Specific Operations Volume 2 Arctic and Sub-Arctic Operations Part 1 Basic Cold Weather Trainingarctic and Subarctic Operations

B-GG-302-002/FP-001 (CFP 302(2), Part 1)

SPECIFIC OPERATIONS

VOLUME 2

ARCTIC AND SUB-ARCTIC OPERATIONS

PART 1 BASIC COLD WEATHER TRAINING

STOCK REPRINT: All changes incorporated up to and including change 1 dated 1982-08-04

THIS PUBLICATION CONTAINS CLASSIFIED INFORMATION AFFECTING THE DEFENCE OF CANADA, AND SHALL BE PROTECTED IN ACCORDANCE, WITH THE REGULATIONS PRESCRIBED FOR THE SECURITY CLASSIFICATION APPEARING HEREON, RELEASE OF THIS PUBLICATION, OR INFORMATION CONTAINED HEREIN, TO ANY PERSON NOT AUTHORIZED TO RECEIVE IT, IS PROHIBITED BY THE OFFICIAL SECRETS ACT.

Issued on authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff

OPI: FMC 1974-03-15 Ch 1 - 1982-08-04 LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES

Insert latest changed pages; dispose of superseded pages in accordance with applicable orders.

This change includes the new NDID number. Holders are required to amend the remaining pages of the publication to reflect the new number.

NOTE - On a changed page, the portion of the text affected by the latest change is indicated by a vertical line in the margin of the page. Changes to illustrations are indicated by miniature pointing hands, or black vertical lines.

Total number of pages in this publication is 287 consisting of the following:

Page No. Change No. Page No. Change No.

Title Page 1 2-49 to 2-90 1 A 1 3-1 to 3-43 0 i/ii 1 4-1 to 4-22 0 iii to xv/xvi 1 5-1 to 5-46 0 1-1, 1-2 0 6-1 to 6-21 0 1-3 to 1-6A/1-6B 1 7-1 to 7-18 0 1-7, 1-8 0 A-1, A-2 0 2-1 to 2-6 0 B-1 to B-4 0 2-7, 2-8 1 C-1 to C-9 0 2-9 to 2-48 00 D-1 to D-6 0 E-1/E-2 1

Zero in Change No. column indicates an original page.

15 March 1974

1. B-GG-302-002/FP-001 Specific Operations, Volume 2, Arctic and Sub-arctic Operations, Part 1 - Basic Cold Weather Training, is issued on authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff.

2. This manual is effective on receipt and supersedes CFP 302(2) Part 1 dated 28 February 1971.

3. Any loss or suspected compromise of this publication, or portions thereof, should be reported in accordance with A-SJ-100-001/AS-000, Chapter 34.

4. Suggestions for amendments shall be forwarded through normal channels to Headquarters Mobile Command, Attention SSO CD Coord. TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

SECTION 1 - GENERAL

101 Aim 102 Scope 103 Areas of Winter Operations 104 (Not Allocated)

SECTION 2 - INTRODUCTION TO COLD

105 General 106 Types of Cold 107 Windchill 108 Effects of Cold on Man 109 Adjustments 110 Leadership Requirements 111 Conclusion

CHAPTER 2 - PERSONAL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

SECTION 1 - COLD WEATHER CLOTHING

201 General 202 Principles of Clothing Design 203 Footwear 204 Principles of Keeping Warm 205 Military Requirements of Cold Weather Clothing 206 Types of Military Clothing 207 General 208 Sleeping Bag - 1951 Pattern 209 Sleeping Bag - 1965 Pattern 210 General 211 Description 212 Assembly - Attachment of Strap Components to the Frame 213 Packing 314 Adjustment 215 Camouflage 216 Care and Maintenance 217 Conclusion SECTION 4 - LANTERN COLEMAN

218 General 219 Description 220 Stripping, Assembly, and User Repairs 221 Operation 222 Light Discipline 223 Care and Maintenance 224 Safety Precautions 225 Common Faults and Remedies 226 Conclusion

SECTION 5 - STOVES M1950 C1B1 AND COLEMAN MODEL 431 TWO BURNER

227 General 228 M1950 Stove 229 Description 230 Stripping and Assembling 231 Common Faults, Stoppages, and Remedies 232 Filling 233 Lighting 234 Stove C1B1 235 Description 236 Stripping and Assembly 237 Common Faults, Stoppages, and Remedies 238 Filling 239 To Pump 240 Lighting 241 Care and Maintenance 242 Stove Coleman Model 431 - Two Burner Stove 243 Description 244 Stripping and Assembly 245 Common Faults, Stoppages and Remedies 246 Filling 247 To Pump 248 To Install Tank 249 To Light Main Burner 250 To Light Auxiliary Burner(s) 251 To Shut Off Burners 252 To Pack Stove 253 Care and Maintenance 254 Safety Precautions - All Stoves 255 Conclusion SECTION 6 - TOBOGGANS

256 General 257 Loading 258 One-man Toboggan 259 Two-man Toboggan 260 Conclusion

CHAPTER 3 - CAMPSITES, SHELTERS, AND TENTAGE

SECTION 1 - SELECTING A CAMPSITE AND BIVOUAC ROUTINE

301 General 302 Selection of a Defensive Position 303 Campsites 304 Entering a Campsite 305 Establishing a Campsite 306 Collecting Ice or Snow for Cooking 307 Constructing a Latrine 308 Digging a Garbage Pit 309 Camp Routine 310 Duties of Tent Group Commander 311 Duties of Cook 312 Preparation of Rations 313 Bedding Down 314 Position of Air Mattress 315 Responsibilities 316 Security 317 Breaking Camp 318 Conclusion

SECTION 2 - INSPECTION, PREPARATION AND STOWAGE OF TENTS

319 General 320 Description 321 Inspection of Outer Tent 322 Assembling the Tent 323 Stowage of Tents 324 Folding for Toboggan 325 Conclusion SECTION 3 - PITCHING AND STRIKING TENTAGE

326 General 327 Tent Pitching and Striking Squad 328 Duties of Tent Pitching Squad 329 Tent Pitching Drill 330 Method 331 Striking Drill 332 Conclusion

SECTION 4 - IMPROVISED SHELTER

333 General 334 Siting of Shelters 335 Areas for Shelters 336 Building 337 Types of Shelters 338 Shelters in Wooded Areas 339 Double Lean-to 340 Wigwam 341 Tree-pit Shelter 342 Chopped or Fallen Tree Shelter 343 Shelters in Open Country and Barrens 344 Conclusion

CHAPTER 4 - WEAPONS AND FIELD WORKS

SECTION 1 - SMALL ARMS AND AMMUNITION

401 General 402 Weapon Problems 403 Care and Maintenance of Weapons 404 Condensation 405 Snow and Ice 406 Weapon Mechanisms 407 Breakages 408 Cold Weather Handwear 409 Ice Fog 410 Weapon Cleaning General 411 Weapon Platforms 412 Ammunition 413 Conclusion SECTION 2 - FIRING POSITION IN SNOW CONDITIONS

414 General 415 Small Arms 416 Method 417 Support Weapons 418 Methods 419 Conclusion

SECTION 3 - FIELD DEFENCES

420 General 421 Penetration Table 422 Walls and Forms (Frameworks) 423 Snow Defences 424 Ice-crete Defences 425 Ice-crete and Snow Defences 426 Other Types of Defences 427 Additional Points 428 Conclusion

CHAPTER 5 - MOVEMENT

SECTION 1 - LAND NAVIGATION

501 General 502 Navigation Problems 503 Methods of Land Navigation 504 Navigation by Dead Reckoning 505 Method of Dead Reckoning 506 Distance Measuring 507 Direction 508 Hints for the Navigator 509 Conclusion

SECTION 2 - MARCH DISCIPLINE

510 General 511 Before the March 512 During the March 513 End of March 514 Conclusion SECTION 3 - TRAIL-BREAKING

515 General 516 Planning 517 Navigation 518 Route Selection 519 Composition 520 Organization 521 Trail Marking 522 Conclusion (523 not allocated)

SECTION 4 - SKIING AND SNOWSHOEING

524 General 525 Characteristics of Snow 526 Ski Techniques 527 Walking Step 528 Step Turn 529 Kick Turn 530 Falling and Recovery 531 One Step 532 Variations 535 Downhill Running 536 Braking Methods 537 Turns 538 Skiing over Variable Terrain 539 Ski-joring 540 Ski Drill 541 Snowshoeing 542 Types 543 Maintenance 544 Snowshoe Harness 545 Training and Rate of Movement 546 Snowshoe Technique

CHAPTER 6 - TACTICS

SECTION 1 - GENERAL

601 Introduction 602 Concept of Operations - Arctic 603 Concept of Operations - Subarctic SECTION 2 - BASIC PLANNING AND OPERATIONS

604 Winter Problems 605 Standard of Training 606 Planning 607 Fire Support 608 The Advance 609 The Attack 610 The Defence 611 Patrolling 612 Conclusion

SECTION 3 - CAMOUFLAGE AND CONCEALMENT

613 General 614 Individual Concealment 615 Equipment Concealment 616 Field Defences 617 Tracks and Trails 618 Light Discipline 619 Vapour Clouds 620 Noise Level 621 Deception 622 Examples of Vehicle Camouflaged 623 Formula of Paint Used

CHAPTER 7 - COLD WEATHER INJURIES AND HEALTH RULES

SECTION 1 - FIRST AID

701 General 702 Shock 703 Frost-bite 704 Advanced Cold Exposure 705 Snow Blindness 706 Immersion Foot (Trenchfoot) 707 Sunburn and Wind Chapping 708 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 709 Fume Irritation (Tent Eye) 710 Constipation 711 Dehydration 712 Casualty Bag 713 Casualty Evacuation by Toboggan SECTION 2 - HEALTH RULES

714 General 715 Individual Adjustment 716 Personal Hygiene 717 Food 718 Latrines and Garbage 719 Conclusion

ANNEXES

A SUGGESTED FORMATIONS IN THE ADVANCE B NOTES ON ICE CROSSINGS C THEORY AND USES OF THE ASTRO COMPASS D MAINTENANCE UNDER WINTER CONDITIONS E REFERENCES LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION TO WINTER WARFARE

1-1 Geographical Division Between the Arctic and the Subarctic Environments 1-2 Windchill Graph 1-3 Danger from Freezing Exposed Flesh

CHAPTER 2 - PERSONAL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

2-1 Cap, Knitted (Toque) - Cold Weather 2-1A Face Mask - Cold Weather 2-1B Extreme Cold Weather Undershirt 2-1C Extreme Cold Weather Drawers 2-1D Shirt-coat and Trousers Light-weight 2-1E Coat and Trousers General Service 2-1F Liner Coat General Service 2-1G Parka Combat and Windpants 2-1H Mukluk 2-1J Caps Combat 2-1K Outer Garments and Rucksack 2-1L Trousers for AFV Crew 2-1M Jacket for AFV Crew 2-2 Bag, Sleeping, Cold Weather Complete with Hood and Liner 2-2A Bag, Sleeping, Cold Weather Complete with Hood and Liner 2-2B Bag, Sleeping, Cold Weather Complete with Hood and Liner 2-2C Sleeping Bag - Container 2-3 Rucksack, Universal, C1 2-3A Frame and Shelf, Cargo Carrying 2-3B Straps Rucksack, Universal, C1 2-4 Assembly 2-4A Assembly 2-4B Assembly 2-4C Assembly 2-4D Assembly 2-4E Assembly 2-4F Assembly 2-4G Assembly 2-4H Assembly 2-4J Assembly 2-4K Assembly 2-4M Assembly 2-4N Rucksack with Frame (Front View) 2-4P Rucksack with Frame (Rear View) 2-4Q Rucksack Complete with Frame and Sleeping Bag 2-4R Thermos Bottle 2-4S Thermos Bottle and Insulating Cover 2-5 Packboard Assembly 2-5A Packboard Assembly 2-6 Coleman Lantern 2-6A Coleman Lantern 621B 2-6B Coleman Lantern 621B 2-7 Stove M1950 2-7A Stove M1950 2-8 Stove C1B1 2-8A Stove C1B1 2-8B Stove Coleman Model 431 Two Burner 2-8C Stove Coleman Model 431 Two Burner 2-9 One-Man Toboggan 2-9A One-Man Toboggan 2-10 A Properly Lashed Toboggan 2-10A Suggested Toboggan Load 2-11 The Whippletree Method of Lashing Toboggans Together

CHAPTER 3 - CAMPSITES, SHELTERS AND TENTAGE

3-1 Use of Camouflage and Deception in a Campsite Area 3-2 Selection of Route when Entering a Bivouac in a Forest 3-3 Layout of Five-Man Tent 3-4 Layout of Ten-Man Tent 3-4A Ten-Man Tent 3-5 Guys and Tie-downs 3-6 (Not Allocated) 3-7 Single Lean-to - Stage 1 3-8 Single Lean-to - Stage 2 3-9 Single Lean-to Side View - Stage 3 3-10 Fire Base and Log Fire 3-11 Log Reflectors 3-12 Double Lean-to 3-13 Wigwam Shelter with Reflector Wall 3-14 Tree-pit Shelter 3-15 Chopped or Fallen Tree Shelter with Fire and Log Reflector 3-16 Tent Roof Shelter - Stage 1 3-17 Tent Roof Shelter - Stage 2 3-18 Tent Roof Shelter - Stage 3 3-19 Tent Roof Shelter - Stage 4 3-20 Snow Trenches 3-21 Cross Section of Snow Trench 3-22 Snow House - Stage 2 3-23 Snow House - Stage 3 3-24 Sleeping Behind Snow Wall 3-25 Snow Cave

CHAPTER 4 - WEAPONS AND FIELD WORKS

4-1 Weapon Platform 4-2 Weapon Platform 4-3 Prone Position in Soft Snow 4-4 Prone Position Using Snowshoe as a Weapon Platform 4-5 Prone Position Using Skis 4-6 Kneeling Position on Snowshoes 4-7 Kneeling Position on Skis Using Poles as Weapon Support 4-8 Kneeling Position on Skis Using Poles as Weapon Support 4-9 Standing Position on Skis Using Poles as Weapon Support 4-10 Standing Position on Skis Using Poles as Weapon Support 4-11 Machine-gun Mounted on a Toboggan 4-12 Snow Defences - Type 1 4-13 Snow Defences - Type 2 4-14 Snow Defences - Type 3 4-15 Ice-crete Defences - Type 1 4-16 Ice-crete Defences - Type 2 4-17 Ice-crete Defences - Notched Log - Type 3 4-18 Ice-crete and Snow Defences - Wall Building 4-19 Snow Trench

CHAPTER 5 - MOVEMENT

5-1 Route Card or Log 5-2 The Issued Pedometer 5-3 Organization of Trail-breaking Section 5-4 Breaking a Multiple Trail 5-5 Breaking a Triple Track 5-6 Ski and Touring Pole 5-7 Binding - Ski - Universal 5-7A Ski Binding 5-7B Ski Binding - Mounting Instructions 5-8 Repair kit - ski 5-8A Items of Ski Repair Kit 5-9 Step Turn Using the Heels as a Pivot 5-10 Step Turn Using the Tips as a Pivot 5-11 The Kick Turn 5-12 Herringbone 5-13 Half-Herringbone 5-14 The Snowplow 5-15 The Half-Snowplow 5-16 Trail Snowshoe 5-17 Snowshoe Harness 5-18 Attaching Harness to Snowshoe, Step 1 5-19 Attaching Harness to Snowshoe, Step 2 5-20 Attaching Harness to Snowshoe, Step 3 5-21 Attaching Harness to Snowshoe, Step 4 5-22 Attaching Harness to Boot, Step 1 5-23 Attaching Harness to Boot, Step 2

CHAPTER 6 - TACTICS

6-1 Heavy Forested Areas 6-2 Low Patchy Bush or Light Scrub Area 6-3 Open Snow Covered Areas with Dark Woods in the Background 6-4 Open Snow Covered Areas with Dark Woods in the Background 6-5 Open Snow Country 6-6 Open Snow Country 6-7 Tent in Thin or Scattered Tree Cover - Before 6-8 Tent in Thin or Scattered Tree Cover - After 6-9 Tent in Thin or Scattered Tree Cover with Net 6-10 Deception Area Showing Trails and Bivouac Area 6-11 Dummy Oversnow Vehicle 6-12 Example of Ice Fog Caused by 90 mm Gun 6-13 Example of Camouflaged Vehicle 6-14 Example of Camouflaged Vehicle 6-15 Example of Camouflaged Vehicle 6-16 Example of Camouflaged Vehicle

CHAPTER 7 - COLD WEATHER INJURIES AND HEALTH RULES

7-1 Superficial Frost-bite 7-2 Deep Frost-bite 7-3 Deep Frost-bite 7-4 Casualty Bag 7-5 Casualty Bag 7-6 Casualty Bag 7-7 Casualty Bag 7-8 Casualty Evacuation - Toboggan 7-9 Casualty Evacuation - Toboggan

ANNEX C - THEORY AND USES OF THE ASTRO COMPASS

C-1 Astro Compass CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

SECTION 1 - GENERAL

101. Aim

The aim of this part of the manual on arctic and subarctic operations is to describe in detail the drills and training required for the individual soldier and infantry section to operate in winter.

102. Scope

1. The scope includes information on personal clothing and equipment; campsites, shelters and tentage; weapons and the construction of field works; movement; cold weather injuries and health rules; and section and platoon tactics for winter operations.

2. The information given has been primarily written for use by instructors involved in cold weather training.

103. Areas of Winter Operations

1. The arctic, subarctic, and the cold temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere all have a winter season of varying length and intensity. Part 11 of this manual, Unit and Formation Tactics, describes the terrain and climate of the arctic and subarctic environments. Figure 1-1 shows the geographical division between the arctic and subarctic regions. These two regions include most of Canada, Alaska, and Northern Europe; the major winter operational zones for Canadian Forces.

2. A clear differentiation is made for operational and training purposes in all parts of CFP 302(2), Arctic and Subarctic Operations, between arctic and subarctic operations. These differences are discussed in detail in Part II of the manual. Generally, the absence of trees and low amount of precipitation set off the arctic from the subarctic environment. The latter is the home of most of the coniferous forest of North America and Eurasia. The cold temperate region is south of the subarctic and includes areas such as the Maritime Provinces, Southern Ontario and Quebec, parts of the prairies, coastal areas of British Columbia, and most of the Central European area. For purposes of teaching basic cold weather skills there is no requirement to differentiate between the subarctic and cold temperate regions. Figure 1-1 Geographical Division Between the Arctic and Subarctic Environments

(104: not allocated) SECTION 2 - INTRODUCTION TO COLD

105. General

1. A study of man's military history in northern areas leads to one basic conclusion - his successes and failures are measured in terms of his regard for the dominant characteristic of the North - COLD. As Canadians, we must be prepared to live, move, and fight in winter conditions. To be able to do our job effectively, we must know and understand COLD.

2. From his experience in the cold, man has learned that he who recognizes and respects the forces of the environment can do his job and even use these forces to his advantage. He who disregards or underestimates these forces is doomed to failure, if not destruction.

106. Types of Cold

a. Wet Cold. Wet cold conditions occur when temperatures are near freezing and variations in day and night temperatures cause alternate freezing and thawing. These conditions are also often accompanied by wet snow and rain causing the ground to become slushy and muddy. With these conditions troops require clothing that consists of a waterproof or water-repellent, wind resistant outer layer, and an inner layer with sufficient insulation to provide ample protection in moderately cold weather (above -10EC). Waterproof foot-wear is essential.

b. Dry Cold. Dry cold conditions occur when average temperatures are lower than - 10EC. The ground is usually frozen and the snow dry. These low temperatures plus wind increase the need for protection of the entire body. For these conditions troops require clothing that will provide adequate insulation for the body for windchill factor of -62EC. These inner layers of insulation must be protected by a water-repellent, wind resistant outer layer.

107. Windchill

1. We know from our own experience that when a high wind is blowing it feels much colder than when it is calm. Temperature alone does not, therefore, give a true indication of the relative comfort of outdoor activities. Some scale has to be used, based on both temperature and wind, and the most common one is the windchill scale. Human comfort depends on the rate at which heat is lost from the human body. Windchill, which is a measure of the combined effects of wind and temperature, is defined as the number of calories lost during one hour from a square meter of a surface kept at + 33EC (neutral skin temperature). 2. Look at the graph at Figure 1-2. It has been drawn to show a value representing the amount of heat lost for any wind speed and temperature. For example, you will see that a temperature of 7EC and a wind speed of 48 miles per hour produces the same effect as a temperature of -28EC and a wind speed of 5 miles per hour. Both these sets of conditions result in the loss of about 1,400 kilo calories in an Hour and both, therefore, are said to have a windchill factor of about 1400. You will find that other combination of comparatively mild temperatures and high winds produce chilling effects on the body equal to those produced by sub-zero temperatures combined with light winds.

3. The lesson to remember here is that thermometer readings alone will not give you a valid indication of the effects to be expected on the body. With comparatively high temperature and high winds, you must be prepared to protect yourself in the same way you would at much lower temperature readings.

4. Note that the curves of the graph have Such labels as "Bitterly cold", "Exposed flesh freezes, travel and life in temporary shelters becomes disagreeable." The "Key" windchill factors are 1400, 2000, and 2300.

5. As a ready reference, the condition Under which exposed flesh freezes one hour at a windchill factor of 1400 is as follows:

WIND SPEED TEMPERATURE

77 km/h (48 mph) -7EC (20EF) 42 km/h (26 mph) -9EC (15EF) 29 km/h (18 mph) -12EC (10EF) 22 km/h (14 mph) -15EC (5EF) 21 km/h (13 mph) -18EC (0EF) 14 km/h (9 mph) -21EC (-5EF) 11 km/h (7 mph) -25EC (-10EF) 9 km/h (6 mph) -26EC (-15EF) 8 km/h (5 mph) -29EC (-20EF) 6 km/h (4 mph) -32EC (-25EF) 5 km/h (3 mph) -34EC (-30EF) 3 km/h (2 mph) -40EC (-35EF)

6. The windchill scale is not strictly applicable as a measure of human comfort because it does not take into account many important factors such as activity, humidity, loss of heat in the breath, radiation from the sun, and the effects of lowered skin temperature. It is, however, a simple and practical guide and shows the condition under which cold weather travel is dangerous, when exposed flesh is likely to freeze, and when special precautions must be taken against the cold. An additional guide is contained in Figure 1-3 which shows equivalent temperatures in relation to the windchill factor. Figure 1-2 Windchill Graph 108. Effects of Cold on Man

1. In extreme cold, a man can become numb and indifferent to nonessential tasks. Essential tasks require more time and effort. It has been repeatedly demonstrated that at temperatures lower than -23EC all other problems and requirements lose significance in man's personal battle for survival.

2. The destructive Influence of cold on the human body falls into two categories; general or local hypothermia (cooling and freezing).

3. General hypothermia is an Injury by cold to the entire body, either by immersion or exposure. Prolonged exposure will result in death. Figure 1-3 Danger from Freezing Exposed Flesh 4. Local hypothermia refers to cold injuries to specific areas of the body that destroy tissue and result in gangrene and death unless proper medical care is received. Frostbite (Exposure) and immersion foot are examples.

5. It can generally be expected that exposure to the extremes of cold will aggravate or intensify the effects of any physical disorder with which the man is affected at the time of initial exposure.

109. Adjustments

1. The human body must be protected. To remain functional, it must be kept clean, dry, and reasonably warm with normal body processes maintained. Rest and nourishment are vital.

2. The right approach to cold weather living will go a long way towards keeping you healthy and seeing you through. Here are four basic rules to remember:

a. Keep in Shape. Cold weather clothing is heavy and you will burn up a lot of energy just walking in the snow. By keeping fit, you will do your job without becoming exhausted. A sleeping man will not freeze unless he is exhausted. A healthy man will awaken long before he reaches the danger point.

b. Drink Plenty of Water. Because water may be hard to get, you may drink less than you need. Tests show that in cold climates men normally drink only when they are thirsty. This may not give them the water they need and they may become dehydrated. Drink plenty of water to avoid dehydration, and the fatigue which follows.

c. Eat to Keep Fit. Regular, satisfying hot food is essential for top performance. Even if you are not hungry, eat your fill. If you do not, you will not stay fit very long.

d. Maintain a Healthy Attitude. You will find yourself up against a lot of new problems - but none that a trained soldier cannot overcome. Keep alert and cheerful, and work hard. This combination will automatically give you the right attitude.

110. Leadership Requirements

In no other part of the world is individual leadership more apparent or important than in the North. The raw nature of man comes quickly to the surface. Unless skilfully guided and led, a man's basic urge for survival may become his most dominant characteristic. Leadership must be by example. 111. Conclusion

Remember. Cold may make our tasks harder and they may take longer to do, but it does not make them impossible. With knowledge, equipment, and training, you can beat the cold.

(112 to 199 inclusive: not allocated)