Origin, Development and Decline of the First Urbanization in the Upper Saraswati Basin

Narender Parmar1

1. Department of History and Archaeology, Central University of Haryana, Jant‐Pali, Mahendergarh, Haryana, India (Email: [email protected])

Received: 17 August 2014; Accepted: 24 September 2014; Revised: 05 November 2014 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2 (2014): 865‐882

Abstract: The archaeological records clearly suggest that the upper Saraswati basin witnessed emergence of the first urbanization (the Harappan Civilization) in South Asia. The first farming communities of this region laid foundations of an ideal socio‐economic structure which was mainly based on agricultural practices, advanced technology, trade networks, craft activities and ritual customs. Over a period of time, the region has ample evidences that throw light on the growth and transformation of early pastoral and village communities into the ancient cities of the first urbanized civilization. This paper highlights the evidences of this urbanization (Harappan Civilization) in the upper Saraswati basin.

Keywords: First Urbanization, Harappan Civilization, Upper Saraswati Basin, First Farming Community, Advanced Village Society, Sothi‐Siswal, Eastern Hakra

Introduction The earlier settled life in the upper Saraswati basin can be traced to near about the beginning of the Holocene period. The ecological conditions of the upper Saraswati basin played a significant role in the origin and development of settled way of life for earlier farming communities, which ultimately led to the foundation of the first urbanized civilization (the Harappan Civilization) (Fig. 1). Geographically, the region represents a combination of the Indo‐Gangetic plains and Siwalik and Aravalli hill systems. The region has a large concentration of alluvial deposits. Many small rivers and lakes were in existence during the ancient period in this region. These rivers (e.g., Saraswati, Drasdwati, Sutlej, Yamuna, Sabhi, Ghagger, Markanda, Tangri and Kuskiputra, etc.) might have played an important role by providing both a high‐ quality agricultural lands and facilities of irrigation, in addition to the provision of different varieties of wild plants and animals. The region was also an important resource area for many varieties of metals, minerals, stones (procured from Aravalli and Siwalik hills) and must have provided much needed functional trade routes facilitating the smooth flow of trade items from one place to another. The presence of flat and good agricultural land, a number of perennial and seasonal rivers, and lakes, availability of abundant faunal resources and accessibility to other natural resources ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2: 2014

such as metals, minerals, stones, etc. must have provided the opportunities for the beginning and development of the first urbanized civilization in the region.

Figure 1: First Urbanized Civilization in the Indian Subcontinent (Courtesy: Uesugi)

The discovery of a large number of earlier settlements in the upper Saraswati basin clearly indicates that this region was thickly populated from the times of early farming communities. From time to time, one sees the evidences that show the growth and development of these early village and agro‐pastoral clans into settled ones which developed further into the big cities of the first urbanized civilization. The highest numbers of Harappan settlements, above one thousand, are reported from this region. Principle metropolitan cities, large and small towns, villages, hamlets and rural settlements were also located all over upper Saraswati basin. There is no doubt that the region was one of the favourite places of Harappans and great witness of the origin,

866 Parmar 2014: 865‐882 development and decline of the first urbanized civilization (Table 1). A brief summary of the cultural transformation of first urbanized civilization in the upper Saraswati basin is given below.

Table 1: Chronology of First Urbanization in the Upper Saraswati Basin Early Harappan Period Early Farming Community (>4000‐3200 BC) (Eastern Hakra Phase) Advanced Village Society (3200‐2600 BC) (Sothi‐ Siswal Phase) Mature Harappan Period Urbanized Period (2600‐1900 BC) Late Harappan Period Deurbanized Period (1900‐1300 BC)

Period I: Early Farming Community (>4000‐3200 BC) The C14 dates and cultural materials clearly suggest that the first agricultural community of the upper Saraswati basin was contemporary to the Early Baluchi cultures. The earliest C14 dates of the first agricultural community come from the site of Bhirrana which has provided the dates of 7570‐7180 BC, 6689‐6201 BC and 6200‐5850 BC (Dikshit and Mani 2012). In addition, the C14 dates of Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Kunal and Girawad also belong to the 5th and 4th millennium BC. Micro‐geometric tools (microliths), ring stone of the Neolithic traditions, pestles, pounders and rubbers were recovered from early farming community settlements in the region (Khatri and Acharya 1997, Rao et al. 2005‐06, Shinde et al. 2011b). These types of micro‐geometric and stone tools were also common at the earlier period of Mehrgarh (Jarrige et al. 1995). The clay figurines of Bhirrana and Masudpur are very similar to the earlier figurines of Mehrgarh which can be dated to the 6th millennium BC (Dikshit and Mani 2012: 268, Petrie et al. 2009: 47).

The excavations of Kunal (Khatri and Acharya 1997), Bhirrana (Rao et al. 2005‐06), Farmana (Shinde et. al. 2011a) and Girawad (Shinde et al. 2011b) show the introduction of first agriculture based community in the region. The people of this community lived in pit dwelling complexes. It was noticed that these dwelling pits had post‐holes on their peripheries, suggesting the presence of a superstructure made up of either wood or grass. The presence of hearths, charred bone, ash, floor, crucibles, copper, ceramics and semiprecious antiquities in the pits are clearly indicative of the fact that these pits were of multiple‐purpose. One pit dwelling complex included a number of pits having different functions such as dwelling, cooking, storage, industrial activities and refuse (Rao 2006: 33, Shinde 2011b: 15‐39). The diameter of these dwelling pits ranges between 2.00 to 3.40 metres, while functional pits have a diameter of 0.10 to 2.30 metre with a maximum depth of 1.10 metre (Khatri and Acharya 1997, Rao 2006, Shinde et al. 2008). First two phases (IA and IB) are revealed to be the pit‐dwelling complex at Kunal. Out of the fourteen pits, ten pits were related to the first phase and four to second phase (Fig 2).During the second phase, one can see a continuation of pit‐dwelling tradition as well as the introduction of moulded mud‐bricks which were used inside and outside

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the dwelling pit (Khatri and Acharya 1997). The Bhirrana pit clusters have sixteen pits and nine pits are located in the north side of the site, just on the left bank of dry Saraswati River (Fig 3). Other cultural deposit is not found over these pits and these are directly opened out of sky. Other seven pits are showing the continuity of the advanced village society (Rao 2006: 36). In Girawad, thirteen pit dwelling complexes were identified in an area of 25 by 30 metre (Fig 4). Each pit‐dwelling complex here consisted of a dwelling pit, a fire place, a cooking pit, a storage pit, a refuse pit and a pit for collecting dirty water (Shinde et al. 2008: 103‐04). Eight pits and one ash patch (fire place) were noticed at the site of Farmana‐II, which can be related to two different pit complexes (Fig 5). Among these only one pit (pit VIII) was a residence place while other pits were used for different purposes. The evidence of the pit dwelling is also reported from Farmana. The dwelling pit is extending the layer no 8 to natural soil near about 90 cm depth and two post‐holes are found in the southern periphery (Shinde et al. 2011a).Almost all excavated sites of first agricultural community so far have yielded pit‐dwelling complexes.

Figure 2: Pit Dwelling Complexes of the Site of Kunal (Courtesy: Acharya2008)

The archaeobotanical evidence coming from Kunal has shown that these people had sufficient knowledge of agricultural activities. They were the first cultivators of wheat, barley and rice in the region (Saraswat and Pokharia 2002‐03:105‐139). First time, the peoples settled in the upper Saraswati basin cultivated hulled barley and lentils (Kunal IA), only because their main intention was to establish their settlements in the region immediately. Different varieties of carbonized seeds (barley, wheat, rice, lentil, field‐ pea and linseed) are found in the later part of this period (Kunal IB). The faunal evidence coming from the site of Girawad has revealed the existence of both domesticated (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig and dog) and wild animals (pig, deer,

868 Parmar 2014: 865‐882 antelope, rodent and hare). In addition, non‐mammalian animals (birds, fishes and molluscs) are also reported from the site (Sharada et al. 2013). These findings have highlighted that people were not only involved in the animal husbandry practices but also hunted wild animals to meet their subsistence needs.

Figure 3: Pit Dwelling Complexes of the site of Bhirrana (Courtesy: Rao 2006)

The smelting technique and trade contacts can be seen during the period. The people used metal objects (silver and copper), terracotta objects, chert blades, faience bangles and beads of steatite, chalcedony, carnelian, agate and lapis lazuli (Khatri and Achraya 1997: 89, Rao 2006: 40, Shinde et al. 2008: 131). The copper and silver objects are found at Kunal IA and Girawad that include arrow heads, fish hooks, beads and rods (Khatri and Achraya 1997: 89, Shinde et al. 2008: 131, 2011b: 246). A number of crucibles with melted copper were also recovered at Bhirrana IA (Rao 2006: 40). These evidences clearly indicate that people had knowledge of copper smelting. The presence of chalcedony, carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli and steatite objects are indicative of external trade contacts. They were also involved in trading of the Aravalli stones. A large number of Aravalli stone objects (in the form of grinding stones) were noticed in the Ravi phase at the site of Harappa (e.g. Law 2008). In addition, the terracotta, stone and bone objects were ordinary in this period which included animal figurines, bangles, beads, idli shaped cakes, sling balls, pestles, pounders, rubbers and points. These indicate local manufacturing activities. Hence a basic foundation of the industrial system can be seen from the early farming community.

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Figure 4: Pit Dwelling Complexes of the Site of Girawad (Courtesy: Shinde 2011)

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Figure 5: Pit Dwelling Complexes of the site of Farmana ‐ II

The ceramic assemblage of early farming communities (Fig. 6) are consisted into mud applique, incised, chocolate/black/tan slipped, black burnished, buff/brown, bichorme, black on red and plain red ware (Rao 2006, Shinde et. al. 2008). In addition, the grooved/cordoned and Periano reserve slipped ware were also recovered from the upper levels at Girawad (Shinde et al. 2008: 131). Technologically, the ceramic is medium to fine fabric, is made on slow wheel, is well fired, is of light‐weight and has a fine surface. The main shapes include dishes, bowls, cups, basins, lids, handled pots and storage jars. The painted designs were found over the red slip, to be generally located at rim, neck and shoulder portions include line, loops, criss‐cross and triangular designs as well as pipal leaf motifs. A horizontal black band is found commonly at both external and internal side of the rim. The ceramic assemblages of this period have been discussed in detail by L.S. Rao (2006: 38‐40) and Vasant Shinde (2008: 123‐131).

There is no doubt that people came in search of both fertile agricultural lands and stones and minerals. Most of these settlements are located in the vicinity of rivers and lakes as they required rich alluvium deposits and water for irrigation system. The location of the site Kanank (in Bhiwani district, Haryana which is situated about 200 metre from Aravalli hills) gives a clear indication that the people were interested in metals, minerals and stones (Parmar 2012). They were successfully trading Aravalli

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stones with other contemporary settlements (e.g. Law 2008: 208‐210). It is significant to note that all the first farming settlements situated in the upper Saraswati basin are permanent settlements as this region has provided people with all necessary requirements. Hence, the people of these first farming communities settled here permanently and successfully and gradually evolved into advanced village societies.

Figure 6: Ceramic Assemblage of Early Farming Communities

Period II: Advanced Village Society (3200‐2600 BC) The agricultural practices, good residential structures, fortified towns, high‐quality techniques, trade and communications were the main features of advanced village societies. The presence of writing, weights and measures, seals and sealing are important findings of this period. This period has been brilliantly perceived by SurajBhan (1971‐72, 1975). According to SurajBhan (1975: 103), the advanced village society (Siswal culture) can be divided into two phases: Siswal A (Early Siswal) and Siswal B (Late Siswal). Siswal A represents an early stage which displays the transformation stage from first agricultural community to advanced village society, while Siswal B represents a stage of development and expansion of these advanced village society. The advanced village society has also been noted from the sites of Kalibangan‐I, Mitathal‐I, Banawali‐IB, SiswalA and B, Rakhigarhi‐I, Bhirrana‐IB, Kunal‐IC, Balu‐I, Farmana‐I, Badli‐I and Manheru‐I etc.

The structural activities of this period demonstrate a transformation from pit dwelling complexes to fortified town planning. The people of this period used mud‐brick structures for living purposes for the first time. It is significant to note that the evidence

872 Parmar 2014: 865‐882 of circular pits in the natural soil and mud‐brick structures above the ground are found in this period. These pits are found to be filled with ash, bone and charcoal and therefore were certainly used for storage and refuse purposes. Except for the dwelling pit, the other structural features of pit dwelling complexes also continued in the advanced village society. The evidence of pits dug in the natural soil are found at Mitathal (SurajBhan 1975: 6), Banawali (Bisht 2008: Pers. Comm.), Badli (Thakran et al. 2010: 209), Manheru (Thakran and Amar Singh 2009: Pers. Comm.) and Masudpur (Singh and Petrie 2009: Pers. Comm.). Later on, the structural activities reached in the advanced stage and provided a foundation for town planning of the Harappan civilization. The evidence of compound complexes, planned fortified towns, well laid streets and a well‐planned drainage system have been also noticed in this period. The houses had a courtyard with a few rooms, cooking place, circular mud corn bin and cylindrical pits etc., and were made of standard sized (1:2:3) mud bricks.

The period played an important role in the improvement not only of settlement system but also in the refinement of cultural material, agricultural equipments, manufacturing industry and trade and communication. The other artifacts recovered during this period demonstrated different types of shapes, sizes and also different sort of decorations. The quantity of crucibles recovered from this period indicates that the copper technology was become more common. In addition, the manufacturing activities and trader camp sites were also noticed during this period. The large quantity of semiprecious stone objects, metal objects and other finds provide good evidence for internal and external trade contacts. The presence of seals, sealings, weights and measures provide evidence of a controlled market system. Certainly, a particular group of people was busy in technical work and trade communication activities.

The ceramic assemblages of this period have characteristic shapes, paintings and fabric. Most of the ceramic assemblages comprise of red ware. In addition, the grey ware and buff ware were also recovered in usual ranges. The ceramic is well fired; wheel made with some appearance of handmade, medium to thin in fabric, a red and chocolate slip and is painted with black colour. White colour has also been used but only in rare occasions. The ceramics of Siswal A contain both the typical ceramic of advanced village society and continuation of the typical ceramics of early farming communities such as bi‐chrome painted sherds, horizontal black band at neck and rims, incised designs, chocolate slip, rusticated bottoms of pottery, loop‐handled vases and idli‐ shaped terracotta cakes (e.g. SurajBhan 1975: 103‐108). The evolved shape, design and ceramic assemblage of the advanced village society as well as the classical urbanized civilization ceramics are found in Siswal B. The main shapes of Siswal B include dish‐ on‐stand, globular vase, basin, jar, bowl, dish and storage jar. The main motifs noticed on the advanced village society ceramic assemblage include horizontal, vertical and curved lines, zigzag pattern, wavy rope and loop designs. The painted designs were found to be generally located at rim, neck and shoulder portions. In addition, a good number of internally incised decorations and rusticated lower portions have been

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found. Kalibangan fabrics (A to F) are also represented in the total ceramic assemblages of the advanced village society (Lal et al. 2003).

Figure 7: Ceramic Assemblage of Advanced Village Society

The agricultural practices taken up by people during this period include ploughed field, good agricultural equipments, a system of seasonal cropping pattern (spring and autumn harvested), use of good quality seeds and a well‐developed irrigation system. The evidence of ploughed field (Lal 1997: 77), terracotta model of plough (Bisht 1987: 150) and a good number of circular storage pits and corn bins reveal a significant legacy. This period also indicates a surplus production system. Barley and wheat were the main crops of this period. In addition, rice, green‐gram, horse‐gram, water‐melon, common vetch, jujube/jharberi and melon were also recovered from this period. The animal remains analyzed from the site of Rakhigarhi revealed the remains of both domesticated (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and pig) and wild animals (Nilgai, blackbuck, wild pig and mongoose) (Uparathana 2011). No doubt, most of these animals were exploited for their meat by ancient people but certainly must also have played a vital role in the ploughing, furrowing, harvesting and transportation activities.

A large scale increase in the settlements of the advanced village society can be seen in the vicinity of Yamuna river (Thakran 1993) and Aravalli hills (Parmar 2011). The boundary used by the advanced village society people provided a perfect place for settlements and therefore the same has been utilized by the people of the urbanized civilization. However, during the deurbanized period, people moved beyond the

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Yamuna River. One of the important aspects of this period was the beginning of multiple settlements, i.e., towns, villages (both big and small), trader camps, factory and burial sites. The fortified town, agricultural and manufacturing activities are also indicative of the origin of a special class. The creation of female figurines (mother goddess), animal figurines and burial activities throw light on the religious and philosophical aspects of this period. It laid the foundations of many new ideas and helped in the creation of an ideal socio‐economic structure in the society. Kunal IC, Banawali IC and Bhirrana IIA periods are representative of transformation stage from advanced village society to urbanized civilization. Hence, this period provided an ideal platform for the qualities of the first farming community and provided a great foundation for the development of urbanized civilization.

Period III: Urbanized Period (2600‐1900 BC) This period represents a unity of all the diverse cultural material and other elements from the earlier period. It was a golden time for an advanced village society and all the condition favoured a period of growth and development. Major qualities found in all regional cultures (Damb Sadaat, Amri‐Nal, KotDiji, Sothi‐Siswal,Anarta, Padri and Pre‐ Prabhas etc.) came together during this period and helped in the construction of an urbanized civilization. Urban cities, towns and big villages increased during this period. In the upper Saraswati basin, Rakhigarhi (near about 300 hectares) was one of the principle metropolis cities, while Farmana, Kalibangan, Banawali, Bhirrana, Baror, Balu, Luhari Raghu, Kharar Alipur, Pauli and Mitathal were towns of this civilization. The small and rural settlements (villages and hamlets) were located all over upper Saraswati basin. These settlements have classical qualities of an urbanized civilization (the Harappan civilization) and played a significant role for the development of the Eastern domain of this civilization. The extents of urbanized sites can be noticed in the same periphery as those of the advanced village society. However, the numbers of urbanized settlements are very less compared to the settlements of the advanced village society. One can also notice that classical urbanized elements are concentrated in large scale mainly in the city and towns as well as in big villages, whereas small villages and hamlets basically contained a rural nature. This region has brought to light a large number of small settlements, all of which are rural in nature. These settlements revealed characteristic features of an advanced village society and elements generally associated with a classical urbanized civilization (Mature Harappan culture) were limited in number. Hence, it is really difficult to identify these sites in association with the urbanized civilization only on the basis of material culture collected during explorations. More than one hundred small sites revealed a direct conversion of advanced village society (Early Harappan period) to deurbanized period (Late Harappan period). Most probably, these settlements continued to be rural in nature, all through the contemporary urbanized period (Mature Harappan culture).

The settlement systems of the urbanized civilization can be divided into different types such as cities, towns and villages. Generally, the cities and towns are merged in twin mounds viz. citadel and lower town. The citadel is generally located on the higher

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mound, more prominently in the west, while the lower town is generally located in the east. Both of these were fortified separately, had gateways, planed streets, good drainage system, burnt brick structures, communal places and storage facilities. These settlements had main streets and small streets, which were laid generally in the southeast to northeast direction. Most of the structures were made of mud bricks. Burnt bricks were used only in the bathing platforms and drainage canals. However in some cases, the brunt bricks were used at large scale for construction of living structures in the metropolis city as seen at the site of Rakhigarhi. The structures have a number of rooms of different shapes and sizes which were used for living, cooking and storage purposes. The bricks which were utilized had the standard ratio of 1:2:4 belonging to this period. Nevertheless, this situation was different in village settlements and most probably, villages were not well‐planned.

This phase has revealed a great variety in its ceramic assemblage (Fig. 8). Traditional ceramics of the advanced village society were found along with ceramics of classical urbanized civilization. The rural settlements mainly had advanced village society ceramic forms during the urbanized civilization period. The classical urbanized civilization ceramics comprise of red and grey colours and in most of the cases had medium fabric, was well fired, had incised decoration and was painted with black colour and treated with red slip. The main shapes of this period include perforated jar, goblets, dish‐on‐stands, vases, storage jars, ‘S’ shaped jars, dishes and basins. The paintings are usually found over red slipped surface in black colour. They are mainly geometrical, faunal and floral motifs such as sun, bird (most probably peacocks), fish, pipal leaves, neem leaves, banana leaves, palm leaves, horizontal band, checker board pattern, fish scales, triangles, loops, intersecting circles and linear designs. The cord impressions, notches and incised decorations are also found on these ceramics.

The region played an important role in the internal trade, overland trade and manufacturing activities. The presence of industrial complexes and, manufacturing tools and raw material are clearly indicative of the fact that the urbanized cities and towns were fully active in manufacturing activities. They were importing ornaments and raw materials of carnelian, agate, chalcedony, chert, lapis lazuli, shell and metals. However, the manufacturing of precious objects was limited only to cities and towns. While the small village sites were seen to be playing an important role in the manufacturing activities of regular items, the people seem to have supplied raw materials (especially Siwalik and Aravalli stone) to major Harappans urban centres. Production centre and big market of local items (stone and copper) are found at Rakhigarhi (RGR‐6). Most probably, after the manufacturing stage, these objects were exported to other contemporary settlements.

The advanced agricultural activities are also noticed during this period. The presence of huge amount of agricultural equipments and favourable environmental conditions were becoming more instrumental for proper agricultural progress. These conditions were also very helpful for creating a surplus production. Great varieties of crops, fruits

876 Parmar 2014: 865‐882 and weeds were recovered from the urbanized period. Wheat and barley were most important crops and played an important role in food habits of people. In addition, rice, gram, common vetch, field pea, lentil, sesame, garlic, date, grape and wild jujubes were also recovered in this period. The remains of animals have again shown the existence of both domesticated and wild animals. The major domesticated animals were cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and pig, while the wild animals include antelopes, deer, nilgai, wild pig and other smaller animals. Cattle were certainly an important part of the diet of people as its remains dominated the faunal assemblage. It might also have played an important role in the agricultural activities and transportation.

Figure 8: Ceramic Assemblage of Urbanized Period

These evidences recovered from this period indicate that the region had an important role in the first urbanized civilization. This period highlighted the interconnection among cities, towns, big and small villages. Almost all of the material culture developed and reached at their peak during this period. For the first time, the people of this region started living a high standard life.

Period IV: Deurbanized Period (1900‐1300 BC) The deurbanized period revealed degradation in all aspects of life which were prominent features of previous phase such as the town planning, architectural features, material culture, technology, trade and commerce. The classical elements of the urbanized civilization which broke down in the deurbanized period include typical Harappan ceramic forms, triangular cakes, inscribed seal, burnt brick house, big granaries, communal hearths and grid settlement pattern (Dikshit 1979: 130). The

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beginning of the second millennium BC witnessed a break down in the urban civilization integration, unity and development. All the sub systems that were a prominent feature of the prosperous urbanized period (Mature Harappan period) seem to have weakened. Consequently the urbanized civilization seems to have transformed into various regional cultures. Most of the urban centres such as Rakhigarhi, Farmana, Kalibangan, Bhirrana, Baror and Karanpura disappeared during this period. The population of urban centres moved towards the village settlements. Hence, rural settlements increased in large numbers during the deurbanized period. The towns such as Mitathal, Bara, Banawali, Ropar, Sanghol, Balu, Hulas and Alamgirpur played an important role as regional centres in this period. Excavations of these sites have thrown light on town planning, architectural features, ceramic assemblage, animal husbandry, trade and technique of this period.

The town planning and architectural features of this period were not as perfect as they were during the previous period. The structures were made by both mud bricks and mud. The structures during this phase were made up of fragmentary mud bricks, which were most probably taken from the structures of the earlier phase. The presence of large numbers of corn bins, tandoors, ovens and circular storage pits suggest that these were an important part of house planning (SurajBhan 1975: 13, Bisht 1982: 121). However, ratio of bricks (1:2:4) and system of street alignment were followed that of the urbanized period. The streets generally ran north‐south and east‐west, and measure 1.50 to 3.10 metres in width at Mitathal. The archaeological evidences from this period revealed that the drainage system was not properly maintained. The presence of large jar at the site of Mitathal most probably indicates that it was used for soakage purpose (SurajBhan 1975: 08).

The deurbanized ceramic assemblages (Late Harappan period) show degradation in form of fabric, designs and decoration (Fig. 9). Both the advanced village society and urbanized period ceramic continued in addition to some modified forms. The classical urbanized ceramic forms such as beaker, perforated jar, storage jar with flanged rim and dish on stand with nail headed rim etc. were found to be totally absent during this period except in some rare cases where these make their appearance (SurajBhan 1975: 33). Most of the ceramics of the deurbanized period were heavier and had medium fabric. Dull red ware and rusticated ware were found in large quantity during this period though usual ranges of incised and grey ware were also found. The main shapes of ceramics in this period were vase, bowl, storage jar, basin, dish, bowl on stand and dish on stand with various types of drooping, collared, flaring, flanged and flaring oblique cut rims. The deurbanized period mostly had geometric designs painted with black over red surface which included horizontal and vertical lines, zigzag patterns, dots, latticed and loops.

The external trade also seems to have broken down during this period, which resulted into popularization of local produces. The beads of carnelian, agate and steatite were recovered but not in great numbers. The presence of large number of faience objects

878 Parmar 2014: 865‐882 during this period indicates that this was the most preferred material and was gradually replacing objects made out of semiprecious stones. Different varieties of faience ornaments were recovered that includes bangles, beads, seal, rings, anklets, earring etc. The terracotta objects also have a better representation in this period compared to the earlier periods. Beads, bangles, toy‐cart‐wheels, animal figurines, game objects and idli shaped terracotta cakes were the main finds among terracotta objects. The stone objects continued to exist and included weights, ring stone, sling balls, saddle querns and pestles. The copper implements included harpoons, celts, bangles, rings etc. (Shrama 2002: 118‐123) and the characteristic feature of these implements is their similarity with the ‘Copper Hoard’ of Ganga‐Yamuna doab (Sahi 2006‐07: 162).

Figure 9: Ceramic Assemblage of Deurbanized Period

Both agricultural activities and animal husbandry practices seem to have played a vital role in the subsistence economy. Archaeobotanical remains have revealed that almost all kinds of pervious botanical remains continued in addition to a number of new varieties of crops, seeds and fruits. Most of the rural settlements seem to have subsisted mainly on the agricultural activities. The bones of domesticated and wild animals as well as reptiles, molluscs, birds and fish have been recovered from Mirzapur (Sharma 1995‐96) and Mitathal (Sharada et al. 2012). The domesticated animals include cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, horse, dog and an unidentified Equid species. The wild animals include deer, antelope, hare and porcupine. The presence of bones of these animals has shown that both livestock pastoralism and hunting of wild animals were playing important part in the daily activities of the people.

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The material culture of this period clearly indicates the transformation of urbanized civilization from an urban to rural stage. The societies which enjoyed a great affluence during the urban period seem to have been lost. The integrated society of the urban period broke down into different regional cultures as was the case during the advanced village society. Nonetheless, these various regional cultures were not only collaborating with each other but played an important role in the succession of traditions of the urbanized civilization.

Conclusion The region of upper Saraswati basin played an important role in the origin and development of the early farming communities by providing a congenial land for producing surplus agricultural production and proper amenities for irrigation. The early farming community put foundations of many new ideas and helped in creation of an ideal socio‐economic structure. Gradually a shift and emergence of complex nature in advanced village society was noticed. The complexity emerged due to long distance contacts and trades, division of labour among people living in the society, multifaceted nature of subsistence economy, development of ritual customs and traditions and also due to the appearance of crafts specialization. Almost all kinds of typical features carried by the advanced village society later on became important characteristic features of fully urbanized civilization. Hence, one can notice a proper linear development of the social organization, religious system, subsistence economy, ideology, communication, culture material, architecture and civil engineering. Finally, after thousands of years of linear development unique urbanized civilization in the upper Saraswati basin was introduced.

Acknowledgments The author is extremely thankful to Prof. Vasant Shinde, Dr. R. S. Bisht, Prof. R. C. Thakran, Prof. Amar Singh and Prof. R. N. Singh for providing useful information from their excavations.

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