Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect

Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015 ) 109 – 119

International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction Spatial Design for Healthy and Effective Electromagnetic Wave Propagation

Serhan Hakgudener

Faculty of Environmental Design, University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr. NW Calgary T2N 1N4, Alberta, Canada

Abstract

Our ancestors have been designing and building structures for centuries to protect themselves from the environment and to sustain the well-being of their occupants. Achieving a healthy indoor environment has become a challenge among design professionals, such as architects, engineers and scientists, due to chemical and physical indoor environmental parameters. Nowadays, we face a new challenge: providing healthy and effective wireless communication in the building environment that pushes the envelope of building design. Wireless communication systems emit Electromagnetic Waves. These high frequency waves exist both inside buildings and the free space around us. There are a variety of RF sources and they cover a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as cell towers (masts), cordless DECT phones, smart meters, Wi-Fi router/modems, WiMAX networks, cellular phones (mobiles), video games, digital baby monitors, digital TV, audio/video sender receivers, tetra emissions, and wireless burglar alarms and so on. The range of radio frequency (RF) spectrum spans 3 kHz to several hundred GHz. The microwave ranges from 1 GHz to 40 GHz and is used in contemporary point-to-point, wireless, and satellite communications. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate current power intensity levels in building environments and develop guidelines for design professionals by understanding building materials` properties. In building design, there are diverse approaches to provisions of wireless communication and constant innovation; however, the construction materials and EMW propagation relationship remains a secondary consideration. Researching EMW propagation issues to develop guidelines for incorporating wireless communication systems into Architectural Design will promote healthy and effective indoor environments.

© 20152015 The The Authors. Authors. Published Published by Elsevier by Elsevier Ltd. This Ltd is. an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review-review under under responsibility responsibility of organizing of organizing committee committee of the International of the International Conference onConference Sustainable on Design, Sustainable Engineering Design, and Engineering Constructionand Construction 2015 2015.

Keywords: Healthy Building Design; Electromagnetic Wave Propagation; Wireless Communication; WLAN; Power intensity levels

1877-7058 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of the International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction 2015 doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.409 110 Serhan Hakgudener / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015) 109 – 119

1. Introduction

Recently, WLAN (Wireless Local Area Networking) has become a significant element that delivers Internet service to both residential and commercial buildings. Internet fosters low-cost wireless technologies that provide global access anytime (Kwok, Y.; Lau, V., 2007). The free accessibility of Internet leads to the need to address issues of functionality, sustainability and usability in the building environment. Whilst some research has started to focus on surveying the energy efficiency of buildings, little attention has been paid to EMW (Electromagnetic Wave) propagation, its relationship to building design before construction, and in particular the measurement of EMW propagation issues during design phases (Hens, Hugo S.L.C., 2012). Conventional WLAN allows accessibility according to technical specifications and interface design; however, it remains to be seen how far building materials are integrated into these standards, and where the conflicts might arises between the functionality of the amount EMW in a specific space. How can we bridge EMW Propagation and Architecture? The first step is to define the meaning of green buildings; Cynamon argues, "They are created to provide healthy and productive indoor environments for their occupants," as well as energy saving and good indoor air quality. Moreover, he suggests that the goals should be defined in the design phase before executing the construction (Cynamon, 1996). On the other hand, EMW propagation (radiation) needs to be included in the definition of green building because this invisible effect provokes an impact on the quality of the indoor environment. How does EMW propagation affect the occupants? Bioelectromagnetics, as a field of study, works on finding the impacts on human health (Kato, 2006). Environmental sensitivities such as fatigue, pain, headaches are a concern in the building environment and need to be accounted for in EMW propagation (Margaret, 2007). The purpose of this paper is to evaluate current WLAN power intensity levels in the building environment and develop basic guidelines for design professionals by understanding Building Materials` properties. Another question might be: how can Building Materials affect Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in WLAN environments? If transmission coefficients of Building Materials are analyzed, guidelines for design professionals can be developed. Investigating electronics engineering supplements architectural design. In other words, using design knowledge may help to make EMW Propagation more efficient in the building environment. The architecture society currently has overlooked this phenomenon. In fact, Internet and building design have evolved simultaneously in the last decade; the relationship between EMW propagation and Sustainable Construction remains a mystery for the Architecture Society. The second aspect to solve EMW Propagation issues employs engineering. To produce indoor Radio Coverage Models for WLAN design, engineers use constructed buildings (Lloret and López, 2004). Using constructed buildings clarifies the problem, but it fails to consider the intensity of these issues on human health. Lawson asserts that the problem between engineers and architects is an understanding of different materials and requirements (Lawson, 2004). Consequently, in building design, there is evidence of constant innovation and changing approaches to provisions of WLAN; however, the construction materials and EMW propagation relationship remains a secondary consideration. Researching EMW Propagation issues to develop guidelines to incorporate WLAN into Sustainable Architectural Design will improve upon this status quo. The paper has been divided into five sections to answer the following research questions: x What are the current Power Intensity levels in building environments? (Case study in residential and the different locations in Calgary.) x How do Building Materials affect EMW Propagation? x How can design options for buildings be developed considering the wireless communication technologies currently available? The first section underlines the problem stated in the introduction. The second section provides background information about the history of the Electromagnetic Wave phenomenon, Wireless Networking, EMW-frequency relation, and WLAN coverage challenges. The third section is a case study that investigates the power intensity levels in a building environment. The fourth section provides basic guidelines for design professionals about how construction materials can have an impact on health and effective wireless communication. Lastly, the fifth section provides conclusions and further research goals.

Serhan Hakgudener / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015 ) 109 – 119 111

2. Background information

Section two provides an overview behind the history of the EMW phenomenon. The main purpose of the section is to answer two questions specifically: How do these developments bring new challenges for humans? And, how can we bridge between engineering and architecture?

2.1. History

EMW spectrum conceptualizes the link between light, electricity, and magnetism. Infrared light, the first "invisible" form of electromagnetic radiation, was discovered by British scientist and astronomer Sir William Herschel (Barr, 1961), and ultraviolet radiation, the other part of the visible spectrum, was discovered by Wilhelm Ritter. Ritter was investigating the energy relation of visible light that has various colors, when he discovered another invisible form of light that is beyond the blue end of the spectrum (Frercks et al., 2009). Moreover, in 1820, Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted linked electricity and magnetism. Ørsted discovered that electrical current flowing through a wire could deflect a compass needle (Wilson, 2008). In addition, French scientist André-Marie Ampère`s demonstration that electrical currents passing through two wires could attract or repel each other, showed strong evidence that electricity and magnetism are closely related (Dibner, 1984). Consequently, in 1865, Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell managed to explain, mathematically, his kinetic theory of gases that clarifies the relationship between electricity and magnetism. They often act together as electromagnetism that demonstrates their bond. Maxwell discovered that alternating current produces waves and radiates out into space at the speed of light. These observations concluded that visible light is a form of electromagnetic radiation (Reid et al., 2008). The basic definition of the EMW can be explained as oscillating field vectors, both electric (E) and magnetic (H), that are oriented at right angles to each other; a wave propagates or, in other words, continues its journey in the same way. It also transports energy from the radiation source to an unspecified final destination (Hakgudener, 2007).

2.2. About wireless networking

Wireless networking developments started in the early 90s. The use of wireless systems and the integration of the Internet have provided great benefits to users worldwide. The low cost of 802.11b and 802.11g standards promises stability, and 2.4 GHz frequency fostered market growth for WLAN during the last decade (Cooklev, 2004), (LaMaire et al., 1996). The data transfer between two or more digital devices, such as computers, set up the structure of WLAN. This type of networking system has been employed for the purposes of education, private use, national use, or public use. In addition, WLAN has all the features of LAN (Local Area Networking) that uses cable to connect between devices. WLAN also provides broadband Internet access, which means users have a gateway for e- mails or shared folders options (Rodriguez and Campolargo, 2011). The other benefit of WLAN is its efficiency in open spaces such as parks and streets. There are two standard WLAN technologies: US based IEE 802.11 xs or European based HiperLAN (Doufexi et al., 2002). Besides these, the Japanese-based MMAC (Multimedia Mobile Access Communication System) is another alternative to WLAN. Unfortunately, MMAC systems use between 3-60 GHz frequency band and are not suitable for European standards (Ohmori et al., 2000). IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) defines the most common standards worldwide. IEEE 802.11 works with a 2.4 GHz frequency. Its max capable limit is 2 Mbps by using FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) and DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum). The purpose of this protocol is to keep the current LAN systems under one roof and make adaptations to WLAN. After the successful achievements of these studies, IEEE published new WLAN protocols, such as 802.11 xs. These protocol developments still continue to provide better service. IEEE 802.11b works with 2.4 GHz frequency and is commonly used worldwide and is capable of transferring data up to 11 Mbps. Nowadays, 802.11g protocol works with the same frequency mentioned above. Its limitation is up to 54 Mbps but is very popular in the market (Carcelle et al., 2006). Another protocol is HiperLAN (High Performance Radio LAN), which was developed in Europe and is a different standard of WLAN. There are two types HiperLAN that work with a 5 GHz frequency: HiperLAN1 and HiperLAN2. They have some similarities with 802.11 in terms of speed and capacity. Moreover, HiperLAN uses ATM technology, which provides better service quality (Pahlavad et al., 112 Serhan Hakgudener / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015) 109 – 119

1997). As a result, HiperLAN might be considered a better alternative to WLAN. Unfortunately, it is not common like WLAN. To be able to transfer data, WLAN provides users some options, such as RF (Radio Frequency) and infrared. They both have advantages and disadvantages; making the right choice affects the efficiency of the system. Coverage and speed are two main factors for a network. In application, RF is more common because of high speed data transfer and passes through physical barriers. Another new approach is WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access). It has been approved as IEEE 802.16 wireless metropolitan area network (MAN) standard for broadband wireless access. WiMAX has a real wireless fidelity with connectivity up to several kilometers as opposed to a couple hundred meters for 802.11a/b/g. IEEE 802.11g looks at even faster standards, such as 802.11n (Ghosh and Wolter, 2005). As mentioned above, 802.11g runs at rates up to 54Mbps, which is more than adequate for most Wi-Fi users. Even if these users do not notice the difference between 50Mbps and 320Mbps, many applications run better at higher speeds. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is another alternative similar to Bluetooth technology, but it is 100 times faster than Bluetooth. UWB transmits data at high speeds over short distances. As a result, UWB is the perfect choice for the home market. The UWB standard works across a wide range of frequencies as opposed to most others. However, the main concern with UWB is interference problems with other networking and consumer electronic technologies, which are assigned a narrow band of spectrum. Despite these concerns, UWB product development is moving forward in the home networking market due to its fast transmission rates (Chong et al., 2006). It can be assumed that WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) and Ultra-wideband (UWB) will compete with each other in the near future over control of the WLAN market.

2.3. EMW and frequency

Another aspect of EMW propagation is electromagnetic wave and frequency relation. EMWs pass through buildings, depending on the frequency. The function of the building, such as hospitals, apartments, schools, and military facilities, becomes significant in terms of its requirements for propagation. Each building requires different propagation demands. For instance, military buildings require total security, which entails a full exterior sealing. Thus, hospitals, residential buildings and schools need a variety of different design solutions to have efficient EMW propagation and healthy indoor environments. In architecture, healthy indoor environments can be created by reducing the energy consumption, minimizing the environmental impact, reducing water consumption, and promoting the use of recyclable building materials (Fairs, 2009). In addition, a healthy EMW propagation concept should be considered in architecture because of public health concerns.

2.4. WLAN coverage challenges

In building environments, WLAN coverage relies on electromagnetic compatibility, interference, and construction materials` responses. Electromagnetic compatibility tends to explain unintentional generation, propagation and reception of electromagnetic energy (Kodali, 2001). Examples of an environment might be an office or a school laboratory, full of electronic devices such as computers, cell phones, TVs, lighting fixtures, and wireless gadgets that cause electromagnetic phenomena in their operation. The goal of EMC (Electromagnetic Compability) is to harmonize the conflicts between devices. To be able to fix this problem, EMC deals with emission issues, which relate to the reduction of the unintentional generation of electromagnetic energy. For buildings, countermeasures, as in EMW isolation, should be taken in order to avoid external environment propagation from entering the space. This design solution is a major step towards avoiding electromagnetic disturbances due to the incorrect operation of electrical equipment. In order to achieve such an objective in architecture, susceptibility issues need to be considered during the design process. The importance of EMC has been taken into account in many countries, and standardization has been made by the SCC (Standards Council of Canada) (“Standards Council of Canada - Conseil canadien des normes,” n.d.); the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) for the United States (“Home | FCC.gov,” n.d.); the CEN (European Committee for Standardization) (“European Committee for Standardization,” n.d.); the CENELEC (European Committee for Standardization) (“European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization,” n.d.) and ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) (“ETSI - European Telecommunications Standards Institute,” n.d.); and, for Britain, the BSI (“British Standards Institution - BSI | IHS,” n.d.). Moreover, the most important international organization is the Serhan Hakgudener / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015 ) 109 – 119 113

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which has several committees working full-time on EMC issues (“IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission,” n.d.). Therefore, EMC aims to sustain a harmonious environment for electronic devices so that they can operate functionally. To address the electromagnetic interference issue, electrical circuits emit electromagnetic signals according to their application and these signals might be Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) for other systems. These devices produce rapidly changing signals. These unwanted signals are called interference or noise in other circuits. EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) interrupts or limits the effective performance of other circuits. Sometimes, this action is intended as a form of electronic warfare. In this case, special designs for military buildings are a concern. Another example can be demonstrated in hospitals, as EMI is a vital problem in these buildings. According to an extensive study carried out in 2004, at Massachusetts General Hospital, cellular phones have caused the malfunctioning of operational mechanical ventilators (Shaw et al., 2004). Most countries have legal codes to discourage EMI on electrical hardware and these countries are still continuing to fix this issue (Kaur et al., 2011). Electromagnetic Interference is a vital disturbance for a WLAN environment. Thus, building codes can be developed and executed during either the construction or renovation process of the buildings to minimize EMI problems.

3. The power intensity levels: Case study

Achieving a healthy indoor environment for the occupants has always been a challenge among designers due to chemical and physical indoor environmental parameters. The public concern now is how radio frequency and microwave radiation impact human health, while the body is continually exposed to radio and television transmitters, mobile base stations, wireless networks and so on. The range of radio frequency (RF) spectrum spans 3 kHz to several hundred GHz. The microwave ranges from 1 GHz to 40 GHz and is used in contemporary point to point, wireless, and satellite communications. Several investigations of non-ionizing radiation such as RFR (Radio Frequency Radiation) levels are investigated all over the world to resolve the safe levels of exposure on humans. Specific guidelines and standards have been issued by the ANSI (American National Standards Institute) /the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), the ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection), the NCRP (National Council on Radiation protection and Measurements) and other organizations. These standards are expressed in power density in mW/cm². For instance, the 1992 ANSI/IEEE exposure standard for the general public was set at 1.2 mW/cm² with the antennas operating in the 1800-2000 MHz range (Hakgudener, 2007). Therefore, Section 3 evaluates typical power intensity levels in living environments. Moreover, these values assert the need for spatial design improvements, which effectively and safely incorporate wireless communication.

3.1. Method of approach

For the empirical research, a case study was executed at a residential building and different locations in Calgary. Creating a broad range database of power intensity levels between 200 MHz- 8000 MHz RF (Radio Frequency) helps to evaluate if there is an impact on human well-being in these building environments. The frequency range is suitable for detecting radiation from the following sources: cell towers (masts), cordless DECT phones, smart meters, Wi-Fi router/modems, WiMAX networks, cellular phones (mobiles), Nintendo Wii, Sony PlayStation and other video games, digital baby monitors, digital TV, audio/video sender receivers, tetra emissions, and wireless burglar alarms. A Radio Frequency (RF) meter provided power intensity levels, and over 1100 measurements were taken. The following table shows the minimum and maximum power intensity levels in the environments.

114 Serhan Hakgudener / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015) 109 – 119

Table 1. RF Exposure Case Study Summary Data (200 MHz- 8000 MHz) Peak signal strength (V/m) Peak power density (μW/cm²) Value range Min Max Min Max Residential indoor environment 0.06 5.1 0.001 6.8 Outdoor locations 0.1 3.6 0.003 3.5 Typical Office Environment 1.4 6 0.5 9.6

International Radio Frequency (RF) exposure limits vary in different countries. For instance, Canada`s (Limits of Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Energy in the Frequency Range from 3 kHz to 300 GHz Safety Code 6 ( 2009 ), 2009) and the USA`s (IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 28, 1999) limits are based on the thermal/heating impact on humans. Exposure times are 6 minutes in Canada and 30 minutes in the USA. Both countries adopt the same 61.4 (V/m) electrical field strength or 1000 (μW/cm²) power density limits. According to these RF exposure limits, the case study data stays in the safe zone. However, for other countries such as China, Italy, and Russia, the exposure limit is 100 times lower than standards in Canada and the USA (Shum et al., 2013). Thus, the values found in this case study for typical office environments would become a concern in China, Italy, and Russia. Therefore, defining global exposure limits will be beneficial for both the standardization of exposure limits around the world as well as the Wireless Communication Industry.

4. Basic guidelines for design professionals

Section 4 provides common building materials` transmission co-efficiencies. These values are a measurement of the building material response to the EMW in certain frequency ranges. Understanding these responses can help to build a design strategy and select a material for the specific space. According to the functionality of the space, the propagation frequency and the selected building materials will determine the proposed guidelines for design professionals.

4.1. Propagation frequency and building material response

The building materials are the components that form structures. In an electromagnetic environment, each building material has a unique response according to the signal frequency, thickness of the material, temperature, moisture, and so on. Thus, how can we solve the over-exposure cases with architectural knowledge? After finishing detailed survey measurements, if the over-exposure is related to an external source, an exterior concealing is required to maintain healthy power intensity levels in the space. To understand how conventional building materials respond to certain frequency ranges, table 2 covers the average maximum transmission field percentages from 0.5 - 8.0 GHz (60 to 4 cm wavelength). As mentioned in the previous sections, each building type requires a different propagation performance. For instance, in residential spaces, power intensity levels for sleeping areas and a baby`s room need to be in the safe levels. Brick, brick-faced concrete walls, and brick-faced masonry block demonstrate good concealing performance to maintain safe levels in these spaces. If the building is not constructed with the building materials above, the RF shielding mesh needs to be applied to these structures. The mesh provides basic interior and exterior frequency shielding and keeps the room at safe levels, thereby protecting its occupants; also the mesh can be applied directly to the façade or interior walls. Another alternative is the RF shielding paint that contains carbon-based and corrosion-resistant materials. The paint can be applied to exterior or interior surfaces. For the windows or curtain walls in residential buildings, RF shielding window film needs to be applied to decrease power intensity levels in over-exposure cases (“EMF Products + RF Products by Safe Living Technologies Inc.,” n.d.).

Serhan Hakgudener / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015 ) 109 – 119 115

Table 2. The conventional building materials average maximum transmission field percentages (Hakgudener, 2007) Building Material Thickness (mm) Average maximum transmission Average maximum transmission field (0.5-2.0 GHz) % field (3.0- 8.0 GHz) % Brick 271 76% 13% Brick faced 271 19% 0.1% concrete wall Brick faced 284.4 38.5% 4% masonry block Plain concrete 203 15% 4% Drywall 9.5 98% 100% Glass 12.5 87% 86% Lumber (dry) 113 76% 34% Lumber (wet) 113 75% 32.5% Plywood (dry) 11.8 97% 98% Plywood (wet) 11.8 86% 76% Reinforced 203 52% 0.3% concrete Rebar grid 19 (70X70 mm² 64% 88% grid)

4.1.1 EMW propagation in interior spaces

The foundational three effects of EMW propagation are reflection, diffraction, and scattering. Each causes distortion in radio signals (Chiu and Lin, 1996). These common effects are not seen in free spaces in buildings because EM waves do not interact with any material. Propagation intensity decreases through walls, roofs, and floors. Especially, corners foster multipath propagation and diffraction. The following experiment clearly shows the EMW propagation difference between an empty and an occupied room.

4.1.1.1 Sample office room modelling experiment

This experiment occurred in the microwave and antennas laboratory at Yeditepe University's Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering. To simulate a real-life environment, 1/5 scaled sample office room (Fig.1) and furniture models were made. Using this scaled model requires 12 GHz (2.4X5) frequency in the experiment to maintain the same wavelength of WLAN.

116 Serhan Hakgudener / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015) 109 – 119

Fig. 1. Sample office room experiment (Hakgudener, 2007)

Two different scenarios were applied: an empty and an occupied room. EMW propagation behavior results for these scenarios can be seen in the contour graphs below (Fig.2). In this experiment, the signal power is 6 V/m. The following two graphs also indicate the hot spots (around 10 V/m) in the occupied room. The question is how is it possible to measure higher values as 10 V/m in the room? In physics, this phenomenon could be explained by the formation of standing waves. The higher values actually are formed by two or more different reflected waves. The same 2.4 GHz frequency with different directions of EMW propagation pass through the same medium in the space (“Formation of Standing Waves,” n.d.).

a

b

Fig.2. EMW Propagation Contour Graphs for (a) empty and (b) occupied room in 2.GHz frequency (Hakgudener, 2007)

The occupied room contains some metal furniture components, an aluminum-framed window and a coffee table. This accounts for the reason for unexpected propagation in the EMW activity. It is clear that the exterior/interior wireless communication sources, building envelope, wall partitions, occupancy and furniture have an impact on EMW propagation behavior in the building environment. With this data, EMW building guidelines for Design Professionals can finally be developed.

Serhan Hakgudener / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015 ) 109 – 119 117

4.2. The design guideline

The initial design guideline provides an overview for design professionals, which that shows them the necessary steps to create healthy and effective wireless communication. This new way of thinking incorporates wireless communication into the design process.

Table 3. Design Guideline for Healthy and Effective EMW Propagation

5. Summary and Conclusions

High frequency radiation exists both inside of buildings and the free space around us. There are a variety of RF sources and they cover a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum. A rapidly expanding source is mobile phone base stations. Developing and executing new building codes that incorporate healthy building environments for occupants is a meaningful goal. Moreover, specifying a minimum required distance between inhabited structures and antennas and their mountings is critical to protecting public health. Alternatively, next generation antennas might be developed to reduce radiation power levels. This study gives an overview of EMW propagation planning to consider in building environments. The research implications of this current study are significant and point to the 118 Serhan Hakgudener / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015) 109 – 119

need for new design strategies. Further research will ideally be in the development of EMW propagation software based on these design guidelines. Prior to executing construction, this software could provide an easy design solution that incorporates healthy and effective wireless communication into the building environment. Moreover, 1/1 scaled experiments could be done to develop details of different architectural forms and working on different building materials or building components such as, window frame, door, insulation materials require sophisticated equipment in laboratory environment. Establishment of new building science laboratories in higher education institutions will not just be beneficial for the solutions but also for the countries, which invest human well-being.

References

Barr, E.S., 1961. THE INFRARED PIONEERS-I. SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL. Infrared Phys. 1, 1–4.

British Standards Institution - BSI | IHS [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.ihs.com/products/industry- standards/organizations/bsi/index.aspx (accessed 2.27.14).

Carcelle, X., Dang, T., Devic, C., 2006. AD-HOC Networking. In: Kaldoun, A.A. (Ed.), IFIP 19th World Computer Congress, TC-6, IFIP Interactive Conference on Ad-Hoc Networking. Springer, Santiago, pp. 142–157.

Chiu, C.C. and Lin, S.W., 1996. Coverage prediction in indoor wireless communications, IEICE Trans. Commun.,vol. E79-B,no.9,pp. 1346- 1350.

Chong, C., Watanabe, F., Inamura, H., 2006. Potential of UWB technology for the next generation wireless communications. 2006 IEEE Ninth Int. Symp. Spread Spectr. Tech. Appl. 422–429.

Cooklev, T., 2004. The IEEE Standard for WLAN : John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cynamon, J., 1996. Industry Corner. Simulation 66, 91–92.

Dibner, B., 1984. History of electrical engineering. IEEE Power Eng. Rev. PER-4, 15–16.

Doufexi, A., Armour, S., Butler, M., Nix, A., Bull, D., Mcgeehan, J., 2002. WIRELESS LAN STANDARDS: A Comparison of the HIPERLAN/2 and IEEE 802.11a Wireless LAN Standards. IEEE Commun. Mag. 172–180.

EMF Products + RF Products by Safe Living Technologies Inc. [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.slt.co/Products/ (accessed 5.8.14).

ETSI - European Telecommunications Standards Institute [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.etsi.org/ (accessed 2.27.14).

European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.cenelec.eu/ (accessed 2.27.14).

European Committee for Standardization [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.cen.eu/Pages/default.aspx (accessed 2.27.14).

Fairs, M., 2009. Architecture. In: Green Design. North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, pp. 202–203.

Formation of Standing Waves [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/waves/Lesson-4/Formation-of-Standing- Waves (accessed 8.27.14).

Frercks, J., Weber, H., Wiesenfeldt, G., 2009. Reception and discovery: the nature of Johann Wilhelm Ritter’s invisible rays. Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci. Part A 40, 143–156.

Ghosh, A., Wolter, D., 2005. Broadband wireless access with WiMax/802.16: current performance benchmarks and future potential. IEEE Commun. Mag. 129–136.

Hakgudener, S., 2007. FUTURE OF WLAN AND THE INFLUENCES TO THE ARCHITECTURAL FORMS AND DESIGN. Yeditepe University. Serhan Hakgudener / Procedia Engineering 118 ( 2015 ) 109 – 119 119

Hens, Hugo S.L.C., 2012. Performance Based Building Design 2 - From Timber-framed Construction to Partition Walls. Wiley, p-59.

Home | FCC.gov [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.fcc.gov/ (accessed 2.27.14).

IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.iec.ch/ (accessed 2.27.14).

IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 28, 1999. IEEE C95. 1-1992: IEEE Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300 GHz, The. In: IEEE Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300 GHz. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, pp. 1– 83.

Kato, M., 2006. Electromagnetics in Biology. Springer, Hicom.

Kaur, M., Kakar, S., Mandal, D., 2011. Electromagnetic interference. 2011 3rd Int. Conf. Electron. Comput. Technol. 1–5.

Kodali, W., 2001. Introduction. In: Engineering Electromagnetic Compatibility:Principles, Measurements, Technologies, and Computer Models. Wiley-IEEE Press, pp. 1–24.

Kwok, Y.; Lau, V., 2007. Short-Range Wireless Technologies Chapter 9. Wiley-IEEE Press.

LaMaire, R., Krishna, A., Bhagwat, P., James, P., 1996. Wireless LANs and Mobile Networking: Standards and Future Directions. IEEE Commun. Mag. 86–94.

Lawson, B., 2004. What Designers Know, First. ed, Vasa. Elsevier, AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO.

Limits of Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Energy in the Frequency Range from 3 kHz to 300 GHz Safety Code 6 ( 2009 ), 2009.

Lloret, J., López, J., 2004. A fast design model for indoor radio coverage in the 2.4 GHz wireless LAN. Wirel. Commun. … 2–6.

Margaret, E.S., 2007. The Medical Perspective on Environmental Sensitivities The Medical Perspective on Environmental Sensitivities.

Ohmori, S., Yamao, Y., Nakajima, N., 2000. The future generations of mobile communications based on broadband access technologies. IEEE Commun. Mag. 134–142.

Pahlavad, K., Zahedi, A., Krishnamurthy, P., 1997. Wideband Local Access: Wireless LAN and Wireless ATM. IEEE Commun. Mag. 34–40.

Reid, J.S., Wang, C.H.-T., Thompson, J.M.T., 2008. James Clerk Maxwell 150 years on. Philos. Trans. A. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 366, 1651–9.

Rodriguez, L., Campolargo, R.M., 2011. The Future Internet Assembly 2011: Achievements and Technological Promises, Future Internet. Springer, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London, New York.

Shaw, C.I., Kacmarek, R.M., Hampton, R.L., Riggi, V., Masry, A. El, Cooper, J.B., Hurford, W.E., 2004. Cellular phone interference with the operation of mechanical ventilators*. Crit. Care Med. 32, 928–931.

Shum, M., Ward, H.D., Gallagher, R.P., Anselmo, F., Freeman, L., Oda, J., Lidstone, S., Miu, L., Wiens, M., Spock, T., 2013. Radiofrequency Toolkit for Environmental Health Practitioners. British Columbia Centre for Disease Control (BCCDC) Environmental Health Services, National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health (NCCEH), Vancouver.

Standards Council of Canada - Conseil canadien des normes [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.scc.ca/ (accessed 2.27.14).

Wilson, A.D., 2008. The Unity of Physics and Poetry: H. C. Ørsted and the Aesthetics of Force. Hist. Ideas 69, 627–646.