Instrumental borders of gender and religious conversions in the Balkans Albert Doja

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Albert Doja. Instrumental borders of gender and religious conversions in the Balkans. Religion, State and Society, Taylor & Francis (Routledge), 2008, 36 (1), pp.55-63. ￿10.1080/09637490701809738￿. ￿halshs-00425476￿

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Downloaded By: [University College London] At: 08:03 23 January 2008 rtuymny n culwmnotnue sacrec fexchange. of currency a as instrumental used as often effeminate either Balkans women as actual the people and of in categories manly, different with affiliations truly to individuals, referring or and and metaphors, groups gendered identifications social of among use religious relations extensive hierarchical at ascertaining look for resources I political paper this In A DOJA ALBERT Balkans* the Religious in and Conversion Gender of Borders Instrumental 2008 March 1, No. 36, Vol. Society, & State Religion, SN06-44pit SN16-94online/08/010055-09 1465-3974 ‘New ISSN print; on Affairs. 0963-7494 Foreign Brain conference ISSN UNDP of the Network Ministry preparation from Norwegian support The Kotor financial the 2007. with and the possible May Programme made 26 at were Gain – 25 paper this and Herzegovina, College, of and University presentation 2007, and Bosnia Sodertorn April Sarajevo, Religion’, Minorities’, the of 22 – on Religious 19 Study ‘Religion Academic conference Sweden, international the the Stockholm, in at Challenges presented the was New of paper Borders: this part of form version earlier not of *An features network, does religious social as or not or does collectively categorised community trait are They local cultural question. given particular in religion a a world of whether – religion – of representations official of the accordingly regardless Collective of process Islam part identity. considered a or are collective of ceremonies Christianity a and part practices of ritual therefore network. beliefs, pursuit are and social a the affiliation to or through belonging during belonging of socialisation Before, because one religious Christianity group. centuries, and more to eighteenth larger and or Conversion or a seventeenth Islam or the communities, to in village either cultural islamicisation a converted of and lineage, heyday a the social after family, and embraced their a of which as members history, far precisely, between collective as a and especially to rural, cultures, and concerned. religious is urban relations different settings, gender on economic by impact and and shaped mountains social between life-worlds different differences regional between especially underscore societies, would and plains, Albania, cultures of European case Southeast the Islam. contacts, and on in and Catholicism view encounters Orthodoxy, generalised passages, Eastern a of hybridising However, place of a capability is its in Balkans formidable the else, anything than More Ideology Ethno-Religious Gendered A O:10.1080/09637490701809738 DOI: Published BSTRACT nteBlas seswee eiiu ovrinadpltc aenral related normally have politics and conversion religious elsewhere, as Balkans, the In in: Ó 08Tyo Francis & Taylor 2008 Downloaded By: [University College London] At: 08:03 23 January 2008 56 oet hs enda o-epeadwa,udrcrancrusacs sa is circumstances, certain under what, and non-people be can as what defined demonstrates and those ‘people’ ethno-religious of the to kind from this done Muslims works, Slavic such all in excludes portrayed As ideology regard. this in influential been ota ftetetehcnuyYgsainNblpiewne v Andric Ivo prize-winner Nobel Njegos Yugoslavian Petar bishop twentieth-century and the poet from of Montenegrin literature, nineteenth-century that Balkan early to of the masterpieces of infamous work Certain the poetry. of epic contexts in particularly race. bloody transforma- and a a more blood as entailed Islam and have Turkic to which to more conversion ‘milk’, Slavic any Christian in from of and perception tion used the ‘blood’ in Christian be example, of for to betrayal seen, be again can over ‘Balkanism’ as (Bakic- conflict, and as orientalisms’ over identified ‘nesting amplified many be of may logic mentality the or another in exalt 1995). or partakes to Hayden, religious one and order and 1997) in of territorial on whole (Todorova, ascriptions bearers of conspicuously actual characterisation as pinned of the kind groups of be of This existence identities. to regardless the their people available debase of of are consequence groups a elements, (Sofos, different opposites, cultural male/female as of masculinist and pairs such masculine/feminine sexist, These signifi- pairs of 1997). are antithetical categories Zhivkovic, which the 1996; metonymic of by of series of represented all a cantly conceptualisation pure/impure, fallacy of moral/immoral, oppositional part a chthonous/heterochthonous, auto- is oppressor/oppressed, involves The conqueror/conquered, Muslims urban/rural, highlander/lowlander, often Balkans. and Christians which the between discourse in throughout The logic populist cultural developments. misrepresentation dichotomising a those An and is identification. of conceptualisation of of political effect levels to type other this related an many of necessarily feature and as is important gender, ‘Muslim’ it ethnic, or territorial, see ‘Christian’ political, of the social, contrary categories in the developments the historical of on certain conceptualisation of must explanation we an or Balkans, cause community a as the groups social religious throughout the transmitted in grounded is is which it conformity, rather 2000). based a conviction; social (Doja, not religious is or is or It territorial Religion system adherence. kinship, culture. or belief family, ‘belonging’ specific religious particular a social to Being the on relates religion. and tradition on of by status based regardless which of is group, communities social hostility, Christian prejudices of many or system and group to a Muslim solidarity common by share is of of defined which may are alliances, position, community values individual matrimonial group inclusive essential and an existence the kinship of perfectly Although groups, modes religious reveal of behaviours. a other community community towards inclusive cultural only local broad of very any a not and also of but Muslims level course, of the and language, at On in Christians observations Muslims. kind and empirical between Christians this between hand, can of rupture one other total and discourses a considerable, the of to be impression to listens the seems gain one usually sometimes discontinuity When themselves this actors instance, behaviour. the for social of Albania, discourses and the and society organisation about social group. actual social the a and between day traditions to of belonging legacy means ancestral religion ‘an a of part to as Belonging but customs’. system belief world established an ovrint sa a lasbe estv su,wdl xlie nliterature, in exploited widely issue, sensitive a been always has Islam to Conversion meaning its recursively, refracted be more, is what may, dichotomy given Any between opposition the see many where that is foregoing the of consequence A present the to up exists discontinuity a however, differences, religious of case the In letDoja Albert ´ ,have ˇ Downloaded By: [University College London] At: 08:03 23 January 2008 h euto hc sto religion, is and gender which become of of to construction result indeed social nationalism may towards the projects organised discourse Nationalist traditionalist for violent. a and mobilise and racist for organised misogynist, consciousness, masculinist, become nationalist militarist, into to converted consciousness get to this subsequently religion identity. for possible national of of versions versions ‘gendered’ ‘nationalised’ the ‘effeminate’ accepted the to the and to or ‘feminine’ conforming the masculinity not of everyone strategy category virtually the discursive include of important Milos positing to an the nation, in the the employed of been to has definition ‘emasculated’ masculinist or opponents a activists, against upon peace challenged’ Drawing Albanians, Serbian ‘hormonally incarnate’ ‘effeminate’ against only against ‘evil against communists, also not and and but Serbs’ particular, bureaucrats ‘bestial’ in Serbian ‘real but Islam setting to virile converted by have fantasised of relations who number ‘traitors’ social a Bosnian shape emphasised against has which particular been dichotomies in have 2001; populism gendered Goldstein, politics nationalist 1997; nationalist Serbian Yuval-Davis, 2003). 1985; and of (Mosse, Nagel, religious metaphors gender to ways gendered reference the to with structured and the according kinship, from legitimated and and race reproduction imagined Slavic been the has off community cut 1996). has (Sells, that West ‘Orient’ young the a corrupted of of the currents’ element ‘heathen ‘civilizing as them the curses finally and faculty, covetous’ but and procreating ‘cowardly race’, their as against only levelled not and disappear, discourse, milk to religious natal nationalist Muslims’ Such act. Slavic cleansing against sacred, a and duty religious olblalsuhr lain fOtoo eiina oetal ufihu’because ‘unfaithful’ potentially as tend religion also Orthodox would of They Albanians history. southern in ‘unfaithful’, all conversion label as religious northern to Muslims their contrast, to Albanian By prominently of northern this ‘civilised’. versus conceive relating the as would ‘honourable’ themselves of Catholics, of especially or conceive and Albanians, would ‘primitive’ ‘faithful’ as Albanians and people Southern mountain ‘civilised’, ‘treacherous’. versus and ‘unfaithful’ ‘primitive’ social of disruptive dichotomies suddenly turbulence of postcommunist the periods or Yugoslavia in and gendered former Albania. in amplified wars primitive and in ethnic particularly the violent, religious as borders, is such cultural spatial, as change symbolic which construction express obversely to process identity or politicised be a and of mettle, ethnicised can constantly people process superior are borders rural this of or and cultivated, complexity. In proud, highlanders and arrogant. brave, submissive; pragmatic dizzying rational, and as as assume soft seen seen degenerate, be can as can obversely people distinctions urban and ethno-psychological permutations religious Lowlanders the territorial, gendered purpose, of be inconsistent, what can talking logically for or terms is seemingly and who of sometimes circumstances, on combinations, pairs what Depending and opposed under valuations. when, of shaded variously whom, range of of to whole pair spectrum a the whole of indeed, a poles opposite given reversed; the get of valencies often discursive the terms that is phenomenon further A Categories Religious and Gender of Instrumentality ideology. ethno-religious gendered and order moral ti h nraigrl ftaiinls n ainls icussta ae it makes that discourses nationalist and traditionalist of role increasing the is It ethno-religious the ways the cross-culturally explored have studies of number A eeal,i lai n rqetyecutr uulpretosepesdin expressed perceptions mutual encounters frequently one Albania in Generally, en-gender edradRlgosCneso nteBalkans the in Conversion Religious and Gender h a,o h ai fa sue n reified and assumed an of basis the on war, the ˇ evic ´ ie(ael 1994). (Salecl, line 57 Downloaded By: [University College London] At: 08:03 23 January 2008 58 o oa,o ao ocr oterlgosmn fAbnas ntequasi- the 1968). (Whitaker, In marriage upon Albanians. the century; Islam of nineteenth abandon the are to mind during Catholics expected women staunch were religious Muslim powerful women married the instance, have to for to reported Albania, regularly North concern still of are major and regions marry a been, to autonomous of never for woman have Muslim permissible religion today, a legalistic is for of not it not issues such though law a However, woman, Islamic quite non-Muslim. Christian a was a Under marry wives Empire. to Christian Ottoman man take within Muslim the to Muslims in Muslims of For practice pre-eminence society. common institutional the Ottoman the that of of 2002). framework time complain (Rapper, the the Muslims them at to is, whereas theirs that wives, independence, give to Muslim refuse take proud but and are can daughters men Christians their they Christian between take valorised. that distant are Christians opposition fact wives from local of the general takers to in the of external situation, are this thus mixed much Muslims In happens are of to Muslims. reverse and majority married The Muslim. areas, a women the more a marks Christian mountain In wife even the which and Muslims. and takers, rarely, are to Christian be more a relation Christians is to husband in agreeing as the Christians while in couples insofar of endogamy givers, Christian endogamy superiority being sense to relative this Muslim Muslims In than them. than take resistant stricter to refusal is a than Albania rather wives are give which to centres. qualities urban ‘modernity’: large and the the the ‘culture’ to to with of return maintain anywhere, to image Christians as that not their attributed, bonds and to the there contributes reinforces remain this and to to All cities leave spouse. tend who a also women find city Young to the village. village in their very in studies have spouse they graduate many permitted ‘Christian’: why pursue a as is up perceived finding This cousins are of side. which marry chance mother’s cities, little to the the them or in father’s prohibit marry they the Muslim which women but on Christian exogamy either large endogamy, of degrees, religious rules a distant on the several with to rules by limited with communities be comply local also to will In want may community. Christians religious majority the in of implied mountain endogamy necessarily or also rural as the see 2002). own of they (Rapper, which Muslims their relations cause superiority gender the a perceive a their and with Albania, mark often comparison northern a in of They as to areas finesse’ example, criterion. as ‘cultural for prompt perceive Albania, their another rather they southern of or in whom are Christians Muslims one with instance, of coexistence to to groups for as relation other according other Albania, certain in each ‘opposite’ of southern shift represent fanaticism in also certain the may denounce Muslims a religion with The one always within fanatical. the communities other, make may Different each to Muslims reality. relations and about no Christians have communities representations well local same may mixed family representations in of as and such perceived context practices, course, authority often the real Of male to fanaticism. to fanaticism relate women of of of feature they subordination a foremost marked Representations and more to a backwardness. first taken with but their relations, often matters, is of religious categories to mark opposite relate of a people ‘fanatical’, of behaviour be the people, of 2002). categories Schwandner-Sievers, (see plans traitors expansionist Greek potential with them identification make which would in theories conspiracy prevalent of h urn iuto shwvrtervreo h iuto htpealdbefore prevailed that situation the of reverse the however is situation current The refusal a in primarily itself manifests endogamy religious terms, anthropological In the by defined often are Muslims and Christians between relations Matrimonial certain of culture’ ‘civilised the and ‘delicacy’ the against specifically, More letDoja Albert Downloaded By: [University College London] At: 08:03 23 January 2008 cmuiae ntervleqaiyo rdcr fsgs oqoeLe a quote they are to To and they signs. signs amounts of as of producers which time quality of value same contradiction, quality their the value in a their at ‘communicated’ in of ‘speak’ are ‘communicate’ they women something as since here insofar agency, ‘spoken’, is women’s there of recognition women, to do fcmuiain iea‘peh hti iue hnte r o xhne and exchanged not are they when type misused certain this a Le is of In though that part whole. Even being ‘speech’ a as ‘communicated’. a as seen like are society women communication, human kinship social of of of integration structure separate elementary the between of of ensure form kind communication This to incest. provide ultimately between of to and prohibition exchanged and assumed groups are exogamy women is of rules theory alliance of kinship basis matrimonial history his the in In on subjects men well. but of as structure groups power life formal social a everyday in and linked objects exchange merely not fLe If Agency exchange. and Women’s of groups currency social a as among used but relations often instrumental groups women hierarchical be to with defining religious ascertaining essentially individuals, seem for for Thus They resources criteria groups. evolution. the about political objective this thinking as be for recognised accompanied categories cannot are rather has affiliations Christians and behaviour The and society. Muslims identifications matrimonial of local Catholic status and in relative Roman The reversed elite direction. wife already other whereas the the is century, in twentieth and Christians frequent rather the more of is Muslim were years today Islam early tendency husband the to the until conversions the about Christianity way in to was same conversions only the cases than In and 2002). Muslim, the Pichler, was of and of wife (Gruber majority the cent the and per in Catholic that already Roman 10 was shows number, out was husband areas carried in the census Albanian tendency the low cases Austrian-occupied from relatively throughout data the of 1918 still examination independence, in sample were a beginning after intermarriages from the evidence political religious At shortly demographic them. new though underlies century, a Even that to ‘culture’ twentieth reversed. of corresponds concept the which the one, of of part recent is a and her rather situation of is that strategies to matrimonial conform to faith religious was her problematic change least would the and woman often (see husband. whole negotiated, consulted, the norm be the a that be to as expect as not things them to many would accept group the and women the Among marriages of 1998). arranged to Post, their interests would advantageous describe family and still most extended rights women his family union many The of the of arranged. members that senior be Questions the so could Ages. and matter married, Middle the be the to examine man in a houses affiliation for religious came royal not politics of family – of members advantage victims hapless the much the as themselves as found have might females unmarried tsesraoal oasm naycs httepeetoinainof orientation present the that case any in assume to reasonable seems It and males unmarried both particular, in highlands Balkan pre-modern the In ´ ilgeo e,awmni ee ueywa ssoe bu;frif for about; spoken matrimonial is the what In purely a as signs. never defined of is is generator woman she a as a insofar as men, since recognized of and in be person, dialogue even a since must more, still she nothing is and sign sign she a world just become man’s never a could woman A . . . iSrusi ob ae eiul,w utareta oe r sue obe to assumed are women that agree must we seriously, taken be to is vi-Strauss edradRlgosCneso nteBalkans the in Conversion Religious and Gender ´ iSrusde o eonewa isi systems kinship what denounce not does vi-Strauss e se per eetegiigise hntetime the when issues guiding the were – ´ vi-Strauss, 59 Downloaded By: [University College London] At: 08:03 23 January 2008 60 eotdt o ar eoete r 0yasodadwmnntbfr hyae25. are In they before matrimony. not women and and are old family men years Albania, 30 of northern are in they realms clans before marry Catholic the not to to related beyond reported 1617 freedom of lifetimes source of earlier their females another, years allowed throughout which chaste experience system, postponed-marriage and to existing unattached an by remain preconditioned to was and marriage people. continent virginity local or Christian for chaste life the of has regarding way what 1635 a as over in virginity enthusiasm arrival and their missionary since reflects achieved Albania been northern in order Franciscan nyfiaca,eooi n oilbtee he survival. not sheer was even conversion administration but for Ottoman motivation social the the and Often by economic family. the levied financial, simply of but Christians, only members religious crypto-Christianity male on all the at taxes on not Islam, additional only was frequently conversion the This for escape conversion. to motive reports main men-only to the in Missionary the that conversions engaging fact communities the in Albanians. Catholic reflects mass whole role the 1967; of cases to of significant (Skendi, among describe began the women population a expanded because Catholic to between particular, the correspondingly when attributed feeling rapidly in century, been good seventeenth Albania diminish the has creating In In Christianity in 2001). faiths. Malcolm, secret factor two of a the preservation were of and members religion Christian their ntenrhr lainmutisi osdrdt aebe nrdcdby introduced 1961; been (Zamputi, century have seventeenth to the of considered half is Gre first 1986; Dojaka, the mountains in Albanian celibacy missionaries female Franciscan northern of phenomenon the frequent relatively in The affiliations. ethno-religious of key one important priests most was the important other differentiation complicity. the there gender priestly then an If and was crypto-Christianity, well. homes, of mechanism been as development their menfolk the have enter the in publicly to to mechanism thus were secret priests in family for may minister a possible might in and became women gender it If generations, by Christian, crypto-Christianity. differentiation over maintaining religious for continued of mechanism at system Christians, be this as children Apparently, educate might female to and request. request, was mother’s father’s Albanians the descent among the at expedient parallel parents Muslims, common of as from another children resources kind including time male other a this and identity, in at membership children, of group However, to of side. resources transmission one the symbolic to for and principle priority give names frequently their homes. membership, religion, their as group from women vanish but to Muslim Christianity side, want than not rather did they Christian that taken grounds the have on to wives, reported are converts ti o mosbeta h isoais ucs nprudn eae oembrace to females persuading in success missionaries’ the that impossible not is It nteBlasdrn toa ie,wmnmridt ulm fe retained often Muslims to married women times, Ottoman during Balkans the In oe’ gnyi shwn araei ieiectda nuitne side-effect unintended an as cited likewise is marriage eschewing in agency Women’s father’s the and mother’s the both on relations kin organise systems kinship All letDoja Albert tas,16,p 6;16,p 496) p. 1969, 569; p. 1967, Strauss, rgnlypretdteetr nvreo ua omnctos (Le communications. human sexes of doubtless the which universe between mystery entire relations and the the ardour why permeated richness, explains originally affective This In that value. duet. at preserved a remained a have has and in woman part sign signs, her a become arising taking wholly once value have for which marriage, particular words, after to a and contrast certain preserves before a talent, woman to her destined each from signs, communication, of category of certain kind a represent general in women ´ ax 92.Arpr f13 yoeo h onigfteso the of fathers founding the of one by 1638 of report A 1992). maux, 1 nsm ae h new the cases some In ´ vi- Downloaded By: [University College London] At: 08:03 23 January 2008 one eae,aogbt hita n ulmAbnas nKsv n in by and demonstratively Kosova rather liberation. in used women’s Albanians, often of is Muslim declaration of unofficial and and meaning the sense, Christian the as social both in Albania, in a among used in veil, but females, care’ Albanian, younger the expression don’t in the of in such ‘I important return as means is distinction perceived the The not trouble’. and actually ‘worry, of word Islam is the rebirth However, ‘veil’, to a women. to been adherence young some has the including for there with by particular Albania, however, transition, worn 1990s, in widely postcommunist the adhere more Since of religion Kosovars Albania. been changes Muslim in has because turbulent counterparts perhaps it their critical Albania, than though Islam in even to than towns, more Kosova the rural in in women women by worn women. been of position from freely the expected been in move still changes has and despite that recently household, seclusion until a own housewives 2003), ordinary (Backer, her courtyard manage and house work, the of man’s a do cases without in to roles gender chose ascribed a her she as reject strong would defined where woman socially so A be gender. was would opposite appearance spheres the of two social member the and between to patterns somehow switching behaviour pressures anyone tasks, that enormous association The certain under sex. with original involved her gender or individual his of of the expected roles local put gender conventional the to would to setting, conform traditional dress order to the in in In adaptation cross-dressing. practice change of by and customary any character virginity native to particular oneself to swearing its of ‘break-in’ customs receiving Franciscan while a women, of empower result the the a part, and as 1988). large order, being (Shryock, in relationships social reflect, affinal to the entered necessarily according men to must concerning that, which women threatening customs with marriage to most trepidation of rigid attributed were matters the valuations in women to negative was men, submit it Albanian to fact, North In refused marriage. who account and females to engagement failed by that provoked practices was nuptial (Gre was prevailing self-determination involved, of female units social for of side-effect affairs. larger forms and unintended extra-marital Montenegrin families an had the and of often often Albanian members North male marriage the especially imposed between its feuding Those an in marriages. avoid bloodshed, imposed to resulting to The themselves manage centuries likely submit not for to most was did refused there is who who areas, of It females mountain way of the concerned. only minority in the families a especially and the Balkans, married, the get between throughout to was blood-feud that refused virgin’ at subsequent who ‘sworn Without a girl a becoming Balkans. a that avoiding for the say option in can respectable one virgins’ only discussion, the ‘sworn that into becoming entering women time this for and rationale Albanian Serbian main to and the Muslims restricted Albanian share means among to no found supposed by also was was was extent Orthodox. but some 2000), Catholics, to ‘sworn (Young, who Montenegrin The males law, character. its with active customary of secularised, in equality most a lost encounter have on we 1961, must taken (Zamputi, state virgin’ and men perpetual like a character, raiding as Christian cut and virginity ascetic hair warfare circumstances in their these part kept In active men, 119). an p. the take from to themselves used distinguish and short, not did girls young Actually, mn ulmAbnassneidpnec n11 h ulmvi a seldom has veil Muslim the 1912 in independence since Albanians Muslim Among into came probably Montenegrins and Albanians North among celibacy Female been have rights property and succession male of rules customary that argued is It havale eemaigwtotte‘oilvi’ta ofie oe oteshelter the to women confined that veil’ ‘social the without meaning here , edradRlgosCneso nteBalkans the in Conversion Religious and Gender ´ ax 92,bcuemc fteitra violence internal the of much because 1992), maux, havale tmlgclyrelated etymologically , u a havale kam nuk which , 61 Downloaded By: [University College London] At: 08:03 23 January 2008 62 akr .(2003) B. Backer, References two also were there mentioned, paper this of peer-reviewers anonymous the of one as fact, In 1 oe hi ihsi eeteesmc mle,adtdywmnsrgt are rights women’s Note today and smaller, giving much for price nevertheless the customs, is acknowledged. traditional increasingly Albanian rights and present-day practices Whereas their modern practice. of women in mixture be certain a for still though is may even society rules In changing, old in values. rapidly women especially their already of is changing changes, categories women rapidly dramatic of been situation undergone have the families has particular westernised Albanians where of settings life urban daily the onwards, ae,J (2003) J. Nagel, (1985) L. G. Mosse, Balkans: Ottoman the in amphibianism religious and ‘Crypto-Christianity (2001) N. Malcolm, century’, 20th early the in Albania in Le structures ‘Household (2002) R. Pichler, and S. Gruber, (1986) A. 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Doja, ´ gis sablwe uti ett a gis h toa mie hs Catholics those Empire, Ottoman order. restored the Ottomans against the war when up choice rose to in same Albanians went up Catholic the Austria local faced risen century, when had and seventeenth Ottoman Islam Istanbul late who to the the against conversion Albanians against between in choice Orthodox when, war the Similarly, given local to execution. were prevailed, overlords went Ottoman Porte Russia their against Sublime When revolt wars. the following and conversions Empire of waves big iSrus .(1967) C. vi-Strauss, ln ihterpdsca rnfrain rmtemdl ftetehcentury twentieth of middle the from transformations social rapid the with Along ´ ax .(92 Facsa rasadtesonvriso h ot laintribes’, Albanian North the of virgins sworn the and friars ‘Franciscan (1992) R. maux, lvncadEs uoenSuis nvriyClee odn) p 1–109. – 91 pp. (eds.), London)), Norris College, Balkans T. University H. the Studies, and European in Heppell East Identity and M. 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