Origin, Development and Decline of the First Urbanization in the Upper Saraswati Basin Narender Parmar1 1. Department of History and Archaeology, Central University of Haryana, Jant‐Pali, Mahendergarh, Haryana, India (Email: [email protected]) Received: 17 August 2014; Accepted: 24 September 2014; Revised: 05 November 2014 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2 (2014): 865‐882 Abstract: The archaeological records clearly suggest that the upper Saraswati basin witnessed emergence of the first urbanization (the Harappan Civilization) in South Asia. The first farming communities of this region laid foundations of an ideal socio‐economic structure which was mainly based on agricultural practices, advanced technology, trade networks, craft activities and ritual customs. Over a period of time, the region has ample evidences that throw light on the growth and transformation of early pastoral and village communities into the ancient cities of the first urbanized civilization. This paper highlights the evidences of this urbanization (Harappan Civilization) in the upper Saraswati basin. Keywords: First Urbanization, Harappan Civilization, Upper Saraswati Basin, First Farming Community, Advanced Village Society, Sothi‐Siswal, Eastern Hakra Introduction The earlier settled life in the upper Saraswati basin can be traced to near about the beginning of the Holocene period. The ecological conditions of the upper Saraswati basin played a significant role in the origin and development of settled way of life for earlier farming communities, which ultimately led to the foundation of the first urbanized civilization (the Harappan Civilization) (Fig. 1). Geographically, the region represents a combination of the Indo‐Gangetic plains and Siwalik and Aravalli hill systems. The region has a large concentration of alluvial deposits. Many small rivers and lakes were in existence during the ancient period in this region. These rivers (e.g., Saraswati, Drasdwati, Sutlej, Yamuna, Sabhi, Ghagger, Markanda, Tangri and Kuskiputra, etc.) might have played an important role by providing both a high‐ quality agricultural lands and facilities of irrigation, in addition to the provision of different varieties of wild plants and animals. The region was also an important resource area for many varieties of metals, minerals, stones (procured from Aravalli and Siwalik hills) and must have provided much needed functional trade routes facilitating the smooth flow of trade items from one place to another. The presence of flat and good agricultural land, a number of perennial and seasonal rivers, and lakes, availability of abundant faunal resources and accessibility to other natural resources ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2: 2014 such as metals, minerals, stones, etc. must have provided the opportunities for the beginning and development of the first urbanized civilization in the region. Figure 1: First Urbanized Civilization in the Indian Subcontinent (Courtesy: Uesugi) The discovery of a large number of earlier settlements in the upper Saraswati basin clearly indicates that this region was thickly populated from the times of early farming communities. From time to time, one sees the evidences that show the growth and development of these early village and agro‐pastoral clans into settled ones which developed further into the big cities of the first urbanized civilization. The highest numbers of Harappan settlements, above one thousand, are reported from this region. Principle metropolitan cities, large and small towns, villages, hamlets and rural settlements were also located all over upper Saraswati basin. There is no doubt that the region was one of the favourite places of Harappans and great witness of the origin, 866 Parmar 2014: 865‐882 development and decline of the first urbanized civilization (Table 1). A brief summary of the cultural transformation of first urbanized civilization in the upper Saraswati basin is given below. Table 1: Chronology of First Urbanization in the Upper Saraswati Basin Early Harappan Period Early Farming Community (>4000‐3200 BC) (Eastern Hakra Phase) Advanced Village Society (3200‐2600 BC) (Sothi‐ Siswal Phase) Mature Harappan Period Urbanized Period (2600‐1900 BC) Late Harappan Period Deurbanized Period (1900‐1300 BC) Period I: Early Farming Community (>4000‐3200 BC) The C14 dates and cultural materials clearly suggest that the first agricultural community of the upper Saraswati basin was contemporary to the Early Baluchi cultures. The earliest C14 dates of the first agricultural community come from the site of Bhirrana which has provided the dates of 7570‐7180 BC, 6689‐6201 BC and 6200‐5850 BC (Dikshit and Mani 2012). In addition, the C14 dates of Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Kunal and Girawad also belong to the 5th and 4th millennium BC. Micro‐geometric tools (microliths), ring stone of the Neolithic traditions, pestles, pounders and rubbers were recovered from early farming community settlements in the region (Khatri and Acharya 1997, Rao et al. 2005‐06, Shinde et al. 2011b). These types of micro‐geometric and stone tools were also common at the earlier period of Mehrgarh (Jarrige et al. 1995). The clay figurines of Bhirrana and Masudpur are very similar to the earlier figurines of Mehrgarh which can be dated to the 6th millennium BC (Dikshit and Mani 2012: 268, Petrie et al. 2009: 47). The excavations of Kunal (Khatri and Acharya 1997), Bhirrana (Rao et al. 2005‐06), Farmana (Shinde et. al. 2011a) and Girawad (Shinde et al. 2011b) show the introduction of first agriculture based community in the region. The people of this community lived in pit dwelling complexes. It was noticed that these dwelling pits had post‐holes on their peripheries, suggesting the presence of a superstructure made up of either wood or grass. The presence of hearths, charred bone, ash, floor, crucibles, copper, ceramics and semiprecious antiquities in the pits are clearly indicative of the fact that these pits were of multiple‐purpose. One pit dwelling complex included a number of pits having different functions such as dwelling, cooking, storage, industrial activities and refuse (Rao 2006: 33, Shinde 2011b: 15‐39). The diameter of these dwelling pits ranges between 2.00 to 3.40 metres, while functional pits have a diameter of 0.10 to 2.30 metre with a maximum depth of 1.10 metre (Khatri and Acharya 1997, Rao 2006, Shinde et al. 2008). First two phases (IA and IB) are revealed to be the pit‐dwelling complex at Kunal. Out of the fourteen pits, ten pits were related to the first phase and four to second phase (Fig 2).During the second phase, one can see a continuation of pit‐dwelling tradition as well as the introduction of moulded mud‐bricks which were used inside and outside 867 ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2: 2014 the dwelling pit (Khatri and Acharya 1997). The Bhirrana pit clusters have sixteen pits and nine pits are located in the north side of the site, just on the left bank of dry Saraswati River (Fig 3). Other cultural deposit is not found over these pits and these are directly opened out of sky. Other seven pits are showing the continuity of the advanced village society (Rao 2006: 36). In Girawad, thirteen pit dwelling complexes were identified in an area of 25 by 30 metre (Fig 4). Each pit‐dwelling complex here consisted of a dwelling pit, a fire place, a cooking pit, a storage pit, a refuse pit and a pit for collecting dirty water (Shinde et al. 2008: 103‐04). Eight pits and one ash patch (fire place) were noticed at the site of Farmana‐II, which can be related to two different pit complexes (Fig 5). Among these only one pit (pit VIII) was a residence place while other pits were used for different purposes. The evidence of the pit dwelling is also reported from Farmana. The dwelling pit is extending the layer no 8 to natural soil near about 90 cm depth and two post‐holes are found in the southern periphery (Shinde et al. 2011a).Almost all excavated sites of first agricultural community so far have yielded pit‐dwelling complexes. Figure 2: Pit Dwelling Complexes of the Site of Kunal (Courtesy: Acharya2008) The archaeobotanical evidence coming from Kunal has shown that these people had sufficient knowledge of agricultural activities. They were the first cultivators of wheat, barley and rice in the region (Saraswat and Pokharia 2002‐03:105‐139). First time, the peoples settled in the upper Saraswati basin cultivated hulled barley and lentils (Kunal IA), only because their main intention was to establish their settlements in the region immediately. Different varieties of carbonized seeds (barley, wheat, rice, lentil, field‐ pea and linseed) are found in the later part of this period (Kunal IB). The faunal evidence coming from the site of Girawad has revealed the existence of both domesticated (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig and dog) and wild animals (pig, deer, 868 Parmar 2014: 865‐882 antelope, rodent and hare). In addition, non‐mammalian animals (birds, fishes and molluscs) are also reported from the site (Sharada et al. 2013). These findings have highlighted that people were not only involved in the animal husbandry practices but also hunted wild animals to meet their subsistence needs. Figure 3: Pit Dwelling Complexes of the site of Bhirrana (Courtesy: Rao 2006) The smelting technique and trade contacts can be seen during the period. The people used metal objects (silver and copper), terracotta objects, chert blades, faience bangles and beads of steatite, chalcedony, carnelian, agate and lapis lazuli (Khatri and Achraya 1997: 89, Rao 2006: 40, Shinde et al. 2008: 131). The copper and silver objects are found at Kunal IA and Girawad that include arrow heads, fish hooks, beads and rods (Khatri and Achraya 1997: 89, Shinde et al. 2008: 131, 2011b: 246). A number of crucibles with melted copper were also recovered at Bhirrana IA (Rao 2006: 40).