admitted that “Steroids are harmful… and would have shortened his career (Wallace, 2008).” Clemens then proceeds to ask Wallace,

RC: Why would I want to get tight or lose my flexibility, put something harmful in my system that’s gonna cause me to break down when I've had a 24-year career?

MW: Look, because you're at the end of your career, and because you don't want to give up the career and give up the fame and so forth. So if it's necessary to stick something into you…

RC: I didn't play my career to get fame or go to the Hall of Fame or worry about all that. That's nice. All that's nice. Again, it's not who I am. I've worked my tail off to get where I'm at. I'm not gonna put something in my body for a quick fix that's gonna tear me down (Wallace, 2008). 186 According to an article written, when Clemens signed with the Astros on May 31 (2006), it was exactly 50 games into the MLB season. The suspension for first-time steroids users is 50 games. One has to wonder,

is this a strange coincidence, or did Clemens get suspended?… Clemens has improved as he has gotten older; he has shown no signs of wearing down… That much of a gain in bulk and strength is a strong indication that perhaps Clemens used steroids ("Did Roger," 2006).

“The Steroid Era is now as much a part of the baseball lexicon as the Deadball Era or the Expansion Era, and all the numbers compiled in the late '90s and 2000s are subject to skepticism (Fletcher, 2009).” Clemens admits, “I think people, a lot of people, have already made their decisions…

Guilty before innocent (Wallace, 2008).”

All stats from the Steroid Era will be met with the question “were steroids responsible for that?” whether or not the player was clean or on steroids, which is unfortunate for the players that played with honesty and hard work.

The Hall of Fame voters should not forget about Clemens being one of the most dominant pitchers of all time in 187 baseball; he has the statistics that merit a Hall of Fame induction.

While the media still seems to be indignant about steroid use and what it has meant to the integrity of the game and its history… Just about the only point of agreement among the players, fans and media is that they wished the steroid story was one that didn't need to be told (Fletcher, 2009).

If the steroid issue never surfaced, unequivocally,

Clemens would be a bet for the Hall of Fame. Now the voters need to decide whether his records and stats are pure or inflated.

Rafael Palmeiro

Palmeiro stated, "I have never used steroids. Period.

I don't know how to say it any more clearly than that

("Rafael Palmeiro continues," 2009)."

So, why doesn't anyone believe him?

“The man who wagged his finger at a Congressional subcommittee to emphasize that he never used steroids, was exposed by a Major League Baseball to have, in fact, used them (Passan, 2006).”

His on-field play was superb; he “became only the 4th player in Major League Baseball history to collect over 500 home runs and 3,000 hits in his career ("Rafael Palmeiro - 188 BR Bullpen," n.d.),” however, “on Aug. 1, (2005) Palmeiro found out he had failed a steroids test and was suspended

10 days by Major League Baseball ("Rafael Palmeiro continues," 2009).”

When he returned from the suspension he was booed emphatically, did not play well in the five games back, and left the team.

Although he continues to deny knowingly taking performance enhancing drugs, he admits "I made a mistake.

I didn't really understand what I was taking and I paid for it. I paid for it very dearly. Life goes on ("Rafael

Palmeiro continues," 2009)."

"I've heard a lot of things out there that are wrong

("Rafael Palmeiro continues," 2009)." He continues,

People saying I took drugs all my life, I've never touched anything. I worked my butt off my whole career… I didn't need anything, I didn't have to cheat at the end of my career, for what? What was I going to gain from it? Whatever I took was tainted, had to have been. There's no other reason unless I got set up ("Rafael Palmeiro continues," 2009).

"What I took was a B-12 [vitamin] that was given to me by a teammate. That's it ("Rafael Palmeiro continues,"

2009)." The teammate he refers to is 189 (Appendix A), who himself states, "I've never given anybody steroids before. I've been checked out three times already, and I'm clean. I've been clean all my life (Blum,

2005)." In fact, Tejada does not deny injecting Palmeiro with B-12, "it doesn't bother me because I'm not guilty.

I've done nothing wrong. I just gave him B-12, and B-12 is legal (Blum, 2005)."

Palmeiro was a success story; “born in Cuba, raised in the United States on baseball, a star, a millionaire because of his swing, one of the all-time greats (Passan,

2006).”

While some share the same sentiment, it is up to the

Hall of Fame voters to decide his fate. It will be a tough job when his name appears on the Hall of Fame ballot, especially since Palmeiro ended his career with a staggering 569 home runs (Blum, 2005).

Sammy Sosa

Here are some of Sosa's career numbers,

• 1 MVP, 6 other top-10 finishes • 7 All-Star Games • 6 Silver Sluggers • 609 home runs (sixth all-time, as of August 2, 2010, twice led league) 190 • 1,667 RBI (26th all-time, as of August 2, 2010, twice led league) • .534 slugging percentage (43rd all-time, as of August 2, 2010) • Only player to ever hit more than 60 home runs three times • Three of the top six all-time single-season home run totals • Nine straight seasons of at least 35 home runs and 100 RBI (Snyder, 2009).

Those statistics would make any player a first ballot

Hall of Fame inductee. Sosa, on the other hand, is not just any player, the main issue surrounding the validity of his career statistics is that Sosa was “among the players who tested positive for a performance-enhancing drug in

2003, according to lawyers with knowledge of the drug- testing results from that year (Schmidt, 2009).”

“Right now, at the height of the media's collective indignation (read: overreaction) about steroid use, it's easy to say: 'He cheated. He's out' (Fletcher, 2009).”

Forget about the time when he was caught using a corked bat, it was an isolated incident. What happened then was that he “was ejected from a… game… when umpires discovered he had been using a corked bat. Major League Baseball confiscated and tested 76 of Sosa's other bats after his 191 ; all were found to be clean, with no cork ("Sammy

Sosa - BR Bullpen," n.d.).”

He had “long been suspected of using performance- enhancing drugs, but until now had never been publicly linked to a positive test (Schmidt, 2009).”

Outside of worrying about the Hall of Fame, Sosa needs to worry about legal troubles because “he testified under oath before Congress at a public hearing in 2005 that he had “never taken illegal performance-enhancing drugs

(Schmidt, 2009).” His admission then was,

To be clear, I have never taken illegal performance- enhancing drugs. I have never injected myself or had anyone inject me with anything… I've not broken the laws of the United States or the laws of the … I have been tested as recently as 2004, and I am clean ("Sammy Sosa," n.d.).

Although the “drug-test results of more than 90 major league baseball players five years ago was illegal (Duke,

2009),” 104 positive tests “were subsequently seized by federal agents on the West Coast investigating matters related to the distribution of drugs to athletes (Schmidt,

2009).”

“The players were assured that the results would remain anonymous and confidential (Duke, 2009)” because “the 192 purpose of the testing was solely to determine whether more than five percent of players tested positive, in which case there would be additional testing in future seasons (Duke,

2009)."

However, the names were leaked and it came to be that many players that have played with Hall of Fame caliber careers were named as testing positive.

Sosa believes that with his name being on the list of proven steroid users is a moot point;

Everything I achieved, I did it thanks to my perseverance, which is why I never had any long, difficult moments [as a baseball player]. If you have a bad day in baseball, and start thinking about it, you will have ten more. I will calmly wait for my induction to the Baseball Hall of Fame. Don't I have the numbers to be inducted (Snyder, 2009)?

The answer to that question is yes, but, "the illegal use in baseball of these substances also victimize the majority of players who don't use them. We heard from many former players who believe it was grossly unfair that the users were gaining an advantage ("All-Star Roster" 2007),"

George Mitchell said. 193 Players Involved

(III) OTHERS INVOLVED

Not all of the players that have had their careers tarnished because of the steroid issue have been addressed at full length in the previous sections. Here are a few other big names:

Manny Ramirez (another Hall of Fame-caliber career) was suspended 50 games for testing positive for “a female fertility drug that is used by steroid users to restore testosterone production to normal levels (Hernandez, 2009).”

Ramirez's response to testing positive was blamed on the doctor that treated him for a personal health issue;

"He gave me a medication, not a steroid, which he thought was OK to give me. Unfortunately, the medication was banned under our drug policy. Under the policy, that mistake is now my responsibility (Hernandez, 2009).”

The drug, human chorionic gonadotropin, or HCG, “could legitimately be prescribed for a man who does not naturally produce enough testosterone, but… it is often used to replenish testosterone levels at the end of a cycle of steroid treatments (Hernandez, 2009).” HCG is one of 194 dozens of substances prohibited under baseball's policy

(Hernandez, 2009).

Ramirez has passed "around 15 drug tests over the last five years (Hernandez, 2009).” When in doubt if a drug is illegal or not in the game of baseball, “players can call a hotline to check the legality of any substance and can get a therapeutic-use exemption for any legitimate medical use of a banned substance (Hernandez, 2009).”

His Hall of Fame credentials are (as of August 2,

2010); a .313 career batting average, 554 career homers

(14th on the all-time leader list), 1,827 career RBI's, good for 17th all-time, and he could be the fourth player in history to drive in 2,000 runs if he keeps his seasonal average up until 2011 ("Manny Ramirez," n.d.).

Eric Gagne was reported to have been listed on the

Mitchell Report for purchasing human growth hormone in

2004, a year after he “saved 55 games, won the Cy Young

Award and was named the National League Rolaids Relief

Pitcher of the Year (DeLong, 2007).” In '04 he won the award again while compiling 45 saves. 195 “For the next 10 or 20 years, we are going to see names crop up that have been linked to steroids one way or another (Baker, 2010).” As it has been mentioned, Bonds may be innocent in the steroid accusations, yet the public sees him as guilty, along with some Hall of Fame voters.

Andy Pettitte has pretty much gotten a free ride from fans after his Human Growth Hormone admission… All of these guys, Bonds, McGwire, Alex Rodríguez, Rafael Palmeiro, Roger Clemens, Manny Ramirez etc… were pretty darned good players to begin with -- PED's or not (Baker, 2010).

The major task at hand for the Hall of Fame voters will be to “sort out the 'clean' years from the 'dirty' ones

(Baker, 2010).” While the aforementioned guys either used or are accused of taking steroids, the substances weren't

“against the rules of baseball… but it was against the laws of this country to possess them and traffic in them for non-medical reasons (Baker, 2010).”

The article also mentions Rose and Jackson who are both banned from baseball, therefore banned from a Hall of Fame nomination; “I'm having a tough time finding evidence that

Rose or Jackson did something to directly affect the outcome of a game to a greater degree than McGwire did

(Baker, 2010).” 196 What about the players that have maintained the percentage of vote needed to remain on the ballot, although they have not been elected yet? “What about the Hall of

Fame candidates who hit 25 legit homers a year and never took steroids? Why should they be punished by being lumped into a -up pool of candidates with inflated numbers

(Baker, 2010)?”

Here are a couple of the players that question could be of reference to:

Edgar Martinez (Appendix A) was the first player in baseball history who seized the DH rule, he was “the greatest ever (Stark, "Explaining,"

2010).” For seven straight seasons Martinez batted well above .300, drove in 100 or more runs in six of those years

(in 2000 he had 145), hit at least 23 home runs each season

(he topped out at 37 home runs in 2000) and averaged 42 doubles per year ("Edgar Martinez," n.d.).

Commissioner Bud Selig called him “the greatest DH in the history of the game (Eno, 2010).” In fact, the award for Best DH is named after Martinez. And you’d leave him out of the Hall (Eno, 2010)? 197 FRED MCGRIFF (Appendix A) – Jayson Stark writes,

McGriff didn't hit 500 homers, but he missed by only seven. He didn't rack up 2,500 hits, but he missed by only 10. He slugged over .500… drove in 1,550 runs and fell just short of a .900 career OPS… And if you don't think those are Hall of Fame numbers, answer me this: How many players in history have displayed those numbers on any Hall ballot and not gotten elected? The answer is zero. None (Stark, "Explaining," 2010).

Before the Steroids Era began he was a dominant player; in the five seasons before the era began “he won two home run titles, and he was the only player in baseball who finished in the top four in his league in homers, home run ratio and OPS in all five seasons (Stark, "Explaining,"

2010).”

His stats for the years after the era began were nearly identical, “as sure an indication he was clean as you'll get without a drug test… was it HIS fault that a 35-homer,

104-RBI season was league-leader material in 1992, but made a guy Just Another Slugger in 2001 (Stark, "Explaining,"

2010)?”

Dale Murphy won consecutive National League Most

Valuable Player Awards in 1982-1983, the National League's

Silver Slugger Award four straight years from 1982-1985 and the National League's five straight years 198 (1982-1986) ("Dale Murphy Statistics," n.d.). He led the

National League in home runs and RBI twice, the Major

Leagues in home runs and runs batted in over the 10-year span from 1981 to 1990, led the National League in games, at bats, runs, hits, extra base hits, RBIs, runs created, total bases, and plate appearances in the 1980s ("Dale

Murphy Statistics," n.d.).

He also accomplished a 30-30 (30 home runs with 30 stolen bases) season in 1983, at the time he was only the

6th player since 1922 to do so. His 1983 MVP year is the only time in Major League history a player has compiled a batting average of .300, 30 home runs, 120 runs batted in,

130 runs scored, 90 bases on balls, and 30 stolen bases - with fewer than 10 times ("Dale Murphy

Statistics," n.d.).

Sports Illustrated, in fact, printed in an article in

1989 when Murphy's career was ending, “from talking to fellow writers I know… Dale Murphy might be the only active player to make it to Cooperstown (Gammons, 1989).”

Unfortunately, the Hall of Fame did not get the memo that the 1980's belonged to him statistically. His home 199 run total (398) and average (.265) were not the stuff that legends are made of, yet he his stats are better than some current Hall of Famers.

Ozzie Smith (Appendix A), no doubt a great player and deservedly in the Hall of Fame, had a lower average (.262) and only 28 career home runs. (Appendix A) had a slightly better average (.285) but had only 282 home runs. Cal Ripken Jr. only had 33 more home runs than Dale Murphy, and his career batting average was only .006 higher, at .271 (Anderson, 2009).

Murphy won five straight gold glove awards ("Dale

Murphy Statistics," n.d.) at a position (center field) that was not his original position. “He started out as catcher, then moved to 1st base and then to the outfield (Anderson,

2009).” Murphy was equal to, or better, than the above mentioned three in the statistical categories that the Hall of Fame voters don't believe are strong enough for him

(Anderson, 2009).

Baker, a Hall of Fame voter, says “but that's what being a Hall of Fame voter entails: being able to make the (Baker, 2010).” 200 An Accepted Type of Performance Enhancer

Mark McGwire was hauled before a congressional hearing and lambasted as a cheater for using a legal, performance-enhancing steroid precursor when he broke baseball's single-season home run record… Tiger Woods was celebrated for winning golf's biggest tournament, the Masters, with the help of superior vision he acquired through laser surgery. What's the difference (Saletan, 2005)?

The two play different sports but they both have had the same corrective procedure done: Lasik Surgery. “The director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse conceded… that steroids 'do, in fact, enhance certain types of physical performance'… Odds are, if you're getting LASIK, you're getting enhanced (Saletan, 2005).” “The eyes are a muscle and can be trained like a muscle. You work out every other part of the body, so why not the eyes (Olson, 1999)?"

LASIK stands for “Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis

("LASIK," n.d.)” and is a procedure that permanently changes the shape of the cornea by “precise and controlled removal of corneal tissue by a special laser reshapes the cornea changing its focusing power ("LASIK," n.d.).”

McGwire has come out and admitted that he took illegal steroids to help his career, fine. What about his high- powered contact lenses? 201 'Natural' vision is 20/20. McGwire's custom-designed lenses improved his vision to 20/10, which means he could see at a distance of 20 feet what a person with normal, healthy vision could see at 10 feet. Think what a difference that makes in hitting a fastball (Saletan, 2005).

As with steroids, there has been no research done to see if LASIK has helped those who play professional sports to rise above the rest of the pack. If the assumption is that steroids enhance an athlete's performance can we also draw the conclusion that LASIK surgery does as well?

Tiger Woods “had lost 16 straight tournaments before his surgery, ended up with 20/15 vision and won seven of his next 10 events (Saletan, 2005).” Other golfers, Tom

Kite (Appendix C) and Hale Irwin (Appendix C) had it done as well; “Kite had LASIK in 1998 and won six events on the

Champions Tour over the next five years. Three months after his surgery, Irwin captured the Senior PGA Tour Nationwide

Championship (Saletan, 2005).” Future MLB Hall of Fame pitcher Greg Maddux “was 0-3 in six starts before his surgery. He won nine of his next 10 games (Saletan, 2005)” since having it.

The sports establishment is obtuse… Leagues worry about how you might doctor bats, balls, or clubs. They don't focus on how you might doctor yourself. Look at 202 the official rules of Major League Baseball: A pitcher can't put rosin on his glove, but he can put it on his hand. A batter can't alter the bat 'to improve the distance factor,' but the rules don't bar him from altering his body to get the same result… The U.S. Golf Association's Rules of Golf share the same blind spot: You can't use a device to warm the ball, but you can use it to warm your hands. You can't use a device to measure distance or 'gauge the slope of the green,' but you can get the same powers through LASIK (Saletan, 2005).

Tiger Woods' eye surgeon admitted that "'golfers get a different three-dimensional view of the green after LASIK…

(they) can see the grain (and) small indentations'… LASIK actually produces, instead of a spherical cornea, an aspherical cornea. It may be better than normal vision

("LASIK Gains," n.d.)."

“The popularity of LASIK… has not gone unnoticed by some critics, who liken the procedure to steroids… How could vision correction be considered cheating… for some patients, the LASIK procedure results in vision that is even better than normal ("LASIK Gains," n.d.).”

Major League Baseball banned Performance Enhancing

Drugs, PED's. Lasik surgery and steroids are both performance enhancers; the only difference between the two is that steroids are health threatening. 203 Until studies have been done to show how much of an advantage a player has after Lasik surgery, taking steroids, or both together, all allegations should remain allegations. There is no proof to prove that they alter the outcome of any sport.

General Discussion

In summary of Chapter 4, there are several miscreants that have been enshrined in the Hall of Fame already, however, others still remain either banished from baseball or passed over during election time. Current violators of the Rule 5 Character Clause, because of steroid use, are waiting for their time on the ballot to come in the very near future but the outlook lies bleak for them because they are deemed guilty by association.

“Today you have become guilty until proven innocent. I wonder how Roger Maris would look today? A guy hits 61 home runs, and his other career high total is 39. In 2010 the

PED questions would be everywhere (Hannon, 2010).”

Implications for Future Research

While there were many constraints on the research done for addressing what the Character Clause means to different 204 people within the world of baseball, there still are avenues left untouched by way of future research.

With that said, here are a few ideas that could piggyback the current research done to get different perspectives on the Hall of Fame process. While the voting process is in dire need of a change, which is discussed below in the Implications for Practitioners section, it will also be touched upon slightly here.

First, current Hall of Fame players need to have a bigger say as to their own fraternity for future brethren.

As seen throughout the thesis, Hall of Fame players have various opinions towards their peers. They are the ones that have the best insight to what happens in the clubhouse and behind closed doors and what it takes to be a successful baseball player. Not allowing them to be able to vote for their past teammates and rivals is absurd.

Case and point is what other players thought about competing against Dale Murphy,

Andre Dawson (Appendix A) - If you can't be impressed by Murph, you can't be impressed. What really impresses me is how he started out as a catcher a few years back and ends up in center field with a Gold Glove. You've got to appreciate that kind of talent. 205 Nolan Ryan - I can't imagine Joe DiMaggio was a better all-around player than Dale Murphy.

Pete Rose - These days, anytime one of my pitchers keeps Murphy in the ballpark, I pat 'em on the fanny.

Ron Darling (Appendix A) - There's no doubt he's a great hitter who will get his home runs and RBIs, but the best thing about him is he also plays a great center field. In this age of specialization, when you get some guys who can steal, some who can hit, and some who can field, it's nice to see a guy who can play all the facets.

Mario Soto (Appendix A) - I don't challenge Murphy, even if he's 0 for 20. Not him, not ever (Anderson, 2009).

The Hall of Fame voters, however, do not believe as if he was a worthy adversary to the current Hall of Fame players or had a lasting impact on the game during his tenure.

Secondly, there needs to be a different process in the

Hall of Fame voting. “Expanding the voter base would not necessarily help… In fact, the more people vote, the harder it might be to get (the) 75 percent (Caple, 2010)” that is needed for election. One idea floating around on how to change it is to remove the voters who fail to vote for a player who received at least 92% of the total votes needed for election. In other words, if a voter does not vote for 206 someone such as Rickey Henderson, who received 94.81%

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 214) or Hank Aaron, who received 97.83%

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 211) they should lose their vote

(Caple, 2010).

Another idea for further research is to distinguish if steroids actually do have an effect on the performance of its users. Since no study has been done to date there is no real evidence claiming steroids help the players in ways that non-users don't benefit from.

It is hard to compare and contrast sports, but the

Hall's of Fame for all four major American sports should regularly discuss important aspects of their entrance qualifications. For example,

Hockey uses An 18-member selection committee includes media members, former players, coaches and executives. Members serve three-year terms and can be reappointed. The names of all members are public.

Football has one media member from each of the 32 NFL cities (New York has two -- one for the Jets and one for the Giants) and 11 at-large members, also from the media, serve until they retire or resign. A final member from the Pro Football Writers of America serves a two-year term. The names of all voters are public.

Basketball: A 24-member committee includes representatives from all levels of the game, media members, executives and Hall of Famers. Members serve 207 no more than three years in a row. Members serve confidentially (Friedrichs, 2010).

This past year, 2010, baseball had approximately 600 ballots distributed to voters (Friedrichs, 2010). Having that many voters could be the reason as to why some players never make it to the Hall of Fame that deserve it; a 75% vote would mean that 450 votes are needed for election! How many of those voters actually covered the players that they are supposed to elect?

Baseball is full of gray areas, “whether it’s segregation prior to 1947, whether it’s the pitcher’s ERA… expansion, the evolution of the designated hitter, the evolution of the closer, evolution of new statistics

(Pesca, Davidoff, & Telander, 2009),” and exceptions are sometimes needed. Evolution in baseball happens why so why shouldn't the Hall of Fame evolve as well?

Chicago Sun Times senior sports reporter Rick Telander

(Appendix C) “recently proposed that the Baseball Writers of America Association develop guidelines on how to vote on players suspected of using steroids (Pesca, Davidoff, &

Telander, 2009),” which was shot down. Ken Davidoff

(Appendix C), national baseball columnist for Newsday, 208 opposed the idea by saying “the idea of a committee was elevating the topic of illegal PED's to a level where it didn't belong (Pesca, Davidoff, & Telander, 2009).”

Although he doesn't believe that writers should have Hall of Fame voting privileges in the first place, it brings back the conundrum of how to alter voting.

Lastly, another research topic for the future should be what Major League Baseball's impression is about having an institution not directly associated (owned and/or operated) with it in charge of being the sole proprietary means for enshrining and immortalizing its revered players.

In order to completely satisfy that, a panel would need to be put together between Major League Baseball executives and executives from each team and have an open discussion forum.

Implications for Practitioners

The Voting Process in Place Needs to be Altered

Too many Hall of Fame voters believe they are the judge and jury and therefore believe the power that enables them to deny players worthy of induction is a sacred one. Many 209 believe the opposite, it is an honor instead. Others simply don't care.

What is a blank-ballot bandit, you ask? It's someone who gets a ballot to vote on the Baseball Hall of Fame and turns it in blank. It's like someone going to vote in a local election and turning in a blank piece of paper… If you can't be bothered to fill out a ballot, tell the BBWAA you don't want to be in it anymore and stop wasting your time, our time, and their time, because you are not an asset to the BBWAA ("MLB Hall of Fame Voting," 2010).

One of the “Blank Ballot Bandits,” Lisa Olson of

FanHouse.com, said she does not vote “because I believe journalists shouldn’t be voting on people they cover.”

(Chass, 2010) That is a good point and brings up two relevant topics: first, take her vote away and stop sending her ballots if she refuses to vote. Second is that the

Hall of Fame needs to change the way that the voting process works.

“Nearly 20 years ago I introduced a motion at a

Baseball Writers Association meeting that the organization should withdraw from voting… I don’t believe baseball writers should be voting for the Hall of Fame (Chass,

2010),” a Hall of Fame voter writes! 210 Obviously, some writers don't feel they are the proper ones to decide who gets anointed into baseball immortality.

The Hall should recognize this and step in to make a change.

Already mentioned, the voting qualifications for the

BBWAA are

Only active and honorary members of the Baseball Writers' Association of America, who have been active baseball writers for at least ten (10) years, shall be eligible to vote. They must have been active as baseball writers and members of the Association for a period beginning at least ten (10) years prior to the date of election in which they are voting.

If the Hall of Fame is going to keep the writers as the voters then they should change how the voting works; why should a publication receive multiple votes if they have multiple voters? An idea is to make the election similar to the election for President of the United States; if it works for voting for the leaders of the country then it should work for the Hall of Fame. By using this tactic it can negate how the “older generation” voters vote and the how the “current generation” voters vote and combine them.

If this change were to take effect, each publication would have their most senior representative (determined by longevity on the publication) as the representative to the 211 Baseball Hall of Fame “Electoral College.” The “Electoral

College” should anoint a Board of Directors who then tally the votes, and voila, any players with 75% or above of the votes get elected.

On how it would work: each writer for a publication, should still get a vote using current qualifications but the catch is that the publication's “Electoral College” representative should be the one to send the ballot in, and must include all of the other ballots along with for verification of the publication's vote. The senior writer on the publication will be the one to do the voting; voting for the players with the highest tally from all of the ballots received internally and then will submit the final ballot to the Board of Directors. No blank ballots will be accepted and any voter who turns in a blank ballot for two consecutive years will be stripped of their voting privilege.

For example, still using the 75% needed for election, lets say that ESPN has ten voters for the Hall of Fame and eight of the ten vote for Players A, B and D, while Players

C, and E receive only five votes (the “Electoral College” 212 representative vote is included in all). The representative will then fill out a separate ballot with one vote for Players A, B and D (those players received over the 75% of the vote) while players C, and E receive no votes (they were under the necessary 75%). The Board of

Directors will tally the votes from all publications and which ever player(s) surpass the 75% or above threshold get elected.

The Hall of Fame, in this process, will remain impartial. Hall of Fame chairman Jane Forbes Clark says,

"I stay as neutral and objective as I can (Street, 2006).”

She also mentions that when it comes time to make the calls to the newest Hall of Fame members is a great honor. "Being made a member of the Hall of Fame is life-changing, the crowning moment of a player's career, and it's a thrill to break the news to them (Street, 2006).”

Another idea for change is that something needs to be done to prevent players from being on the ballot too long.

“Enough with this nonsense of 'he belongs in the Hall of

Very Very Good' (Anderson, 2009).” Typically, the longer 213 players remain on the ballot the less likely they will be voted in.

What strikes odd in many people's minds is “if a player isn't a Hall of Famer in his first year, why should he be in any of the remaining 15 years? His statistics certainly don't change (Bodley, 2010).” What is the difference from year one to year fifteen? The player did not hit another home run, score another run, or drive in another run. The

15-year eligibility should probably be shortened.

If the chairman of the Hall of Fame is able to stay neutral then why shouldn't the baseball writers be held accountable for the same? Everyday they write articles that could either praise or put down the same athletes that they vote for in a Hall of Fame election.

Mentioned earlier in Chapter 2, some voters abuse their privilege by voting for their friends or players that treated them well, similar to Woody Paige. Is that fair?

What happens if a player who had an average career not even close to Hall of Fame standards asks a writer they are close with to vote for him on a ballot when he is up for election so he can tell his grand-kids he got at least vote 214 for the Hall of Fame. If he asks 75% of the writers to do so he now just got elected and the Hall of Fame voters that were duped cannot do anything about it.

An article found mentions ways to alter the voting and how to better it. One way, if the writers are to keep their vote,

an annual review of writers' voting histories… If a writer fails to turn in their ballot or turns in an empty one, they're on probation. If they do it twice, they can't vote the next year. A third empty ballot leads to their part in the process being revoked (Bamford, n.d.).

Another change to the process could be to include fans in the balloting. At the beginning of each decade players that have exhausted their time on the ballot should have their names on a “decade ballot,” which would be similar to an All-Star ballot, and

The writers vote would count for 47.5 percent of the total. Living Hall of Famers would vote, counting for another 47.5 percent of the total… fans would be able to vote, adding up to 5 percent of the total.

If a player achieved 85 percent of this vote, 10 percent higher than the required number for standard admission, then they get in. If not, it's nine years until they get another crack (Bamford, n.d.).

MLB already uses fans to nominate broadcasters “for the

Hall of Fame's prestigious Ford C. Frick Award (Gonzalez, 215 2009).” Fans have the opportunity to select from more than

200 eligible broadcasters and the top three selections

“appear on (a) final, 10-name ballot for the 2010 award

(Gonzalez, 2009).” Does Major League Baseball trust the fans to nominate broadcasters but not the players for the

Hall of Fame?

How about just allowing Major League Baseball to nominate the players they believe have exuded Hall of Fame statistics and traits?

A different way to include the fans on Hall of Fame balloting is to allow the current Hall of Fame committee to select

first-time nominees, and then take the previous year's top 10 vote recipients. Put them into a poll on MLB.com. Make fans register, just like we do for the All-Star Game (to "limit voting") and allow us to vote for five of the 15 players.

For every 10 percent of the vote that a player gets, they receive one additional vote for the Hall. So, in this year's case, if Alomar was on 50 percent of the fans' ballots, he would have received the five votes he would have needed to get in (Bamford, n.d.).

Why shouldn't the fans have a vote? The fans are the ones that come out and pay to see these guys play the game and pay admission for the Hall of Fame. They shouldn't 216 suffer when certain players are left out of the Hall because a baseball writer who writes an article about them didn't believe they were worthy.

In the NBA, fans get to vote for the MVP. Granted, it is not the Hall of Fame, but the fans still have a say.

Mark Tatum (Appendix C), executive vice president of NBA global marketing partnerships, said “they cheer our players all throughout the year, and it's only right that they have an opportunity to determine who the league MVP should be

(Kerby, 2010).”

The NBA does it this way, “fans can submit their votes for MVP, ranking their top five choices… The NBA Most

Valuable Player award… is our league’s most talked about and coveted individual accolade ("Fans now have," 2010).”

Isn't the Major League Baseball Hall of Fame the most coveted individual accolade post retirement?

A different way to vote for the MLB Hall of Fame could be giving the ballot to voters with the statistics of players but no names; a blind ballot. For example,

Imagine two players, A and B.

Player A had 369 home runs and a .279 batting average in a career that spanned the 1940s and 1950s. A mostly 217 one-dimensional corner outfielder, he appeared in six All-Star games, never finished higher than fourth in the MVP voting, and never played on a team that finished better than fourth in an eight-club league.

Player B, on the other hand, hit 382 home runs and had a .298 career average in the 70s and 80s. Also a corner outfielder, he appeared in eight All-Star games and won an MVP award (and finished in the top five five other times). He was an integral part of two pennant-winners, and only once did his team finish in the lower half of the standings. He had 1415 RBI to Player A's 1015.

Player A is , who was voted into the Hall of Fame by the writers in 1975. Player B is , (who was elected in 2009, his last year of eligibility) (Browner, 2007).

Using this method would be a good way to keep the identities of the players secret and have the voters vote just on statistics alone, which should be the stamp on how greatness is measured. Since the Hall currently has to nominate players for the ballot in the first place

(Friedrichs, 2010), if a player that is not deemed worthy by the voters makes it on the ballot it is because the Hall had already made the decision that these players were good enough to be entered into the pool of Hall of Fame candidates and should receive the proper respect and consideration along with all of the Hall of Fame finalists. 218 While there are many different ways of enhancing and updating the Hall of Fame voting process listed there does not seem to be a right or a wrong way. No matter which way is chosen, if in fact the voting process gets altered, who's to say that one, or a combination of all listed, would work better?

Even (Appendix C), a Hall of Fame voter, admits that voters should not vote!

First and foremost, it's a clear conflict of interest. As a writer, I should be reporting on the news and not making it. It's Journalism 101 (I assume, since I was a history major). It's not my place, as a reporter, to determine whether is inducted into the Hall of Fame, no more than it would be for a Capitol Hill reporter to cast a vote on health-care legislation while reporting on it.

But really, the most important reason why the writers should not be voting is that it has become increasingly evident that the voters, as a group, don't really have a clear understanding of what the standards for the Hall of Fame are, particularly in this time, as the ballot gains more and more players touched by the steroids issue.

Some (not many) don't vote for any candidate in their first year on the ballot, although the rules say they can. Some don't vote for candidates because they didn't like them personally, or because they didn't like how they played (Olney, 2010).

There still will be debates that “worthy” candidates have been omitted from being elected while fans, and 219 others, may still be upset if their favorite players are omitted. There is no full-proof way to vote, nor is there a way to make everyone happy.

The only standing fact is that there are current players in the Hall of Fame that have abused the Character

Clause prerequisite while there remain worthy players that may not be elected for the same character and integrity qualifications. 220 CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Summary

The purpose of the research study was to (1) compare the different scandals that have occurred and the different ways of cheating in the sport of baseball, (2) research the

Steroid Era and the players that have their name associated with it, and (3) look at the Major League Baseball Hall of

Fame and explain how the purposes have an affect on being considered a Hall of Fame player using the Rule 5 Character

Clause Hall of Fame entrance criteria.

The research questions for this study were the following:

1. What constitutes being considered a scandalous

player in baseball?

2. Who in Major League Baseball history is considered

a scandalous player,

A) Already in the Hall of Fame,

B) Not in the Hall of Fame. 221 The review of literature in relationship to the research purpose and research questions are divided into the following sections: (1) Different Types of

Scandals/Ways of Cheating In Baseball, (2) Players That

Were Involved in Different Scandals, (3) Major League

Baseball Hall of Fame Entrance Qualifications, (4) How the

Hall of Fame Voting Committee Has Not Had Consistency in

Their Voting, and (5) Current Hall of Famers' Opinions.

This was accomplished by answering the research questions proposed in Chapter 1,

1. What constitutes being considered a scandalous

player in baseball?

2. Who in Major League Baseball history is considered

a scandalous player,

A) Already in the Hall of Fame,

B) Not in the Hall of Fame.

What constitutes being considered a scandalous player in baseball? Acts considered scandals and/or cheating are

“those… that threaten the integrity of the game (Zumsteg,

2007, p. xiv).” The Hall of Fame takes it a step further 222 and considers whether or not a player has acted with integrity and sportsmanship.

Bill James who “has become part of baseball legend

(McGrath, 2003)” explained in his book, Whatever Happened to the Baseball Hall of Fame, that he “drew up a list of questions that might be used to evaluate where a player stands as a potential Hall of Famer… Question #15, Did the player uphold the standards of sportsmanship and character

(James, 1995, pg. 274-275)?”

Throughout the thesis it was clearly explained that there are players that have been involved in transgressions which do not live up to the Integrity and Character classifications that the Hall of Fame looks for in a candidate, yet they have been inducted. This brings the second research question, Who in Major League Baseball history is considered a scandalous player?

The list of alcoholics include Babe Ruth, Grover

Cleveland Alexander, Mickey Mantle (who eventually died from liver failure due to alcoholism), Jimmie Foxx, Hack

Wilson, King Kelly (who drank during games) (Chafets, 2009, pg. 61) and Paul Waner who was so good that he was able to 223 slide without breaking the bottle of alcohol that he carried on the field with him (Chafets, 2009, pg. 61).

Womanizers (while married) include Wade Boggs, Babe

Ruth, and Barry Bonds. Kirby Puckett takes the cake though; he cheated on his wife and mistress with many women, (Deford, 2003) was accused of assault on his wife and his mistress, and threatened his wife and child.

Joe DiMaggio was also considered an abuser. He

“struck… (his wife Marilyn Monroe) on occasion, and in the years following their divorce, he stalked her (Madden,

2000).” On top of that, DiMaggio was associated with the

Mob.

Ty Cobb could be considered in a league of his own.

He “was a sociopath, a nasty drunk, a raving racist and maybe a murderer (Chafets, 2009, pg. 50).” He was convicted for assault and battery, beat up a man with no arm during a baseball game when he ran into the stands

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 52), choked a man's wife (Schwartz, “He was a pain,” n.d.), and beat a man's face to an unrecognizable pulp with the butt of his pistol (Schwartz,

“He was a pain,” n.d.). These traits surely lack integrity 224 and exemplifying good character, but as far as anyone knows they had no effect on the outcome of a baseball game.

Game fixers include Cobb and Tris Speaker, although they were found not guilty by the Commissioner. Rogers

Hornsby was notorious for gambling.

Ferguson Jenkins was a drug addict who was arrested in

Canada and Paul Molitor was also an admitted user of cocaine.

Gaylord Perry admitted to cheating, “by loading up the baseball with foreign substances, and for this, he was glorified, and not disqualified (Olney, 2010).”

All are in the Hall of Fame. Pete Rose, who was suspended from baseball for gambling on his own team and

Joe Jackson who was said to be a part of the 1919 White Sox that threw the World Series, are not.

Listed in the thesis are many more vile and disturbing antics that the same baseball players that fans look up to and cherish as heroes have been involved in. “There are presumably many Hall of Famers who presumably used performance-enhancing drugs, in the form of amphetamines, and for this they are not disqualified (Olney, 2010).” 225 The Steroid Era has tarnished many of the recent home run records and beloved players' careers which make the argument about the Hall of Fame voters allowing them in hard because they have not made a decision about any of the players yet. Mark McGwire has come out and admitted that he took steroids after years of speculation. Although his career numbers were not a lock for a Hall of Fame induction prior to his torrid home run streak from 1998-retirement to begin with, he is no longer on the ballot. It is hard to make judgment on the future of voting, but one can assume from what current Hall of Fame voters believe about the

Steroid Era that the players should be disqualified.

In 2011, Rafael Palmeiro will be up for election,

“there's no question about the numbers here… But his involvement in a headline-making performance-enhancing drug scandal of his own figures to loom large in voters' minds

(Miller, 2010.”) To recap, Palmeiro has never tested positive for any performance-enhancing drug, nor has he admitted to it.

The ballot in 2013 looks to be the most interesting one seeing as major names from the Steroid Era will be 226 judged. “More history-makers will be on the ballot soon enough… as judgment begins on the controversial, steroid- accusation-clouded careers of MLB's all-time home run king,

Barry Bonds, one of its most accomplished pitchers, Roger

Clemens, and 600-homer-club member Sammy Sosa (Miller,

2010).”

“Bonds, the all-time home run leader, and Clemens, winner of an unprecedented seven Cy Young Awards, normally would be locks for first-ballot election to the Hall of

Fame (Shaikin, 2009).” However, “Bonds has been charged with perjury, and Clemens soon could be. The federal government claims it can prove Bonds lied when he said he never knowingly used steroids, and would make the same claim about Clemens (Shaikin, 2009).”

Alex Rodríguez, who in 2009 came out and admitted after one of his positive tests was leaked, is still considered to be a Hall of Fame player by some.

If he does eventually get elected once he retires, which is the distant future, what does that say about the voters if they do not vote in any of the players that have never tested positive? “Once some players who have been 227 associated with steroids are in the Hall of Fame, the argument against the others will become unsustainable

(Stanmyre, 2009).”

“(Steroids) will not help a batter connect with a baseball, or a pitcher throw one with control and movement.

Steroids might make a great player greater, but they will not send a mediocrity to Cooperstown (Chafets, 2009, pg.

185).”

Conclusions

The Rule 5 Character Clause in Hall of Fame voting either works too well (by keeping certain players out) or not well enough (allowing players with mediocre careers in in-luau of others being kept out).

The all-time hits leader (Mr. Peter E. Rose) won't be in the Hall of Fame.

The all-time home run leader (assuming that's where A- Rod's highway leads him) won't be in the Hall of Fame.

The man who broke Hank Aaron's career record (Barry Bonds) won't be in the Hall.

The man who broke Roger Maris' single-season record (Mark McGwire) won't be in the Hall.

The man who was once the winningest right-handed pitcher of the live-ball era (Roger Clemens) won't be in the Hall. 228 The man with the most 60-homer seasons in baseball history (Sammy Sosa) doesn't look like he's headed for the Hall, either (Stark, 2009).

Throughout the history of Hall of Fame voting, the voters have not had consistency. Allowing certain players in that have violated the Character Clause would be a fine resolution if the voters allowed all of the players in

(that deserve to be there statistically, of course). If one is kept out, they all should be.

Some of the players that are being kept out which have put up statistics that may merit induction are Dave Parker, who was involved in a drug scandal, and Steve Garvey, who was involved in a cocaine scandal, two paternity suits with two different women who weren’t his wife, dodging bills, and more.

Cheating is cheating; it can be used in any context and still be considered immoral and unethical. Sometimes it is easier to gain perspective when one steps back and looks from the outside in.

How would a college react if they found out that one of their recently graduated students cheated, and how would 229 they react if they found out that one of their current undergraduate students cheated?

One can suppose that the undergraduate would face tougher discipline than the graduated student with the exception of work references, if a potential employer calls.

The undergraduate may be dismissed, which is what happened in Virginia a few years ago. “An 'alarmingly large fraction' of the first-year class of economics graduate students… were involved in a cheating incident… At least one student found answers for a course taken by all first-year students, and apparently shared the information with classmates (Epstein, 2005).”

The final result, “there is only one punishment available for students caught lying, cheating, or stealing:

'permanent dismissal from the university' (Epstein, 2005).”

There was no suspension with a stern warning for some students, nor did the honor committee, “made up of 23 students (Epstein, 2005),” sort through and compare GPA's of the students involved and dismiss the charges of undergraduates with a GPA close to 4.0. “The overall idea 230 is that the strict honor committee enforces the overall community of trust that governs the university (Epstein,

2005)” If the committee believes that a former student was involved in cheating, “we would still pursue that student

(Epstein, 2005).”

If ultimately a graduate ends up being caught as an accomplice in a cheating scandal who makes the determination of what to do? Does the school call the employer and tell them of the transgression? Does the school take the degree away? While it is obvious that cheating in school and the extent of cheating in baseball are nowhere near each other, there remains no difference between the fact that both are altering the outcome of a desired result.

Nobody gets a free pass to graduation if they broke the character and integrity code, they are dealt with strictly and harshly. In baseball, the Hall of Fame voters pick and choose who they believe lived up to the standards of character and integrity, whether or not the player did.

The Hall of Fame voting committee has used their own opinions of what cheating is and who broke the Character 231 Clause in past elections to vote, and voted for who they believed performed at a Hall of Fame level. If the Hall of

Fame was not as opinionated and traverse as it is then some of the players with statistics similar to those in the Hall of Fame would have passage into the bonds of everlasting baseball immortality by a more balanced judge and jury.

In order to have a more proportional voting process there are suggestions that have already been mentioned, however, there are standards that should be set for the voters.

Right now, people get a vote by being a member of the

BBWAA for at least ten years.

Once that happens, it does not appear that you can lose your vote at any future point. Meaning, even if you stopped attending games in the 1980's, you still vote. Whether or not you step in a press box, you continue to get a ballot and can send it in. Even if you send it in blank. The only way non-members get to vote is if their market has no members. Then, one writer (or editor) is given a vote for the Hall of Fame (Hager, 2010).

A good change can be that if baseball writers still receive a vote the ten-year requirement should stay in place but put a time limit on the voting capabilities. A voter should remain a voter for 25-years and then have 232 their vote for current Hall of Fame candidates revoked and placed into the Veterans Committee. Alternately, once a voter retires they can only vote for the next ten years.

By doing this, the writers would have a more accurate vote; there are too many voters that compare players from different eras.

It is impossible to judge greats like Babe Ruth against modern players today. The competition and skill level simply is not the same as it was then. Therefore, all we can do is judge them against who they played against and determine whether or not they were worthy of being considered elites of that period (Hager, 2010).

How about including teammates, managers, and opponents of the candidates since they have the best experience when it comes to playing baseball.

ESPN Magazine interviewed 100 Major League Baseball players in March 2010 and asked these pertinent questions

(Ain, Clemmons, & Knight, 2010):

• Should Barry Bonds be in the Hall of Fame? The results were, “67% felt Bonds deserves enshrinement. 'He's one of the greatest hitters ever,' says one veteran infielder.” However, 32% said “'No way… he juiced out of his mind.”

• On a typical 25-man roster, how many players do you think are taking PED's? “Fourteen players declined to answer… 1.2 guys per dugout-which would mean 5%” It continues that none are taking steroids, but, because 233 of no blood test for performance enhancers some are using HGH (Ain, Clemmons, & Knight, 2010).

The results show that the players know more about what happens during a game (pre- and post- as well) than the writers, so leaving them without a Hall of Fame vote may seem incredulous to some.

Even Hall of Famer Mike Schmidt had something to say about the voting process. He sent an e-mail into the radio show Mike and Mike in the Morning on ESPN which they read

(Greenburg, Golic, & Schmidt, 2010). It said,

Baseball writers should not have the final say in Hall of Fame voting. Never should have. Some honorable committee of baseball associated people, including selected, elected, Hall of Famers representing each era should have the final say on whose achievements are worthy of entrance into their fraternity. The Baseball Hall of Fame is the most exclusive sports fraternity in existence and its legitimacy going forward should be in its own hands…

This exclusive committee can do the reverse; create a list of ten finalists for the writers to vote on. (Greenburg, Golic, & Schmidt, 2010)

One of the hosts of the show, Mike Golic (Appendix C), answers with,

I just want the best people in position to vote on this. If its a committee like this, great… is it as simple as laying down their stat sheet… comparing to other Hall of Famers and saying 'Yay' or 'Nay'… If it’s as simple than that then you can get anybody to 234 vote for the Hall of Fame… Is it a stat sheet that plopped down that says yea, he compares favorably to other Hall of Famers… yea, he is in the club. (Greenburg, Golic, & Schmidt, 2010)

One of the most important things that Golic says is if the voters have not seen them play “then you can't comment on their character or anything outside their stats

(Greenburg, Golic, & Schmidt, 2010).”

Mike Greenburg (Appendix C), the other host, chimes in with,

Context. You need to take someone's career achievements and put them in the context of which the era that which they played… that will determine whether someone is worthy of inclusion in what Mike Schmidt calls it 'the most exclusive fraternity in the baseball world (Greenburg, Golic, & Schmidt, 2010).

Buster Olney came up with the best option yet, similar to what Schmidt had to offer, “The Hall of Fame should form its own committee that determines who gets a plaque (Olney,

2010).”

Recommendations for Future Research

As it was expressed prior in Chapter 4, there are alternate points of view that have not been expressed yet.

The Hall of Fame, current Hall of Fame voters, current Hall of Fame players, current baseball players, owners, the 235 Commissioner and other personnel have not been interviewed.

Those are important individuals in the realm of baseball and should be more closely associated with the lack of inconsistency the Hall of Fame has allowed.

While the thesis has served as a forum to denounce the

Hall of Fame voting standards, or lack thereof, it should be as clear as day to the Hall of Fame that something needs to change. Whether it be the voters, voting process, entrance qualifications or even giving Major League

Baseball more ownership towards the facility that they have agreed to have to honor their elite, shaking things up would be a good start to right the inconsistencies Hall of

Fame voters have been accustomed to.

Multiple Hall of Fame voters, critics, bloggers (who are the paying customers that make the trips to the Hall) and experienced journalists have made the point numerous times throughout articles written, yet the Hall of Fame turns a blind eye.

The use of performance-enhancing drugs needs to be tested and researched as to the extent of how they help the athletes that take them. Until that is done it will be 236 difficult to make a solid decision on who has cheated and who has not.

Currently, the bottom line stands with the fact that the Hall of Fame voting committee has allowed cheaters and degenerates into the Hall of Fame already. There are certain cheaters, degenerates and other miscreants that have not been elected for their actions yet and some that are up for election soon.

The only way that the Character Clause instituted by the Hall of Fame will work properly is if the Hall of Fame realizes that it is their institution that is being effected negatively by the Hall of Fame voters. “The Hall itself should get out of the moral-judgment game by repealing the Character Clause. Nothing drains and institution's integrity like fake claims of integrity

(Chafets, 2009, pg. 195).”

The voters uphold the sacred tradition of honoring baseball players by voting them into the Hall of Fame but there still are issues that need to be resolved since not every player in the Hall of Fame deserves to be there, according to the character standards. 237 “If the Hall of Fame decides to exclude the greatest players in baseball because a bunch of baseball writers… think they lack character (Chafets, 2009, pg. 193)” that is just flat out wrong.

Sam Reich (Appendix C), a baseball historian, who wrote the book Waiting for Cooperstown, said,

My feeling on this is that nobody should be judgmental unless we have more information than we do now… I think there should be a general policy on this and not have individuals make their own policy. I heard people say, 'I'm not going to vote on McGwire regardless or Bonds regardless,' and that's not right (Nightengale, 2007).

All of the greatest baseball players, no matter if they had squeaky clean backgrounds or not, should be inducted into the Hall of Fame. “The Hall of Fame doesn't enshrine saints, and it never has. It enshrines baseball greatness (Chafets, 2009, pg. 197).”

The day when Dale Murphy, , Edgar

Martinez, Joe Jackson, the Steroid Era boys, Pete Rose and others are finally voted in is the day when the Hall of

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APPENDIX A LIST OF BASEBALL PLAYERS 292 Aaron, Hank - Played for the Milwaukee / Braves (1954-1974) and (1975-1976). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1982.

Alexander, Pete (Grover Cleveland) – Played for the (1911–1917) and (1930), Chicago Cubs (1918–1926) and the St. Louis Cardinals (1926–1929). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1938.

Anderson, Brady – Played for the Boston Red Sox (1988) , Baltimore Orioles (1988–2001) and Cleveland Indians (2002).

Aurilia, Rich – Played for the San Francisco Giants (1995– 2003), Seattle Mariners (2004), (2004), Cincinnati Reds (2005–2006) and San Francisco Giants (2007– 2009).

Bancroft, Dave - Played for the Philadelphia Phillies (1915-1920), New York Giants (1920-1923, 1930), Boston Braves (1924-1927) and Brooklyn Robins (1928-1929). Managed the Boston Braves (1924-1927). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1971.

Bergen, Marty - Played for the Boston Beaneaters (1896- 1899).

Blue, Vida – Played for the Oakland Athletics (1969–1977), San Francisco Giants (1978–1981), Kansas City Royals (1982– 1983) and San Francisco Giants (1985–1986).

Boggs, Wade – Played for the Boston Red Sox (1982–1992), New York Yankees (1993–1997) and Tampa Bay Devil Rays (1998–1999). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2005.

Bonds, Barry - Played for the Pittsburgh Pirates (1986– 1992) and San Francisco Giants (1993–2007).

Boudreau, Lou – Played for the Cleveland Indians (1938- 1950) and Boston Red Sox (1951-1952). Manager of the Cleveland Indians (1942-1950), Boston Red Sox (1952-1954), Kansas City Athletics (1955-1957) and Chicago Cubs (1960). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1970. 293 Bournigal, Rafael - Played for Los Angeles Dodgers (1992- 1994), Oakland Athletics (1996-1998) and Seattle Mariners (1999).

Bouton, Jim – Played for the New York Yankees (1962-1968), (1969), (1969-1970) and (1978).

Bowa, Larry – Played for the Philadelphia Phillies (1970– 1981), Chicago Cubs (1982–1985) and New York Mets (1985). Managed the San Diego Padres (1987–1988) and Philadelphia Phillies (2001–2004).

Bunning, Jim – Played for the (1955-1963), Philadelphia Phillies (1964-1967), Pittsburgh Pirates (1968-1969), Los Angeles Dodgers (1969) and Philadelphia Phillies (1970-1971). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1996.

Caminiti, Ken – Played for the Houston Astros (1987–1994), San Diego Padres (1995–1998), Houston Astros (1999–2000), Texas Rangers (2001) and Atlanta Braves (2001).

Canseco, Jose – Played for the Oakland Athletics (1985– 1992), Texas Rangers (1992–1994), Boston Red Sox (1995– 1996), Oakland Athletics (1997), (1998), Tampa Bay Devil Rays (1999–2000), New York Yankees (2000) and Chicago White Sox (2001).

Cepeda, Orlando – Played for the San Francisco Giants (1958–1966), St. Louis Cardinals (1966–1968), Atlanta Braves (1969–1972), Oakland Athletics (1972), Boston Red Sox (1973), and Kansas City Royals (1974). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1999.

Cicotte, Eddie - Played for the Detroit Tigers (1905), Boston Red Sox (1908-1912) and Chicago White Sox (1912- 1920).

Clemens, Roger - Played for the Boston Red Sox (1984–1996), Toronto Blue Jays (1997–1998), New York Yankees (1999– 2003), Houston Astros (2004–2006) and New York Yankees (2007). 294 Clemente, Roberto - Played for: Pittsburgh Pirates (1955– 1972). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973.

Cobb, Ty – Played for the Detroit Tigers (1905–1926) and the Philadelphia Athletics (1927–1928). Managed the Detroit Tigers (1921–1926). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936.

Combs, Earle – Played for the New York Yankees (1924-1935). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1970.

Crawford, Sam (Wahoo) - Played for the Cincinnati Reds (1899-1902) and Detroit Tigers (1903-1917). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1957.

Darling, Ron – Played for the New York Mets (1983-1991), (1991) and Oakland Athletics (1991-1995).

Dawson, Andre – Played for the Montreal Expos (1976–1986), Chicago Cubs (1987–1992), Boston Red Sox (1993–1994) and Florida Marlins (1995–1996). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2010.

DiMaggio, Joe – Played for the New York Yankees (1936–1942, 1946–1951). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1955.

Duncan, Dave – Played for the Kansas City/Oakland Athletics (1964, 1967-1972), Cleveland Indians (1973-1974) and Baltimore Orioles (1975-1976).

Elia, Lee – Played for the Chicago White Sox (1966, 1968). Managed the Chicago Cubs (1982-1983) and Philadelphia Phillies (1987-1988).

Elster, Kevin – Played for the New York Mets (1986-1992), New York Yankees (1994-1995), Philadelphia Phillies (1995), Texas Rangers (1996, 1998), Pittsburgh Pirates (1997) and Los Angeles Dodgers (2000).

Flick, Elmer - Played for the Philadelphia Phillies (1898- 1900), Philadelphia Athletics (1901), Cleveland Bronchos/Naps (1901-1910). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1963. 295 Ford, Whitey – Played for New York Yankees (1950, 1953- 1967). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1974.

Foxx, Jimmie – Played for the Philadelphia Athletics (1925– 1935), Boston Red Sox (1936–1942), Chicago Cubs (1942, 1944) and Philadelphia Phillies (1945). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1951.

Gagne, Eric - Played for the Los Angeles Dodgers (1999– 2006), Texas Rangers (2007), Boston Red Sox (2007) and Milwaukee Brewers (2008).

Garvey, Steve - Played for the Los Angeles Dodgers (1969– 1982) and San Diego Padres (1983–1987).

Gehrig, Lou – Played for the New York Yankees (1923–1939). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 1939.

Gonzalez, Juan - Played for the Texas Rangers (1989–1999), Detroit Tigers (2000), Cleveland Indians (2001), Texas Rangers (2002–2003), Kansas City Royals (2004) and Cleveland Indians (2005).

Gooden, Dwight - Played for the New York Mets (1984–1994), New York Yankees (1996–1997), Cleveland Indians (1998– 1999), Houston Astros (2000), Tampa Bay Devil Rays (2000) and New York Yankees (2000).

Gossage, Richard “Goose” - Played for the Chicago White Sox (1972–1976), Pittsburgh Pirates (1977), New York Yankees (1978–1983), San Diego Padres (1984–1987), Chicago Cubs (1988), San Francisco Giants (1989), New York Yankees (1989), Fukuoka Daiei Hawks (1990), Texas Rangers (1991), Oakland Athletics (1992–1993) and Seattle Mariners (1994). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 2008.

Griffey Jr., Ken – Played for the Seattle Mariners (1989– 1999), Cincinnati Reds (2000–2008), Chicago White Sox (2008), Seattle Mariners(2009–present).

Gwynn, Tony - Played for the San Diego Padres (1982-2001). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 2007. 296 Heilmann, Harry - Played for the Detroit Tigers (1914, 1916-1929) and Cincinnati Reds (1930, 1932). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 1952.

Henderson, Rickey - Played for the Oakland Athletics (1979– 1984), New York Yankees (1985–1989), Oakland Athletics (1989–1993), Toronto Blue Jays (1993), Oakland Athletics (1994–1995), San Diego Padres (1996–1997), Anaheim Angels (1997), Oakland Athletics (1998), New York Mets (1999– 2000), Seattle Mariners (2000), San Diego Padres (2001), Boston Red Sox (2002) and Los Angeles Dodgers (2003). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2009.

Hernandez, Keith - Played for the St. Louis Cardinals (1974–1983), New York Mets (1983–1989) and Cleveland Indians (1990).

Hodges, Gil - Played for the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers (1943, 1947–1961) and New York Mets (1962–1963). Managed the Washington Senators (1963–1967) and New York Mets (1968–1971).

Hornsby, Rogers - Played for the St. Louis Cardinals (1915- 1926, 1933), New York Giants (1927), Boston Braves (1928), Chicago Cubs (1929-1932) and St. Louis Browns (1933-1937). Managed the St. Louis Cardinals (1925-1926), New York Giants (1927), Boston Braves (1928), Chicago Cubs (1930- 1932), St. Louis Browns (1933-1937, 1952) and Cincinnati Reds (1952-1953). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1942.

Howe, Steve – Played for the Los Angeles Dodgers (1980– 1983, 1985), (1985), Texas Rangers (1987) and New York Yankees (1991–1996).

Hoyt, LaMarr - Played for the Chicago White Sox (1979–1984) and San Diego Padres (1985–1986).

Jackson, Joe “Shoeless” - Played for Philadelphia Athletics (1908–1909),Cleveland Naps/Indians (1910–1915), Chicago White Sox (1915–1920).

Jenkins, Ferguson - Played for the Philadelphia Phillies (1965–1966), Chicago Cubs (1966–1973), Texas Rangers (1974– 297 1975), Boston Red Sox (1976–1977), Texas Rangers (1978– 1981)and Chicago Cubs (1982–1983). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1991.

Jennings, Hugh “Hughie” - Played for the (1891-1893), Baltimore Orioles (1893-1899), Brooklyn Superbas (1899-1900,1903), Philadelphia Phillies (1901-1902) and Detroit Tigers (1907,1909,1912,1918). Managed Detroit Tigers (1907-1920) and the New York Giants (1924-1925). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1945.

Jeter, Derek – Played for the New York Yankees (1995- present).

Kelly, King – Played for the Cincinnati Reds (1878–1879), Chicago White Stockings (1880–1886), Boston Beaneaters (1887–1889), (1890), Cincinnati Kelly's Killers (1891), Boston Reds (1891), Boston Beaneaters (1891–1892) and New York Giants (1893). Managed the Boston Beaneaters (1887), Boston Reds (1890) and Cincinnati Kelly's Killers (1891). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1945.

Leonard, Hubert “Dutch” - Played for the Boston Red Sox (1913-1918) and Detroit Tigers (1919-1921, 1924-1925).

Maddux, Greg - Played for the Chicago Cubs (1986–1992), Atlanta Braves (1993–2003), Chicago Cubs (2004–2006), Los Angeles Dodgers (2006), San Diego Padres (2007–2008) and Los Angeles Dodgers (2008).

Mantle, Mickey - Played for the New York Yankees (1951– 1968). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1974.

Maranville, Rabbit - Played for the Boston Braves (1912– 1920, 1929–1935), Pittsburgh Pirates (1921–1924), Chicago Cubs (1925), Brooklyn Robins (1926) and St. Louis Cardinals (1927–1928). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1954.

Maris, Roger – Played for the Cleveland Indians (1957– 1958), Kansas City Athletics (1958–1959), New York Yankees (1960–1966) and St. Louis Cardinals (1967–1968).

Martin, Billy – Played for the New York Yankees (1950– 1957), Kansas City Athletics (1957), Detroit Tigers (1958), Cleveland Indians (1959), Cincinnati Reds (1960), Milwaukee 298 Braves (1961) and Minnesota Twins (1961). Managed the Minnesota Twins (1969), Detroit Tigers (1971–1973), Texas Rangers (1973–1975), New York Yankees (1975–1978, 1979, 1983, 1985, 1988) and Oakland Athletics (1980–1982).

Martinez, Edgar - Played for the Seattle Mariners (1987– 2004).

Mattingly, Don - Played for the New York Yankees (1982– 1995).

Mays, Willie - Played for the New York/San Francisco Giants (1951–1952, 1954–1972) and New York Mets (1972–1973). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 1979.

McCovey, Willie – Played for the San Francisco Giants (1959–1973), San Diego Padres (1974–1976), Oakland Athletics (1976) and San Francisco Giants (1977–1980). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1986.

McGraw, John – Played for the Baltimore Orioles (NL) (1891– 1899), St. Louis Cardinals (1900), Baltimore Orioles (AL) (1901–1902) and New York Giants (1902–1906). Managed the Baltimore Orioles (NL) (1899), Baltimore Orioles (AL) (1901–1902) and New York Giants (1902–1932). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 1937.

McGriff, Fred - Played for the Toronto Blue Jays (1986– 1990), San Diego Padres (1991–1993), Atlanta Braves (1993– 1997), Tampa Bay Devil Rays (1998–2001), Chicago Cubs (2001–2002), Los Angeles Dodgers (2003) and Tampa Bay Devil Rays (2004).

McGwire, Mark – Played for the Oakland Athletics (1986– 1997) and St. Louis Cardinals (1997–2001).

McLain, Denny - Played for the Detroit Tigers (1963–1970), Washington Senators (1971), Oakland Athletics (1972) and Atlanta Braves (1972).

McRae, Brian - Played for the Kansas City Royals (1990- 1994), Chicago Cubs (1995-1997), New York Mets (1997-1999), (1999) and Toronto Blue Jays (1999). 299 Molitor, Paul – Played for 21 seasons with the Milwaukee Brewers (1978–92), Toronto Blue Jays (1993–95), and Minnesota Twins (1996–98). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 2004.

Morgan, Joe - Played for the Houston Colt .45's/Astros (1963–1971), Cincinnati Reds (1972–1979), Houston Astros (1980), San Francisco Giants (1981–1982), Philadelphia Phillies (1983) and Oakland Athletics (1984). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1990.

Murphy, Dale - Played for the Atlanta Braves (1976–1990), Philadelphia Phillies (1990–1992) and Colorado Rockies (1993).

Musial, Stan - Played for the St. Louis Cardinals (1941– 1944, 1946–1963). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1969.

O'Neil, Buck – Played for Memphis Red Sox (1927), (1938-1943, 1946-1950) in the Negro Leagues.

Olivia, Tony - Played for the Minnesota Twins (1962–1976).

Palmeiro, Rafael - Played for the Chicago Cubs (1986–1988), Texas Rangers (1989–1993), Baltimore Orioles (1994–1998), Texas Rangers (1999–2003) and Baltimore Orioles (2004–2005).

Palmer, Jim - Played for the Baltimore Orioles (1965–1984). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1990.

Parker, Dave – Played for the Pittsburgh Pirates (1973– 1983), Cincinnati Reds (1984–1987), Oakland Athletics (1988–1989), Milwaukee Brewers (1990), California Angels (1991) and Toronto Blue Jays (1991).

Perry, Gaylord - Played for the San Francisco Giants (1962– 1971), Cleveland Indians (1972–1975), Texas Rangers (1975– 1977), San Diego Padres (1978–1979), Texas Rangers (1980), New York Yankees (1980), Atlanta Braves (1981), Seattle Mariners (1982–1983) and Kansas City Royals (1983). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1991. 300 Pettitte, Andy - Played for the New York Yankees (1995– 2003), Houston Astros (2004–2006) and New York Yankees (2007–present).

Puckett, Kirby - Played for the Minnesota Twins (1984– 1995). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2001.

Raines, Tim - Played for the Montreal Expos (1979–1990), Chicago White Sox (1991–1995), New York Yankees (1996– 1998), Oakland Athletics (1999), Montreal Expos (2001), Baltimore Orioles (2001) and Florida Marlins (2002).

Ramirez, Manny - Played for the Cleveland Indians (1993– 2000), Boston Red Sox (2001–2008) and Los Angeles Dodgers (2008–present).

Ripken Jr., Cal - Played for the Baltimore Orioles (1981– 2001). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 2007.

Robinson, Frank - Played for the Cincinnati Reds (1956- 1965), Baltimore Orioles (1966-1971), Los Angeles Dodgers (1972), California Angels (1973-1974) and Cleveland Indians (1974-1976). Managed the Cleveland Indians (1975-1977), San Francisco Giants (1981-1984), Baltimore Orioles (1988- 1991) and Montreal Expos / (2002-2006).

Robinson, Jackie – Played for the Brooklyn Dodgers (1947– 1956). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.

Rodríguez, Alex - Played for the Seattle Mariners (1994– 2000), Texas Rangers (2001–2003) and New York Yankees (2004–present).

Rodríguez, Ivan - Played for the Texas Rangers (1991–2002), Florida Marlins (2003), Detroit Tigers (2004–2008), New York Yankees (2008), Houston Astros (2009), Texas Rangers (2009) and Washington Nationals (2010-present).

Rose, Pete - Played for the Cincinnati Reds (1963–1978), Philadelphia Phillies (1979–1983), Montreal Expos (1984) and Cincinnati Reds (1984–1986). Managed the Reds from (1984–1989). 301 Ruth, Babe – Played for the Boston Red Sox (1914–1919), New York Yankees (1920–1934) and Boston Braves (1935). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936.

Ryan, Nolan - Played for the New York Mets (1966, 1968– 1971), California Angels (1972–1979), Houston Astros (1980– 1988) and Texas Rangers (1989–1993). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1999.

Sandberg, Ryne - Played for the Philadelphia Phillies (1981) and Chicago Cubs (1982–1994, 1996–1997). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2005.

Schilling, Curt - Played for the Baltimore Orioles (1988– 1990), Houston Astros (1991), Philadelphia Phillies (1992– 2000), Diamondbacks (2000–2003) and Boston Red Sox (2004–2007).

Schmidt, Mike – Played for the Philadelphia Phillies (1972– 1989). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 1995.

Sheffield, Gary - Played for the Milwaukee Brewers (1988– 1991), San Diego Padres (1992–1993), Florida Marlins (1993– 1998), Los Angeles Dodgers (1998–2001), Atlanta Braves (2002–2003), New York Yankees (2004–2006), Detroit Tigers (2007–2008) and New York Mets (2009).

Smith, Ozzie - Played for the San Diego Padres (1978–1981) and St. Louis Cardinals (1982–1996). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2002.

Soto, Mario - Played for the Cincinnati Reds (1977–1988).

Sosa, Sammy – Played for the Texas Rangers (1989), Chicago White Sox (1989–1991), Chicago Cubs (1992–2004), Baltimore Orioles (2005) and Texas Rangers (2007).

Spahn, Warren - Played for the Boston / Milwaukee Braves (1942, 1946-1964), New York Mets (1965) and San Francisco Giants (1965). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973.

Spalding, Albert Goodwill “A.G.” - Played for the Boston Red Stockings (1871–1875) and Chicago White Stockings (1876–1878). Managed the Chicago White Stockings (1876– 302 1877). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 1939.

Speaker, Tris - Played for Boston Red Sox (1907-1915), Cleveland Indians (1916-1926), Washington Senators (1927) and Philadelphia Athletics (1928). Managed the Cleveland Indians from (1919-1926).

Stengel, Casey - Played for the Brooklyn Dodgers/Robins (1912-1917), Pittsburgh Pirates (1918-1919), Philadelphia Phillies (1920-1921), New York Giants (1921-1923) and Boston Braves (1924-1925). Managed Brooklyn Dodgers (1934- 1936), Boston Braves (1938-1943), New York Yankees (1949- 1960) and New York Mets (1962-1965). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1966.

Strawberry, Darryl - Played for the New York Mets (1983– 1990), Los Angeles Dodgers (1991–1993), San Francisco Giants (1994) and New York Yankees (1995–1999).

Sutton, Don – Played for the Los Angeles Dodgers (1966– 1980), Houston Astros (1981–1982), Milwaukee Brewers (1982– 1984), Oakland Athletics (1985), California Angels (1985– 1987) and the Los Angeles Dodgers (1988). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1998.

Tejada, Miguel - Played for the Oakland Athletics (1997- 2003), Baltimore Orioles (2004-2007), Houston Astros (2008- 2009) and Baltimore Orioles (2010-present).

Thome, Jim - Played for the Cleveland Indians (1991–2002), Philadelphia Phillies (2003–2005), Chicago White Sox (2006– 2009), Los Angeles Dodgers (2009) and Minnesota Twins (2010-present).

Torre, Joe - Played for the Milwaukee Braves / Atlanta Braves (1960–1968), St. Louis Cardinals (1969–1974) and New York Mets (1975–1977). Managed New York Mets (1977– 1981), Atlanta Braves (1982–1984), St. Louis Cardinals (1990–1995), New York Yankees (1996–2007) and Los Angeles Dodgers (2008–present).

Waner, Paul - Played for the Pittsburgh Pirates (1926– 1940), Boston Braves (1941–1942), Brooklyn Dodgers (1943– 303 1944) and New York Yankees (1945). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1952.

Wells, David - Played for the Toronto Blue Jays (1987– 1992), Detroit Tigers (1993–1995), Cincinnati Reds (1995), Baltimore Orioles (1996), New York Yankees (1997–1998), Toronto Blue Jays (1999–2000), Chicago White Sox (2001), New York Yankees (2002–2003), San Diego Padres (2004), Boston Red Sox (2005–2006), San Diego Padres (2006–2007) and Los Angeles Dodgers (2007).

Wertz, Vic - Played for the Detroit Tigers (1947-1952), St. Louis Browns/Baltimore Orioles (1952-1954), Cleveland Indians (1954-1958), Boston Red Sox (1959-1961), Detroit Tigers (1961-1963) and Minnesota Twins (1963).

Williams, Matt - Played for the San Francisco Giants (1987– 1996), Cleveland Indians (1997) and (1998–2003).

Williams, Ted - Played for the Boston Red Sox (1939-1942, 1946-1952, 1953-1960). Managed the Washington Senators/Texas Rangers from (1969-1972). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 1966.

Wilson, Hack - Played for the New York Giants (1923-1925), Chicago Cubs (1926-1931), Brooklyn Dodgers (1932-1934) and Philadelphia Phillies (1934). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1979.

Wilson, Willie - Played for the Kansas City Royals (1976– 1990), Oakland Athletics (1991–1992) and Chicago Cubs (1993–1994).

Wynn, Early - Played for the Washington Senators (1939, 1941-1944, 1946-1948), Cleveland Indians (1949-1957), Chicago White Sox (1958-1962) and Cleveland Indians (1963). Elected the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1972.

Young, Cy - Played for the (1890–1898), St. Louis Perfectos (1899–1900), Boston Americans / Red Sox (1901–1908), Cleveland Naps (1909–1911) and Boston Rustlers (1911). Elected to the Hall of Fame in 1937. 304 Youngs, Ross - Played for the New York Giants (1917-1926). Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1972. 305

APPENDIX B ABNER DOUBLEDAY PLAQUES 306

(Abner Doubleday Plaque #1, n.d.)

(Abner Doubleday Plaque #2, n.d.) 307

APPENDIX C NON-BASEBALL PLAYERS 308 Adams, Margo – Woman who had a four-year extramarital affair with baseball player Wade Boggs.

Adonis, Joe - A New York mobster who was an important participant in the formation of the modern Cosa Nostra crime families.

Anderson, Greg - Former personal trainer, best known for his work with Barry Bonds and links with the BALCO investigation.

Aristotle - A Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy.

Banks, Lora – Journalist for Pro Athlete Magazine Writer.

Bell, Kimberly - Woman who had an extramarital affair with baseball player Barry Bonds.

Berowski, Freddy - Research Associate, National Baseball Hall of Fame & Museum.

Boris, Jeff – that serves as Barry Bonds' agent.

Bossard Family - Groundskeepers, Cleveland Indians, Chicago White Sox, 1920s-present.

Boswell, Thomas - An American sports columnist with .

Bulkeley, Morgan G. - American politician as well as business and sports executive. He was one of the seven members of the Mills Commission formed by Albert Spalding, the group that gave credence to the myth that Abner Doubleday invented baseball. Buckley was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame as the first president of the National League in 1937. 309 Cartwright, Alexander - the man who should be credited with doing the most to invent the modern game of baseball. In 1845, Cartwright laid out the key rules of the game, including the dimensions of the field.

Cartwright, Bruce – Alexander Cartwright's grandson.

Chafets, Zev – Author of Cooperstown confidential heroes, rogues, and the inside story of the Baseball Hall of Fame.

Clark, Jane Forbes - Current Chairman of the Board of Directors for the Baseball Hall of Fame.

Clay, William - American politician from the U.S. state of Missouri currently serving his fourth term in the U.S. House of Representatives.

Cole, Jonathan R. - A professor of sociology at Columbia, analyzed the performances of the players named in the Mitchell Report along with Stephen M. Singer.

Costas, Bob - American sportscaster, on the air for the NBC network since the early 1980s.

Costello, Frank - A New York City gangster who rose to the top of America's underworld, controlled a vast gambling empire across the United States and enjoyed political influence.

Couric, Katie - An American journalist, currently the anchor and managing editor of the CBS Evening News, a correspondent for 60 Minutes, and host of @katiecouric, a webshow on CBSNews.com.

Cramer, Richard Ben - A Jewish-American journalist and writer.

Crocker, Betty - Invented personal and cultural icon, is a brand name and trademark of American Fortune 3 corporation General Mills.

Davidoff, Ken - National baseball columnist for Newsday. 310 Dowd, John - investigator and author of a report that led to the banning of Major League Baseball player Pete Rose. In his role as Special Counsel to the Commissioner, A. Bartlett Giamatti, he produced the , which detailed Rose's betting on baseball games in the 1980s, including teams Rose was managing at the time.

Ecko, Marc - An American entrepreneur and founder of the highly successful Marc Ecko clothing line and its parent company Marc Ecko Enterprises.

Gammons, Peter - An American sportswriter, media personality, and National Baseball Hall of Fame honoree.

Goldschmidt, Eric – Darryl Strawberry's agent, indicted on federal tax evasion charges alleging that Strawberry failed to report more than $500,000 in income earned from 1986 through 1990.

Golic, Mike - A co-host of ESPN Radio's Mike and Mike in the Morning and a former defensive lineman for both Notre Dame and in the NFL.

Gorman, Arthur Pue - a United States Senator from Maryland, serving from 1881–1899 and from 1903–1906. Served as a member of the Mills Commission which investigated the origins of baseball.

Graves, Abner – Known as the man who claimed Abner Doubleday invented baseball.

Greenburg, Mike - A television anchor, television show host, radio host for ESPN and ABC.

Hawkins, Jim - A sportswriter.

Hicks, Tom - Chairman of Hicks Holdings LLC, which owns and operates Hicks Sports Group, the company that owns the Texas Rangers, the Dallas Stars, Mesquite Championship Rodeo and also owns fifty percent of the English football club Liverpool FC.

Idelson, Jeff - Current president of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, located in Cooperstown, New York. 311 Irwin, Hale - An American professional golfer. He is one of the few players in history to have won three U.S. Opens and was one of the world's leading golfers for much of the 1970s and 1980s.

Jacobson, Max - Physician who administered dangerous levels of amphetamines and other medications to several high profile clients.

James, Bill - A baseball writer, historian, and statistician whose work has been widely influential.

Janszen, Paul – One of Pete Rose's friends.

Kennedy, John F. - 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963.

Kite, Tom - American professional golfer, that has 19 PGA Tour victories, including the 1992 U.S. Open at Pebble Beach.

Landis, Kenesaw Mountain - American jurist who served as a federal judge from 1905 to 1922, and subsequently as the first commissioner of organized baseball. Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1944.

Marin, Sidney - Tampa psychologist who treated Darryl Strawberry.

McCarthy, Joe - United States Senator from Wisconsin; Served in office January 3, 1947 – May 2, 1957.

McNamee, Brian - Former New York City police officer, personal trainer, and strength and conditioning coach in Major League Baseball who is most notable for testifying against former New York Yankees pitcher Roger Clemens at a 2008 United States Congressional hearing that concerned the veracity of the 2007 George J. Mitchell Report.

Miller, Marvin - Former executive director of the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) from 1966 to 1982. 312 Mills, Abraham G. - The fourth president of the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs (1883-1884) and is best known for heading the "Mills Commission" which controversially credited Civil War General Abner Doubleday with the invention of baseball.

Monroe, Marilyn - An American actress, singer, and model. Was married to baseball player Joe DiMaggio.

Nicklaus, Jack - Professional golfer, has the most victories in major championships (18).

Obama, Barack - 44th and current President of the United States.

Olney, Buster - A columnist for ESPN: The Magazine, ESPN.com, and covered the New York Giants and New York Yankees for The New York Times. He is also a regular analyst for the ESPN's . Olney is one of about 575 voters for the Baseball Hall of Fame.

Peters, Ron – Pete Rose's bookie.

Petroskey, Dale - Executive Vice President of Marketing for the Texas Rangers Baseball Club. He is a former executive of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum.

Reich, Sam – Baseball historian who wrote Waiting for Cooperstown.

Roethlisberger, Ben - An American football quarterback for the of the National Football League.

Rosen, Bob – Baseball Hall of Fame voter with the Elias Sports Bureau.

Ruppert, Jacob (Colonial) - Owned the New York Yankees for 24 years.

Selig, Bud - The ninth and current Commissioner of Major League Baseball, having served in that capacity since 1992 as the acting commissioner, and as the official commissioner since 1998. 313 Simons, Charisse – One of Darryl Strawberry's ex- girlfriends.

Singer, Stephen M. - professor of statistics at the University of Chicago, analyzed the performances of the players named in the Mitchell Report along with Jonathan R. Cole.

Stark, Jayson – A sportswriter who mainly covers baseball for ESPN.com.

Stejskal, Greg - FBI Agent who claims to have warned baseball in 1995 about the steroid problem.

Stern, Willy – Visiting professor in the American Studies Department at Carleton College.

Tatum, Mark - Executive vice president of NBA global marketing partnerships.

Telander, Rick - The senior sports columnist for the Chicago Sun-Times.

Ueberroth, Peter - Served as the sixth commissioner of Major League Baseball from 1984 to 1989.

Veeck, Bill – A franchise owner and promoter in Major League Baseball. He was best known for his flamboyant publicity stunts, and the innovations he brought to the league during his ownership of the Cleveland Indians, St. Louis Browns and Chicago White Sox. Walker, James J. - New York Mayor who, in 1922, decided to host a public and highly humiliating intervention for Babe Ruth.

Verducci, Tom - An American sportswriter who writes for Sports Illustrated and its online magazine si.com primarily about baseball. He is also a field reporter for the MLB postseason on TBS and appears on and MLB Tonight on MLB Network as a baseball insider.

Vincent, Fay - A former entertainment lawyer and sports executive who served as the eighth commissioner of Major League Baseball. 314 Wadler, Gary - An internist with special expertise in the field of drug use in sports.

Wallace, Mike - A correspondent for CBS' 60 Minutes since its debut in 1968.

Waner, Paul - Played for the Pittsburgh Pirates (1926– 1940), Boston Braves (1941–1942), Brooklyn Dodgers (1943– 1944) and New York Yankees (1945).

Woods, Eldrick “Tiger” - Professional golfer whose achievements to date rank him among the most successful golfers of all time.

Zumsteg, Derek – Author of The Cheaters Guide to Baseball.