ISSUE 7 Van Norden, Bryan W. (2017) Japanese in history the game Can it do for China what K-Pop and Manga do for Korea and Japan? Business Leadership by Giving Voice to Right-wing fun? plain just or nationalism Finding aNew Narrative of Chinese Chinese Science Fiction Literature The placeThe of aChinese School in the global IR academy Multicultural Manifesto Multicultural Chinese Millennials Chinese THØGER KERSTING CHRISTENSEN KERSTING THØGER ‘Joining Club’ the LISA LINDKVIST ZHANG LISA LINDKVIST VALTTERI VUORIKOSKI Kantai Collection Kantai Book Review: NICKLAS JUNKER NICKLAS SUVI KURKI – – – – – Taking Back Philosophy – A A – Philosophy Back Taking

and its audience and its interpretation SUMMER 2019 SUMMER ASIA IN FOCUS Asia in Focus Editorial Editorial Focus in Asia Journal Website Graphic Design Graphic Committee Committee Copyright Publisher Contact ISSN Australia andNewZealand. countries fromis theAsian Central to excluding Asia Oceania scienceThegeographicalof thesocial andthehumanities. focus from viewed societies Asian thestandpointsthe journalismodern and transnational forum to publishtheirfindings.Thefocal of point PhD students affiliated to aNordic institution a widelyaccessible in FocusAsia was initiated by NIAS to provide Master students and and service institute focusing onAsia’s transformations. modern by NIAS -Nordic Institute NIAS isaNordic Studies. ofAsian research in FocusAsia is a peer-reviewed online twice journalpublished a year Authors &NIAS. Allrights reserved. Nopartofthispublication may reproduced be without Müller Dennis NIAS -Nordic Institute Studies ofAsian rest solely with the authors. in articles published of the accuracy the facts and expressed for the opinions the responsibility of content in for Focus, Asia selection for the final responsible is While the editorial committee of Bergen University Kenneth Nielsen, Bo of Jyväskylä University Juego, Bonn Arun Kumar, University Linnaeus Center Sino-Danish and School Business Copenhagen Grünberg, Nis André Asplund, Stockholm University Lasse Sørensen, University of Copenhagen Nordic Institute NIAS, of Studies Asian Blomkvist, Inga-Lill FoulkesNicol (Managing Editor), Savinetti Nordic Institute NIAS, of Studies Asian www.nias.ku.dk [email protected] Denmark DK-1353 K Copenhagen FarimagsgadeØster 5 NIAS -Nordic Institute Studies ofAsian 2446-0001 www.asiainfocus.dk the writtenfrom permission theauthors. ISSUE 7·2019 ISSUE 2 ISSUE 7 and its audience interpretation itsand audience Taking Back Philosophy – Back Philosophy Taking 1 Kantai Collection Chinese Science Fiction Literature Literature Fiction Science Chinese Japan? and Korea for do Manga and K-Pop what China for do it Can – NICKLAS JUNKER ‘Joining the Club’ ‘Joining academy IR global the in School a Chinese of The place – THØGER KERSTING CHRISTENSEN Contents to Chineseto Millennials – KURKISUVI Review: Book (2017) W. Bryan Norden, Van Manifesto A Multicultural – LINDKVISTLISA ZHANG Finding a New Narrative of Chinese Chinese of Narrative a New Finding Voice Giving by Leadership Business Right-wing nationalism or nationalism just plain fun? Right-wing game the history in Japanese – VUORIKOSKI VALTTERI 15 24 34 45 02 ASIA IN FOCUS international relations, dialectics Keywords: constitutes against existing abroader andseek IRtheory interpretation ofwhat truly global discipline, toscholars will need adopt a critical stand of its potential to emancipate However, globalIR. instrivingfor a its proportion sheer of the world populationin favour all speak growing role intheworld,its cultural andintellectual tradition, and risk ofreproducing theproblematic tropes ofmainstream China’s IR. creating national in response schools to Western hegemony runs the perspective – continues to dominate the discipline. Furthermore, that Western-centric from IR–both aninstitutional andideational consideredbe aparadigm-shifting phenomenon.Thearticle finds of thisisdoneinorder can IRtheory whetherChinese to assess relationshipthe theories’ to existing Western-centric IRtheory. All structure production. ofIRknowledge Finally, itcriticallyevaluates School’s andtheChinese domestically theories intheglobal position institutions, seeks thepaper to measure theinfluence ofthenew Through by published abibliometricstudy ofIRperiodicals Chinese – QinYaqing, Yan Xuetong andZhaoTingyang –andtheirtheories. of IR’. Thisarticlefocuses onthethree mainscholars inthedebate IRtheory,Chinese mostrecently intheform ofa‘Chinese School In response, scholars Chinese are debating whetherto create a criticism, Western-centrism stillpermeates thedisciplinetoday. an‘Americancalled science’. social However, despite persistent Since the 1970s, international relations (IR) as a discipline has been CHRISTENSEN KERSTING THØGER academy School in the global IR Chinese of a place The ‘Joining Club’ the Western-centrism, international School, Chinese relations theory, global China . 2 ISSUE 7

Voices addressing these structural imbalances imbalances structural these addressing Voices for scholars outside the United States – as well well – as States United the outside scholars for were this If theories. new wholly develop – to it inside different” be markedly would situation 1945, the the in a feeling is p.2). There 2016, (Mearsheimer, is IR that academy the of parts entrenched more p.336) 2013, (Wæver, fragmented overly already different forms including institutional bias bias institutional including forms different epistemological 2017), Lutwar, and (Reingewertz inflexibility(Brincat and cultural Ling, 2014), (Hobson, 2012), developmental exceptionalism non- of a lack and 1997) (Hoogvelt, determinism illustration An 2010). (Kayaoglu, agency Western the of structure institutional stratified the of system” “hub-and-spokes the is community IR largely scholars, core which in 2015) (Kristensen, elite, institutional Anglo-American an by up made privilege the is “it it, puts Kristensen As dominate. periphery while theorise, to scholars ‘core’ of except core, the to back speak not do scholars raw some providing of sense the in perhaps 214). p. 2015, (Kristensen, materials.” empirical met or 2016) (Acharya, welcomed either are John scholar realist Influential resistance. by of terms in exclusion this portrays Mearsheimer 2015 in opportunities limited are “[T]here scarcity: history and philosophy (Qin, 2018; Zhang and and Zhang 2018; (Qin, philosophy and history this In 2013). [2011] Yan, 2016; Zhao, 2016; Chang, to School Chinese a for potential the discuss I paper both IR of structure Western-centric the challenge perspective institutional an from and ideationally published 2,500 articles IR than more surveying by In periodicals. academic Chinese in 2013-2017 from four as angle a comparative I introduce addition, in five and English in published are periodicals much how investigate to is purpose The Chinese. theory in engaging is community IR Chinese the of new promotes work this of much how innovation, new the how and resources, Chinese on based theory Western-centrism. and IR existing to relate theories the IR of academy structure stratified The taken have IR in Western-centrism of Charges 3

What Does What (Vitalis, 2000). WhenChina Rules was founded in 1911 as 1911 in founded was IR by concerned IR scholars scholars IR concerned by IR of IR inspired by the English English the by inspired IR of global ForeignAffairs, (Leonard, 2008) and and 2008) (Leonard, (Jacques, 2009). However, in the Western Western the in However, 2009). (Jacques, espite its name, the field of international international of field the name, its espite being for criticised been long has relations serving and 2015) (Kristensen, parochial Chinese School A call for a for A call With the emergence of critical, feminist and and feminist critical, of emergence the With

1994). Recently, Chinese scholars have moved into a into moved have scholars Chinese Recently, 1994). Chinese on founded theories formulating phase new topic for decades since Liang Shoude called for an an for called Shoude Liang since decades for topic (Liang, characteristics” Chinese with “IR discipline for indigenous theory inside China. The potential potential The China. inside theory indigenous for a for debated a hotly been has Schools Copenhagen and to ‘speak’ or theorise themselves (Kristensen, 2015). 2015). (Kristensen, themselves theorise or ‘speak’ to debate the reenergised (2007) Buzan and Acharya IR communities, rising powers continue to be to continue powers rising communities, IR able subjects than rather objects as mainly studied its global vision carried popular titles as as titles popular carried vision global its ChinaThink the World the newcomers spurs more attention, fascination or fascination newcomers spurs attention, more the and China in interest A growing China. as concern economies of established powers were floundering floundering were powers established of economies defeatism Western of bouts reignited has of none Arguably, 2018). Goldberg, 2011; (Ferguson, theory have grown more acute. The fact that these these that fact The acute. more grown have theory the as time same the at arise to seemed powers ‘new’ postcolonial IR studies, and the rise of developing developing of rise the and studies, IR postcolonial block, BRIC the as such countries non-Western IR in Western-centrism subliminal criticising voices periodicals, periodicals, Development Racial of Journal The science and colonial administration are ignored, as as ignored, are administration colonial and science trusted most discipline’s the of one that fact the is Treaty of Westphalia, and the supposed foundation foundation supposed the and Westphalia, of Treaty The 2011). al. et (Carvalho 1919 in discipline the of racial as such fields in discipline the of roots earlier colonialism. The discipline assumes an idealisedcolonialism. world discipline The 1648, as such the dates arbitrary around structured 1977; Smith, 2000). Critics claim that the field’s field’s the that claim Critics 2000). Smith, 1977; has experience Western the of universalisation and imperialism of role the downplay to served a Western outlook (Hobson, 2012) - it has even even has - it 2012) (Hobson, outlook a Western (Hoffman, science’ social ‘American an called been D ASIA IN FOCUS sources react to the existing mainstream theories. of the survey. Ithen discuss how the sanctioned which is followed by the methodological approach outline of the content of these scholars’ theories, Zhao Tingyang. The paper continues with a brief in the debate are Qin Yaqing, Yan Xuetong and Chang, 2016). Three of the main figures to emerge [2011] 2013) or as anew ‘school of (Zhang IR’ and to contribute to existing research paradigms (Yan construct IR theories from Chinese resources either being the case, Chinese scholars are working to and that it has reached its own end-of-history. That peripheral contact. by mostly providing ‘raw, to back’ conditionally able only ‘speak core’. material to data’ the ‘theorising There islittle inter- subjugated as entities which of are works IR the to global cores, central the as of disseminator peripheral knowledge Figure 1. The stratified structure of knowledge production in the structure production The stratified international of knowledge community. IR core The Anglo-American 4 2018) and “leading scholars” (Cunningham-Cross, 2018, p.96), three “the bigs of Chinese (Babones, IR” Zhao have been called ”main contributors” (Demir, representatives of aChinese School. Qin, Yan, and partly because of their recognition globally as key their Chinese peers (Kristensen, and 2015, p.327) as eminent scholars that was revealed by surveying sanctioned main figures in the debate. Irefer to their work as three scholars in particular have emerged as the IR has gained attention from anumber of scholars, Although the debate around aChinese School of sources of of IR School Chinese the Sanctioned partly because of their domestic status ISSUE 7 pp.252- , pp. 41-45). , As such both both such As

. (Qin, 2016, p.39) (Qin, , a common denominator for , for a common denominator humane authority and by interaction of the two opposite poles [...]. [T] opposite two the of interaction by an in them understands tradition he Confucian thesis the as not interact They way. immanent co-theses. as but antithesis, and strain of intellectual thought but exclusively invokes invokes exclusively but thought intellectual of strain as such concepts and philosophers Chinese ancient moral realism intellectual Chinese that agree Yaqing Qin and he to which from resource important an is culture IR, global develop and some that scholars argue Cross, 2014, p.181). A long-time public intellectual intellectual public A long-time p.181). 2014, Cross, a is Yan policy, foreign Chinese on in weighing often – he label School Chinese the of opponent staunch social to approach positivist a scientific, advocates empiricist US the with aligned closely sciences little of as is IR of School a Chinese Yan, For tradition. chemistry” or physics of School a “Chinese as use Xuetong Yan Including p.216). 2013, [2011] (Yan, therefore is theory IR Chinese on a discussion in adding merely is he that insists he as controversial, However, theory. (Western) existing to perspectives scholars to up not is it argues, himself Yan as academic schools coin (ibid to themselves a central become not or willingly has he and 253), theory IR Chinese building on discourse the part of Cunningham-Cross 2015; Kristensten 2017; (Demir, doubt no would Yan 2012). Zhang 2012; Kai 2014b; he that approach Tsinghua his through that claim the However, theory. IR universal creating merely is any just upon rest not does work his of rationale research of avenues new to up opens concept This and governance relational power, such as relational (ibid systems international relational opponent - The Xuetong Yan Yan Professor is Yaqing Qin to opposition In almost has who University Tsinghua from Xuetong the of figure leading the become accidentally approach Tsinghua enrich to sources Chinese ancient using scholars (Cunningham- theory IR realist, especially existing, 5

or in realism, realism, in power in constructivism constructivism in between actors. As an an As actors. between

relational constructivism relational norms dialectics look to engage engage to look dialectics process, Qin borrows from from borrows Qin process,

The Doctrine of the Mean Mean the of Doctrine The relations

internal internal . Instead of looking at pre-conceived pre-conceived at looking of . Instead .Zhongyong in liberalism, (Qin, 2016, p.34). He coins his own own his coins He p.34). 2016, (Qin, Like their Western counterparts, the Chinese Chinese the counterparts, Western their Like way, a polar in universe the conceptualise place take evolution and progress that believing relationality Zhongyong polarity create and contradictions accept and without duality in contrast Hegelian to dialectics: also advances an alternative to Western Hegelian Hegelian Western to alternative an advances also the and cosmology Daoist by inspired dialectics Confucian Classic, on whether it is engaging with a rival such as Iran or or Iran as such a rival with engaging is it whether on Qin Furthermore, p.36). (ibid, UK the as such ally an revealed through considered is what scenario IR a typical in example, depending widely differs policy nuclear US rational formation as an formation as solely formation this locates and Xiaotong Fei individual actors, Qin focuses on the relations relations the on focuses Qin actors, individual Overemphasising actors. these of processes and identity on focus constructivist Western the structured around the meta-physical component component meta-physical the around structured of – but a consistent meta-physical component, component, meta-physical a consistent – but rationality IR theory to approach as According to him, the Western IR traditions have have traditions IR Western the him, to According – components substantive different institutions defines IR theory as having a hard core composed composed core a hard having as theory IR defines component. metaphysical and a substantive of In his work, Qin draws extensively on Confucian Confucian on extensively draws Qin work, his In and cosmology, Daoist relations, of philosophy Qin Xiaotong. Fei sociologist the channels also University, is strongly associated with the quest to to quest the with associated strongly is University, p.332). 2015, (Kristensen, IR of School a Chinese build proponent - The Yaqing Qin Affairs Foreign China at professor Yaqing, Qin ideal proponents of an imagined Chinese School, School, Chinese imagined an of proponents ideal the by such as recognised become have they but not. or willingly academy, IR international the of core 2014, p.6) by Western IR scholars. This is not to to not is This scholars. IR Western by p.6) 2014, necessarily are scholars particular these that say ASIA IN FOCUS adherence to morality and stability (Hui, 2004). it was not called the Warring States period for its year period was much more complex –after all, (CarvalhoIR” et al. 2011), the reality of this 800 mind that just as with the “Westphalian myth of pp.55-56). 2012, (Zhao on force, but on morality and the common good” to Zhao, a“political institutional revolution not built Zhou over the other Chinese states was, according BCE approximately. During this period, the rule of interstate system that existed between 1045-221 as translated tianxia with promoting arevamped conception of the IR theory is Zhao Tingyang, who is associated The last influential thinker in advancing Chinese Zhao Tingyang outsider The - strive to become a“humane authority” (ibid, p.39). a hegemon, and instead cultivate harmony and learning from the mistakes of the which US, he calls believes China can become adominating state by natural occurrence in international politics. He sees the domination of states as aconstant and In the realist tradition of might-makes-right, Yan Power Chinese Modern Thought, emphasised in the title of his book, ancient Chinese philosophers. This link is clearly practice means drawing foreign policy lessons from through adherence to moral realism, which in belief in the peaceful rise of China managed some (Leonard, p.112), 2008, he also expresses Although considered ahawk and ”neo-comm” by leadership it can provide” (Yan, [2011] 2013, p.216). the leading power in the world and what kind of world central question for Yan is “how China can become IR theory and guide Chinese foreign policy. discussion of how Chinese culture might invigorate reason Yan has also become acentral figure in the gap between the two (Zhang, 2012). For this of problem phrasing more a thanbe unbridgeable an Yan’s objections to the term aChinese School might As aphilosopher, and as such less associated system. The original all-under-heaven

It is important to keep in tianxia tianxia , refers to the pre-Qin (Yan, [2011] 2013) [2011] (Yan, Ancient Chinese Ancient Chinese system, literally literally system,

The The .

6 worldness into international theory (Zhao, 2009, p.6). of Western IR theory by inducing the concept of world, he seeks to go beyond the nation-centrism of the current state of international affairs as a failed Taking his point of departure in acritical assessment harmonious world Zhao’s and out similarities between Hu Jintao’s concept of and politics, but some scholars have pointed at bestto establish causality between academia policy-making (Callahan, 2008). It is speculative Chinese partly IR, due to its perceived impact on one of the most widely discussed ideas related to worldness world constitution that will entrench philosophy a of a hyper-institutionalised world government and a idealistic and normative project of the three scholars: with the IR community, Zhao is pushing for the most periodicals. By comparing publications published of publications Anglophone with Sinophone angle to investigate and compare the contents calls for submissions. Ialso include acomparative literature reviews, conference summaries and and include prefaces and interviews, but exclude included in the sample come from nine journals between 2013 and 2017 (see Figure 2). The articles IR community. IR I survey articles published 2,544 degree their ideas hold sway in the wider Chinese debate, I now turn to data to analyse to what a prominent scholars in the Chinese School of IR Having briefly accounted for the three most Data and Methods dialectics, which Ireturn to later in the discussion. This bipolarity opens up for areturn of Hegelian the latter in the moral hierarchy of the Zhou Dynasty. multipolarity of ancient Greek political states and worldviews, seeing the former as embodied in the inherent differences in the Western and Chinese relationality (Zhao, 2012, p.49). Zhao argues for component very similar to Qin’s conception of taking Confucian relationism metaphysical a as in the pre-Qin micro-cosmos of interstate activity Just like his two colleagues, Zhao finds inspiration (Zhao, 2012, p.64). tianxia tianxia Tianxia Tianxia system (ibid). has become become has ISSUE 7 7 Periodicals and number articles of included survey. data the in Figure 2. Figure ASIA IN FOCUS sources, Maoism, pre-Qin sources, socialism with such as Chinese School, Confucianism, dynastic a groups: source. Here Icategorise theories into three main a clear source of theory is discernible, Inote the abstract, theory and conclusions of each article. If through selective reading with a focus on the innovation. achieved categorisation This was or if it seeks to break new ground in theory analytical mainly is article the whether determine production in the this survey aims to discover the amount representation of theory-oriented articles, but It is possible to select publications with alarger all availableincluded publications. Anglophone Sciences Evaluation Center 2014). In addition, Ihave of Social Science (Chinese Academy of Social publications according the Chinese Academy are some of the most cited and influential IR China. in IR theory is challenging mainstream IR theory foundation upon which to assess whether Chinese of developing and then focusing on research related to the quest measuring the proportion of IR theory in general, large aproportion theory innovation occupies. By production of IR articles, Iaim to discover how differ in certain key ways. By looking at the entire Qin Yaqing’s stocktaking measure (2011a), bibliometric study of IR in rising powers (2015) and approach is inspired by Peter Kristensen’s M. order to map the landscape of IR in China. The I focus on the articles’ theoretical framework in (Kristensen, 2015, p.213). In the present survey, whether using journals, textbooks or curricula measure adiscipline through published research, that are directed at international audiences. scholars and the Anglophone periodicals in the internal debate among Chinese-speaking I hope to highlight potential differing priorities by Chinese institutions in different languages, Through the coding of the articles, Ifirst The purpose of bibliometric studies is to

Chinese paradigm Chinese The surveyed publications Sinophone Chinese Chinese most IR theory, Iget an empirical

influential influential (including keywords periodicals.

of theory

but will will but 8 Relations, one of the oldest and most prestigious China Institutes of Contemporary International the survey of periodicals published by think tanks. innovation. This is likely due to the prominence in do not contribute anything in the way of theory derived from specific strains of IR theory, but they implicitly beinfluenced by certain assumptions any specific IR theory tradition. These articles might articles are analytical in nature and do not refer to the China Resource Knowledge Integrated Database. security studies). feminism, Marxism, post-colonial IR theory and theories constructivism, liberalism and realism); and system); Chinese characteristics, but consent may bethe more important element” hegemony, is sustained by coercion and consent, Amitav Acharya writes that, “dominance like Commenting on the nature of astratified system, Analysis Discussion and classified as belonging to the ‘Chinese paradigm’. sample contains the largest percentage of content remains overall secure. Nonetheless, the Sinophone mainstream IR theory in the Chinese IR community This suggests that the hegemonic position of theories’, and the mainstream theories dominate. Chinese paradigm is comparable in size to ‘other of International Journal Politics Chinese Politics and Economics articles in two periodicals: the Sinophone is aclear concentration of theoretically innovative and, far from innovate new theory. Instead, there discernible lack theoreticalarticles foundation foreign policy analyses and area studies. These theory, use fewer footnotes, and mainly publish published by think tanks show less interest in translations of the former. In general the articles English with the latter mostly containing selected think tanks in China, publishes both in Chinese and As Figure 3shows, the vast majority of the As highlighted in Figure although 4, the mainstream theories mainstream (critical IR theory, the English School,

All articles were accessed through tianxia tianxia and the Anglophone (all subcategories of and the tributary World other other .

ISSUE 7 by US academic academic US by . As Qin Yaqing Yaqing Qin . As

Western gaze getting approved getting without theory, making new theory is another way to be to way another is theory new making theory, the by recognised held consistently has theory IR US “Inreality, it, puts theoretical US and world, the in position a leading created has so or years 20 last the over research of theories mainstream – the tradition a powerful IR mainstream of part a to become difficult is IR. It theory in specialising in the US-dominated mainstream mainstream US-dominated the in specialising in 9 Orientation of content. Clear sources theory. of Chinese paradigm emerging in spite of mainstream mainstream of spite in emerging paradigm Chinese others joining from Apart dominance? theories IR through PhD scholarships and research foundations foundations research and scholarships PhD through a for accounts what So, p.238). 2015, (Kristensen, Chinese IR community is so focused on the US US the on focused so is community IR Chinese community IR Chinese the Institutionally community. counterpart US its with bonds strong retains also (Acharya, 2014, p.25). The prestige attributed to to attributed prestige The p.25). 2014, (Acharya, the why explain might core, the of club the joining Figure 3. Figure Figure 4. Figure ASIA IN FOCUS the the former empires, whether it was referred to as Cross and Callahan, 2011), also been astaple of some scholars point out (Hui 2012; Cunningham- However, the claim of moral superiority has, as philosophy and becoming an ultra-moral power. potential for following the lessons from ancient different from former dominating powers is the by great states and empires. What makes China as being the natural heir to a system dominated his theory in any critical context, but sees China same way, Yan Xuetong also stops short of putting to that of aHobbesian world of nation states. In the principles, comes to represent asuperior scenario world dominated by China, or at least by Chinese in the Westphalia system” (Kim, 2016, p.74). A undesirable –anarchy, disorder, war –are inherent Chinese traditional system, and what is bad and voluntary submission –are clustered within the that“[A]ll is good and desirable –order, legitimacy, metanarrative of Hegelian dialectics is still at work: politically biased, Hun Joon Kim points out that a p.1031). Beyond charges against the theory as equally distorted political agenda” (Dreyer, 2015, for “distorting [the past] in order to advance an severely attacked, in the words of one reviewer, Tingyang’sZhao with cultural flirting exceptionalism. for criticised The sanctioned Chinese theories have been Cultural exceptionalism that are also found in Western-centric IR theory. Chinese IR theory run the risk of reproducing tropes without critical evaluation, the sanctioned sources of always for someone and for some purpose” to heart by taking Robert Cox’ (1981) maxim that is “theory the stratified structure of the academy. However, represents another way of carving out aspot within the privileged position of Western IR theory existing theories and does not purport to threaten a new school that is not explicitly critical towards circles” (emphasis added –Qin, 2012, p.16). Coining white man’s burden tianxia tianxia or a concept has been civilising mission civilising . 10 periphery: the Daoist feminism Ling of (Ling, L.H.M sources such as those from China’s own cultural sources prematurely excludes other potential concept. Limiting a Chinese School to sanctioned to collapse nuances into one impossibly broad School Chinese a over Buddhism and Daoism (Chen, 2015), alabel like dominated by amonolithic Confucianism towering Ricci’s mistaken assumptions of religion in China as a mirror image of the Jesuit missionary Matteo ancient Chinese, mainly Confucian, philosophy. As Beijing. Furthermore, they all take departure in Han Chinese and working at elite institutions in three scholars. All of them are male, ethnically by mainly identifying a A problem of representation also becomes clear Representational dilemmas thinkers have largely “been pushed to the margins Zedong” (Song, 2001, p.63). The political socialist viewpoints of Engels, Marx, Lenin, Stalin, and Mao politics before then was just interpretations of the in China. The so-called theory of international “Before the 1980s no real IR theory was taught scholar’s evaluation of the previous decades is that, ideological straitjackets of previous decades. One An explanation might bearevolt against the really make use of Chinese socialism or Maoism. 2011a, p.455), none of the sanctioned sources history in the development of IR in China (Qin, Even though Qin Yaqing includes revolutionary Chinese School also excludes more recent history. Apart from the erasure of non-Han history, the limitationsHistorical in an idealised, Confucian, Han-dominated form. to name afew. Instead, Chinese culture is portrayed Turkish, Tibetans, Xiongnu, Manchus and Mongols, being dominated by nomad people –the Khitans, perspectives despite large parts of Chinese history 2014). Lastly, there is atotal erasure of non-Han science fields such as the Chinese New Left (Weber 2011) or possible crosspollination from other social 2014), perspectives from Taiwan (Shih, 2017; Chen, also serves as acatch-all phrase Chinese School of IR with ISSUE 7 from non- from has a Master degree degree a Master has theory speak , it might be beneficial beneficial be might it , a thousand flowers bloom and a and bloom flowers a thousand (liberalism) subjective- and Qin Yaqing’s [email protected] tianxia Western IR scholars does not deliver the radical radical the deliver not does scholars IR Western based scholars from expected usually difference world no “ are ‘third There context. a different in mainstream in theorisers indigenous or radicals’ science ‘social like looks often it rather journals, discipline” a mainstream by socialised’disciplined truly discipline the If p.236). 2015, (Kristensen, let to wants hundred schools contend narrative school national the beyond look to between connections new foster to work and system. stratified the within actors peripheral Christensen Kersting Thøger Academy, Yenching from Relations International in from degree a Bachelor’s and University Peking are interests of field His Copenhagen. of University and postcolonialism. relations international Email: from domestic political interests (Xie, 2011). It is is It (Xie, 2011). interests political domestic from gain to scholars younger of drive the by influenced by p.243) 2015, and (Kristensen globally recognition in a spot out carve to wish who scholars, prominent a result, As structure. IR international stratified the to seem almost theories Chinese sanctioned the Chinese with only theory IR mainstream reproduce of politics power great the as such characteristics hyper-institutionalism the (realism), realism moral of This is focused (constructivism). relationalism system a stratified joining of consequence the achieving of process social The terms. own its on IR Chinese constitutes what delineates recognition unavoidably by system the reproduces and theory fringes. the on theories non-sanctioned leaving out, points Kristensen As 11

tianxia (Hu, 2016; 2016; (Hu, Marxist theory theory Marxist

As an intellectual pre-theory As an example, Mao was influenced influenced was Mao example, an As

2017; Khong, 2013). The Chinese School also does does also School Chinese The 2013). Khong, 2017; removed pursuit intellectual a purely as exist not non-Chinese scholars seek to develop develop to seek scholars non-Chinese (Babones, hegemony US of case the using theory exist in a vacuum. Non-Chinese scholars initiated initiated scholars Non-Chinese a vacuum. in exist Yaqing’s Qin sparked that project research the several as just 2007), Buzan, and (Acharya research schools that are defined in exclusive terms. Despite Despite terms. exclusive in defined are that schools indigenous a wholly as seen being of goal its not does IR of School Chinese the movement, exciting and worthwhile project, but more problems problems more but project, worthwhile and exciting national forming from arise possibilities than a Chinese School of IR theory, this paper shows shows paper this theory, IR of School a Chinese to continues theory IR mainstream Western that an is IR global for Striving China. within dominate centric whether viewed from an institutional or an an or institutional an from viewed whether centric about debate the all For perspective. ideational Conclusion Western- remains community IR international The figure, Mao might still contribute to develop a develop to contribute still might Mao figure, theory. IR postcolonial and critical on take Chinese Marxist product. Furthermore, Mao structured his his structured Mao Furthermore, product. Marxist Chinese specific a from imperialism of criticism 1996). (Deckers, point vantage 2014). Overcoming cultural essentialism, Mao has has Mao essentialism, cultural Overcoming 2014). Marxism’ of ‘sinicisation the in instrumental been and Chinese distinctly once at an it making tradition, hybridising theories and recognising the the recognising and theories hybridising tradition, (Dirlik, politics and history in subalterns of role 2017, p.10). 2017, outspokenly an had but tradition Chinese by Chinese on – drawing outlook international with Chinese and other Asian voices, from Hu Hu from voices, Asian other and Chinese with (Vukovich, Minh” Chi Ho to himself Mao or Sheng Vukovich argues, “[I]f postcolonial studies can read, read, can studies postcolonial “[I]f argues, Vukovich inspirational as Césaire Aimé and Fanon Frantz say, same the did it time high is it figures, historical Wang and Buzan 2014; Qin 2011b). However, there there However, 2011b). Qin 2014; Buzan and Wang intellectual, recent to looking for be a case might Daniel IR. As a Chinese enrich to thinkers political of IR” (Wang and Buzan, 2014, p.16). 2014, Buzan, and IR” (Wang of as categorised often now is ASIA IN FOCUS Hu W. (2016). Practice IRTheory: TheRiseofChinaand Chinese andTheory-Building. InZhangY. and (1997). A. Hoogvelt, Science: International Social AnAmerican Relations. Hoffman, S. (1977). Hobson, J. M.(2012). J.Goldberg, (2018). Ferguson, N.(2011). theWest “Why IsNowinDecline.” Dreyer, J. T. Trope”: (2015). The“Tianxia WillChinaChangetheInternational System? (2014). A. Developmentalism:Dirlik, ACritique. Demir, ofInternational School Relations: TheChinese MythorReality? (2017). E. Deckers, W. (1996). andCallahan,W.Cunningham-Cross, L. (2011). Power, AncientChinese Thought. Chinese Modern (2014). Cunningham-Cross, L. Forces, (1981). Social Cox, R. States andWorld Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory. Academy EvaluationChinese Sciences ofSocial Center. (2014). “zhongguo renwen shehuikexue qikan Chen C. C. (2011). TheAbsence ofNon-Western inAsia IRTheory Reconsidered. Carvalho, B. de, Leira H.andHobsonJ. M.(2011). TheMythsThat ofIR: Your TheBigBangs Teacher Still Callahan, W. VisionsofWorld (2008).Chinese A. Order: Post-hegemonic oraNewHegemony? H.M.(2014). for HegelandtheDao. S. Dialectics IR: andLing.L. Brincat, Bary, W. T. de.(2008). Philosophy AmericanTianxia:WhenChinese Meets AmericanPower. S. (2017). Babones, S. (2018).Babones, AmericaHasLittleto Fear from aChina-Centered World. Acharya, andBuzan, B. Why (2007). Isthere A. noNon-Western International An Relations Theory? Acharya, (2014). A. Acharya, (2016). Advancing A. Contentions, Challenges, andContributions. GlobalIR: References Sociological Realities Sociological Chang T. (Eds.), Basingstoke, UK:Macmillan. 2010. IsDestroyingPolitics Democracy. 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当代性 Diogenes, 56 Diogenes, : 世界秩序的实践 (1), 5-18. . ISSUE 7

Ōtsuka , in which in , and and , have claimed that claimed that , have Ōtsuka Kantai Collection Kantai 15 elements are not interpreted in relation in relation not interpreted are elements media franchise. Furthermore, I analyse a set I analyse Furthermore, media franchise. ideological Kantai CollectionKantai Media studies; fan fiction; digital games; Pacific War games; Pacific fiction; digital Media fan studies;

Kantai Collection Kantai

Keywords: Keywords: wing and often display oppositional readings of the original works. oppositional readings display wing and often to reality. However, even though fan-authors comment very little very comment though fan-authors even However, reality. to their pick for they elements the terms, explicit in elements such on bedescribedcould that those seldom as right- are works derivative findings provide qualified empirical support for the claim by by claim the qualified supportempirical for provide findings that and others consistently omit certain discourses that are present in the original, present are that discourses omit certain consistently My the Japanese imperial expansion. to such as those related or whether fans recreate such discourses in their derivative works. works. in their derivative such discourses recreate or whether fans historical interpret largely while fan-producers that I demonstrate also they works, original the of strictly context the in references the how determine to based on the said franchise works of fan-fiction media is not seen by their players/viewers in relation to reality, but reality, to in relation their players/viewers media is not seen by fictionalthe of these of worlds works. seenis artefacts it as rather in discourses of ‘nationalist’ the presence In this article, I investigate Japanese media such as Eiji theorists, series and similar games, in animated ideological content presumed the player controls a fleet of humanised Imperial Navy ships and a fleet of humanised Imperial Navy controls the player Yet of such a trend. has been as an example cited other warships, The right-wingification of Japanese media of been has a topic The right-wingification game online discussionThe Japan. in

VALTTERI VUORIKOSKI VALTTERI game its interpretation audience Japanese history in the just plain fun? just plain fun? Right-wing nationalism or nationalism or Right-wing ASIA IN FOCUS T Navy. Furthermore, the game features a logic of players are in fact those of the Imperial Japanese Nevertheless, the majority of the ships available to [story] together with all the Admirals” (Famitsū, 2013). relationships between the characters and create the characters we [the producers] developed and the “wanted to emphasize the individuality of the game does not have astory, but that the producers game’s producer Tanaka Kensuke stated that the historical event. To the contrary, in an interview, the as being related to the Pacific War or to any other uncommon, but Kantai Collection is not marketed but only to the world of the fictional narrative. that presentation as pertaining to the real world political orientation, the audience does not historical fact in amanner associated with acertain the original works may, for example, present a culture. Furthermore, he proposes that even though within those works in subsequent works of popular audiences seek to actively expand the narratives theory by Eiji these discourses. Both are analysed in terms of a to find out how they reproduce or comment on I analyse fan-fiction works based on the franchise in light of the aforementioned claims. Furthermore, Japanese history that are present in the franchise era for entertainment purposes (Aquagaze, 2014). participated in “war crimes” during Japan’s colonial criticized the “appropriation” of warships which nationalism in Japan” (Kim, 2013), while ablogger Collection The Korean newspaper war-game- such aturn with regard to the popular online naval have come forward with specific accusations of Nishizawa, 2015). commentators Non-academic in the country in recent years (e.g. Tsukada, 2017; to the right’ ( Games depicting the Pacific War are far from In this article, Ianalyse discourses related to television series and so forth –is ‘turning – including both news and fictional movies, he question of whether the media in Japan as asign of the “resurgence of right-wing cum ukeika Ōtsuka -pretty-girl-game, ) has been a matter of debate (2012), which proposes that Chosun Ilbo Chosun Kantai Collection decried decried perceive Kantai .

16 been discussed in Japan by the cultural critic and (commonly entitled as well as the often obsessive target audience is perceived as ideological by audiences in general The question of whether popular culture content culture in popular ideologies Otaku cultural and theory is this interpretation favoured by its fans? Kantai Collection Collection audience see the political aspects of addresses are: How does the Japanese target their sphere of influence throughout the Pacific. the Japanese home islands and gradually expands territorial expansion, where the player starts out on in schools in post-war Japan: as an endless series of quasi-narratives to the way history has been taught and the never-ending instalments of the series. depicted from various viewpoints in different media where aspects of the same world or storyline are to fans of computer games and animated series, (Ōtsuka, 2012, pp. 286–290). Asimilar logic applies buying more to gain more knowledge of the story the purchased those snacks who would keep from the exciting fragments anyway. To this end, such agrand narrative, that is, acoherent storyline argues that their audience narrative, but consistent any particularly producer’s goal with these stickers to construct contained ashort story fragment. It was not the with aseries of chocolate snacks, each of which called fragments work. His original example was the so- are constructed by fan-audiences using disparate consistent stories about how fictional worlds that idea of Steinberg, 2012; Galbraith, Kam, &Kamm, 2016). also commonly cited outside Japan (see for example Eijiacademic The overarching questions that this paper Ōtsuka Ōtsuka’s grand narratives grand Bikkuriman ? While one interpretation While? one that sees (2012) likens (2012) these diffuse fact-based theories largely revolve around his Ōtsuka as right-wing is clearly possible, stickers that were included otaku (2012), whose theories are , which can be described as did ) has most famously attempt to construct Ōtsuka Kantai

ISSUE 7 , or , or . Genealogy aims to to aims . Genealogy the history of the present the of history the media franchise present? present? franchise media genealogy works appear to be rare. This paper adds adds paper This be rare. to appear works My analysis is primarily concerned with the the with concerned primarily is analysis My Japanese specifically of studies Some Kantai Collection Kantai The primary methodological framework for this this for framework methodological primary The Michel by defined as analysis discourse is analysis the particular in and 1978) Foucault, (see Foucault as known it of subset arrive to discourses of origins historical the examine called Foucault what at animations and manga, and political aspects of both both of aspects political and manga, and animations Swale, 2010; Stahl, example for (see appeared have largely been has studies those of focus the but 2017), themselves. works the of analysis the to limited object the been has general in fan-fiction while Also, systematic years, recent in interest increasing of of fan-(re)interpretation the regarding studies specific by area this in research empirical existing the to empirical an through work a specific approaching the In fan-audience. its by reception its of study questions: following the I answer section, empirical does War Pacific the regarding discourses What the discourses those reproduce fan-audience Does its them on comment works, fan-fiction own their in instance, for by, entirely them ignore or way, any in characters? pretty-girl ononly the concentrating Methods and data schools, mass media, […] and the like” (Gluck, (Gluck, like” the and […] media, mass schools, definite no is there framework, this In 1993,65). p. an rather but history, national a of version contentious often is which conversation”, “endless 4–6). pp. 2015, 1993, 65; Hashimoto, p. (Gluck, which conversation, that side of conservative the since Japan by made progress the stresses pre- its criticising than rather Restoration Meiji 1993, (Gluck, and pp. militarism colonialism war ‘right-wing the on I focus particular, In 70–72). seek who conservatives, of subset nationalist’ committed atrocities of memory the erase to 1930s and the during military Japanese the by the of reputation the restore to 1940s, and 154–173). pp. 2013, (Kingston, military pre-war 17 . to purity collective collective right-wing and or Space Battleship cites the animated animated the cites dedication nationalistic Ōtsuka claims that whatever references references whatever that claims Ōtsuka , which refers to the “various versions of of versions “various the to refers , which (1974–1975), where the former Imperial Imperial former the where (1974–1975), Finally, although the theoretical focus of of focus theoretical the although Finally, More generally, the primary theoretical primary the theoretical generally, More As an example, memory officials, historians, by created history national issues of post-war Japanese history. This history history This history. Japanese post-war of issues of viewpoint the from approached is opposed to it (see for example Fiske, 2011, pp. 64–67). pp. 2011, Fiske, example for (see it to opposed with deals also it theory, media on is paper this Furthermore, these produced meanings do not need not do meanings produced these Furthermore, otherwise, or presumed intent, any with align to less or be more can but producers original the of of the production of the meaning of media messages, messages, media of meaning the of production the of messages. those of producers the to opposed as the audience (Ōtsuka, 2012, pp. 141–145, 155–156). 155–156). 141–145, pp. 2012, (Ōtsuka, audience the site the is audience the that is paper this of framework future actions of the state, but their purpose was to to was purpose their but state, the of actions future concepts such astransmit to Japanese history were included, they were were they included, were history Japanese to as or political as fan-audiences the by seen not or past the about statements normative making tends to be labelled be labelled to tends However, Navy battleship Yamato is resurrected as a as resurrected is Yamato battleship Navy of result a As Earth. save to mission a on spaceship franchise the Japan, Imperial the to references its movie andmovie series television Yamato narratives. Thus, actual historical events gave a taste taste a gave events historical actual Thus, narratives. 96–98). 87–88, pp. 2012, (Ōtsuka, fiction to reality of the historical facts remembered from school were were school from remembered facts historical the audience the facts, fictional the to similar structurally fake-historical their into facts historical the included the audience was ready to construct narratives narratives construct to ready was audience the as and, 297–300); pp. 2012, (Ōtsuka, them on based produced computer games, television series, manga manga series, television games, computer produced disparate of series similar with works similar and years and names connections, little explicit with familiar with having to come up with their own own their with up come to having with familiar from facts disparate from history of understanding industry media the when Thus, schooldays. their years and names, without narrative an overarching already is audience The why. or happened what of ASIA IN FOCUS analysed. All of the works under analysis are 20-30 fan-fiction works by authors 30 were collected and 2015 and 2016. For the purposes of this study, 46 works sold at fan-fiction sales events between compared to those of self-published fan-fiction of the game, commonly known as characters and from encyclopaediasmechanics 2016. I gathered factual details related to game to the PlayStation Vita version of the game from the game from 2013, which was the first appearance of concentrates the on online Adobe Flash-based of works ( fiction which Irefer to as official producers of the 2007, pp. 28–40; Chapman, 2016, pp. 71–72). solely from the explicit narrative content (Bogost, from the rules of digital games, as opposed to that discourse-like procedural rhetoric emerges (2016) is applied. The idea of this framework is Bogost (2007) and expanded by Adam Chapman procedural rhetoric framework as defined by Ian works (Eco, 1979, pp. 3–40). In addition, the certain discourses may be transferred to derivative preferred meaning) is used in the analysis of why attempt to guide the reader towards asingle their meaning (as opposed to that is, works which invite the reader to complete rather than on the interpretation of specific events. how those statements may have come to be, allowing the analysis to focus on the works. Foucault’s method differentiates itself by and how those statements appear in the derivative historical origins of statements in the original works good and bad representations, but to investigate the is not to judge historical rights or wrongs or define & Wickham, 1999, pp. 24–34). The aim of this study and talk about things the way we do today (Kendall in simple terms, to describe the reason why we see Kantai Collection Kantai Collection I analyse works published commercially by the Discourses noted in the original works are Furthermore, the concept of dōjinshi original works concept, and makes references . The analysis of the former ) self-published by audiences Kantai Collection closed works closed , and derivative and , fan- strategy wikis open works process franchise, franchise, which which of of , . 18 year. As such, it is not possible to make any and several other similar events are held every for these events (Vuorikoski, 2017, pp. 76–77), Committee, 2015), which is atypical number at Comic Market (Comic 89 Market Organizing the under participated immense; by way of example, 1,952 fan-authors of warfare and direct historical references. of realistic (as opposed to parodic) representations research. The criteria included, for instance, elements inspection, appeared to have content related to the 75–76) – I selected available works that, on cursory convenience sampling (Riffe, Lacy, & Fico, 2014, pp. quantities in print for fan-fiction sales events, I used published works are produced only in very limited pages and of the manga genre. Since these self- personalities are often formulated in terms of so far as they have different personalities. Their referent warship. All ship-girls are characters in reference something that to happened their with the Admiral during the game and sometimes during the and 1930s The 1940s. characters chat warships, primarily ones that were in service their armaments modelled upon those of historical are collectively known as one of their two personas. The pretty-girl characters Admiral’s day is spent interacting with these girls in characters behave like regular people. Most of the on their backs and appear to ski on water. Onland, the characters who wear warship armaments strapped the ships are represented by War. However, unlike in traditional war games, Ocean in battle scenarios reminiscent of the Pacific a fleet of Second World War warships on the Pacific In the game, the player designated as The world of may betreated as indicative rather than definitive. research questions was selected, and the results study. Adiverse range of examples related to the generalisations based on the sample used for this The total amount of available material is All of the over 100 ship-girl characters have Kantai Collection Kantai Collection ship-girls pretty girl pretty Admiral ( kanmusu ( category bishōjo leads leads ). )

ISSUE 7 to because necessary dōjinshi, or spend their time sampling sampling time their spend or reimagined matsuri Given that war is a major motif for the original original the for motif a major is war that Given In other words, while the limited framing framing limited the while words, other In battles or enemy attacks are depicted on a few a few on depicted are attacks enemy or battles characters the on focus stories the but pages, the Furthermore, other. each with time spending correspond always not do ship-girls the of activities they enemy; overwhelming an by sieged country a to visitmight a Kantai Collection Kantai Imperial of depiction the consider may some While warships Japan’s re-establishing colonial Japan’s and franchise, the of element a central empire there right-wing, as franchise the perceive thus it make that components no are stops Nothing element. this to attention pay game the through proceeding from player the or expansion colonial to thought giving without little is there since reality, historical other any the of exception the with details, and narrative are warships, historical to connection ship-girls’ the does how then, is question The abstract. made discourses historical the interpret fan-audience works? fan-fiction their in above described be a major also to war expect might one works, not is this However, works. derivative the for motif selected the in even case, the works, many In warfare. to references contain they a realistic map of the Pacific as the game’s main main game’s the as Pacific the of map realistic a to is ‘final a victory’ series, animated the In screen. island; a specific of conquest the with be achieved an with Oahu of a map but named, not is island the shown. is located is Harbor Pearl where base enemy as game the of objective the describes narrative essentially series animated the and defensive, that discourse the narrative, same the repeats of plot the and game the of rules the from emerges expansion territorial of that is series animated the of This, empire. Japanese former the throughout discourses actual closely quite course, matches with war the into entry Japan’s with associated defend to attack to had – Japan States United the 158). p. 2013, Kingston, example for (see itself 19 ), Kantai Kantai military shinkaiseikan realistic aspect of of aspect parodic . The Vita version features features version Vita . The provides only a very limited limited very a only provides (Chapman, 2016, pp. 121–122), in in 121–122), pp. 2016, (Chapman, . While references to war history are are history war to references . While hoppōkaiiki) aspect of the game. The player starts the the starts player The game. the of aspect Nonetheless, a narrative does emerge from the the from emerge does a narrative Nonetheless, As promised by the producer, and unlike unlike and producer, the by promised As I refer to this as the the as this to I refer are indicative of the locations, for example ‘Northern ‘Northern example for locations, the of indicative are Waters‘( Asia. Maps in the online version of the game are are game the of version online the in Maps Asia. names place fictional the although obscured, often completes each mission, the area of play expands expands play of area the mission, each completes towards Kurils the from Pacific, the throughout South-East to version, Vita the in and, Micronesia, realistic appears what at Honshū, on base naval a at game player the As base. naval Yokosuka be the to procedural rhetoric of the game. I refer to this as the the as this to I refer game. the of rhetoric procedural which are unknown creatures that feature as as feature that creatures unknown are which appear that features) human with (some monsters humanity. attack and sea the of depths the from of an ongoing war is explicitly proclaimed by the the by proclaimed explicitly is war ongoing an of ( Fleet’ ‘Abyssal the as known enemy, Kantai Collection Kantai framing narrative nature unforeseeable the Only versions. the of all action, for example where warships are actual ships ships actual are warships where example for action, random, at made not are decisions tactical and wheel to decide the fleet’s direction is shown. is direction fleet’s the decide to wheel represent which games war most strategy is made quite explicit: when the fleet fleet the when explicit: quite made is strategy an diverge, sea-routes where a point at arrives a roulette spinning a character of animation random. That the nature of the fleet’s progress progress fleet’s the of nature the That random. military any by guided than rather random is in most war games, the Admiral does not actually actually not does Admiral the games, war most in given, are orders the After battles. in participate at battles of a series through proceeds fleet the included, they are incorporated into a part of a a a part of into incorporated are they included, Unlike characters. between interaction comedic tropes of the dating-simulator genre of games. of genre dating-simulator the of tropes Collection would like to have a romantic relationship with with relationship a romantic have to like would non- definitively is depiction The Admiral. the the with identifies closely it rather, military-like, their attitude towards the Admiral; some have have some Admiral; the towards attitude their they that indicate others while attitude, a cold ASIA IN FOCUS girl (at the expense of their human masters) or ignoring orders to prioritise saving another ship- the state or the nation. This may take the form of the case –they fight to protect each other, not characters’ motivations explicit, this is almost never extension, the country. When the fan-authors make the ship-girls fight to protect the Admiral and, by as warships, not persons). In the original works, often treat them as little more than tools (that is, fight on behalf of their human commanders, who Even if the war remains abstract, the ship-girls still for the fan-authors to bring up their motivations. in pitched battles, however, it is not uncommon the audience to easily focus on other matters. major parodic or character-driven aspect allows war to some degree to progress in the game, the original works; though the player must engage in is possibly affected by the open nature of the item to bring excitement to the story-world. This of content appears to interpret the supposedly militaristic dramatic tension to stories. Here, the audience historical or political is only amethod of bringing of ‘protect the sacred motherland’) activity. It just is. some abstract priceless values in an attempt to acquire resources) or ideological (a defence of is not a practical (a means to an end or a way to beginning, end or reason. In other words, war be similar –war is happening, but it has no battles also exist, but their structure tends to exists but is not relevant to its supposed fighters. as if they were traffic accidents; that is, the war a state of no-war, where enemy attacks happen opposed, however. Rather, the characters exist in does not correspond to pacifism where war is but not in the game versions. Their depiction interludes between more action-oriented scenes, making episodes appear in the animated series as desserts in arestaurant. Afew similar merry- stage devices stage When the characters are brought together Both forms correspond to Works that depict pitched and desperate Kantai Collection , whereby an element that appears mostly as aconvenient Ōtsuka’s (2012) idea idea (2012) 20 matter is ignored or the oppositional reading is used. very few reproduce any other reading –either the the construction of the grand narrative. Notably, implies that real-world value orientations influence the war-to-save-the-world is not the first priority an oppositional reading (Fiske, 2011, p. 40) where them. That the fan-audience often reproduces Abyssal Fleet unless the Admiral/player engages specify that the world will betaken over by the interpretation: narratives implicit both explicit and question of motivation is an aspect closed to player framework for the grand narrative. Also, the commercially published works define the are dead and there is no more reason to fight. just giving up amid abattle because their friends of of they1940s, are concrete references to the world characterised the Japanese state in the and 1930s are often structurally similar to the infighting that between military commanders. While these plots about plots and betrayals inside the state or amount of mesoscale history, such as stories the lack of such references in their postscripts. references to history textbooks, or apologies for using British and parts, some will even include afternoon tea whose model warships were built are ship-girls, for instance, who enjoy drinking to further build up the ship-girl characters. There historical facts about warships and use these facts dōjinshi the other hand, enthusiastically adopted in the from real-world history. on This approach is, of warship and sea-battle minutiae transported Collection authors ignore these questions. Meanwhile, one hand, as with their approach to war, the fan- or what the geopolitical effects were. On the such as what led to the Abyssal Fleet’s appearance on comment any pre-made story, Kantai Collection With its stated commitment to not having According The fan-authors also produce asignificant where fan-authors unearth even more is overflowing with a with a overflowing is macroscopic Ōtsuka’s . Unlike the warship facts, Kantai Collection (2012) theory, (2012) the historical questions microscopic does not history Kantai ISSUE 7

Kantai Kantai explicit implicit theory, the fan- Ōtsuka’s for its right-wing content may exist, I exist, may content right-wing its for While an audience that enjoys enjoys that audience an While As suggested by by suggested As acceptance of the right-wing-like aspect or simply simply or aspect right-wing-like the of acceptance matter the in interest and/or perception of lack a question the is as decide, to research future for is choices. these makes fan-audience the why of point for different (oppositional) narratives. narratives. (oppositional) different for point the that enthusiasm the reproduce not did They trope. military heroic the for have works original Collection of audience selected the that evidence no find in was franchise the of fans hard-core when contrary, On the content. that of support aspects political the on commented explicitly they the of interpretations their works, original the of friends towards responsibility that were franchise which state, the towards responsibility trumps nationalist that attitude of kind the precisely is (e.g. Kobayashi such as Yoshinori commentators larger far A criticise. frequently 52–55) 1998,pp. fun plain the both took fan-producers of number stride their in aspects right-wing-like the and be could that depictions any include not did and latter the of criticism or support either as described an implies this Whether works. their in interpretation would thus be that the parodic parodic the that be thus would interpretation representation gender the and representation screen a smoke are girls pretty on centres that works. original the of message political the for and adopted enthusiastically studied authors from conventions and elements many expanded increasingly an construct to works original the However, own. their of narrative grand detailed central ignored studiously also authors same the of those namely works, original the of elements they contrary, the To empire. and expansionism emphasised between themes such as loyalty In friends criticised and state authority. implicitly treat not did either fan-authors the words, other instead but such as messages political assumed a starting as or devices emotional as them used 21

. , dōjinshi dōjinshi Ōtsuka’s Kantai Collection Kantai Kantai Collection Kantai (2012) and others (2012) others and media franchise and Ōtsuka Kantai Collection Kantai The original media franchise franchise media original The Finally, the expansionist logic of the original original the of logic expansionist the Finally, cultural studies, the political message will always always will message political the studies, cultural generous A less ‘fun’. also is there if even exist, between something like right-wing nationalism nationalism right-wing betweenlike something of viewpoint the from However, fun. plain and look at another. A generous interpretation would be be would interpretation A generous another. at look chance a players the offering are producers the that select to opportunity an story’; own their ‘create to reading of the franchise - it can be perceived as as be perceived can - it franchise the of reading can it yet it, part of one at look you if right-wing you if game non-political a be to said be well as just and highly non-military-like play logics. As a result a result As logics. play non-military-like highly and singular any pin to difficult is it act, balancing this of Japanese empire, but these realistic discourses discourses realistic these but empire, Japanese parodic by amounts equal in accompanied are characters as pretty-girl warships of representations contains discourses of expansionist war and the the and war expansionist of discourses contains proposed by Eiji Eiji by proposed that claims consider to and nationalism. right-wing a of resurgence represents fan-fiction interpretations of it. It empirically empirically It it. of interpretations fan-fiction consumption media of theories evaluates Conclusions analysis a discourse on based is study This the of representatives of the state appear in the the in appear state the of representatives exploitative. and cruel as depicted often are they be of interest for the fan-authors in constructing constructing in fan-authors the for interest be of when contrary, the on narratives; grand their expansion towards the outer limits of the Japanese Japanese the of limits outer the towards expansion brought never is works original the by implied empire to not appears works original the of facet This up. are rare in general, and there was little to suggest suggest to little was there and general, in rare are The locale. remote any at place took action any that When fan-authors indicate locations where action action where locations indicate fan-authors When the near always almost are they place, taking is Japanese mainland. Explicit depictions of locations (2012) grand narratives of the story-world. the of narratives (2012)grand the in absent conspicuously is works real-world history is not used directly; instead, instead, directly; used not is history real-world like something construct authors the ASIA IN FOCUS Email: interpretation of political messages in popular culture. audience the particularly studies, media and politics Cultures. His research interests include East Asian at the University of Helsinki, Department of World Vuorikoski Valtteri [email protected] completed his Master of Arts 22 ISSUE 7 Grave Grave (2nd ed.). Wiley- Oxford University Press. University Oxford (58), 367–376. University of Minnesota of Minnesota University ū (pp. 64–95). University of 64–95). University (pp. Brill. . : https://www.famitsu.com/ . Retrieved August 9, 2018, from from 2018, 9, August . Retrieved Bloomington: Indiana University Indiana University Bloomington: Retrieved December 17, 2018, from from 2018, December 17, Retrieved . MIT Press. ’ , pp. 44–53. , pp. Famitsū Chosun Ilbo Chosun (pp. 161–201) (pp. Imag(in)ing the War in Japan: Representing Representing in Japan: Imag(in)ing the War shakaigakukenky (2015). Retrieved September 16, 2017, from from 2017, September 16, Retrieved (2015). ō y Shakaishugi (3rd ed.). Routledge. (3rd Ō (4), 518–536. doi:10.1080/09555803.2017.1321570 (4), SAGE Publications. SAGE Kantai Collection Kantai Gentōsha. Debating Otaku in Contemporary Japan. Historical Historical Japan. in Contemporary Debating Otaku Postwar Japan as History Japan Postwar 23 Chikuma Shobō. Chikuma (2016). (2016). Pantheon Books. Pantheon Japan Forum 29Japan

’. ASCII Media Works. ASCII Bloomsbury. diensu” he no shiza’. he no shiza’. diensu” ’. In D. Stahl, & M. Williams, Stahl, In D. ’. ō Comic Market 89 Catalog 89 Catalog Market Comic Analyzing Media MessagesAnalyzing Using Foucault’s Methods. Using Foucault’s (2nd ed.). Routledge. : https://webcatalog- archives.circle.ms/c89/index.html : https://webcatalog- The Wind Rises Taylor & Francis. Taylor : https://theglorioblog.com/2014/05/01/the-unfortunate-implications-of-kantai-collection/ and The Long Defeat. Cultural Trauma, Memory, and Identity in Japan. Identity and Memory, Trauma, Defeat. Cultural The Long Discourses of war and history in the Japanese game Kantai Collection and its fan its fan and Collection game Kantai in the Japanese and history war of Discourses Shin gōmanizumu sengen. Sensōron. sengen. Shin gōmanizumu Anime’s Media Mix. Franchising Toys and Characters in Japan. and Characters Toys Media Mix. Franchising Anime’s Digital Games as History. How Videogames Represent the Past and Offer Access to Access and Offer the Past Videogames Represent How GamesDigital as History. MA thesis, University of Helsinki, Department of World Cultures. Retrieved December 15, December 15, Retrieved Cultures. of Helsinki, Department of World MA thesis, University The History of Sexuality. of The History Contemporary Japan: History, Politics, Change Since the 1980s and Social History, Japan: Contemporary Tetteikenshō: Nihon no ukeika. Tetteikenshō: Grave of the Fireflies of Grave Monogatari shōhiron kai. shōhiron Monogatari Persuasive Games. The Expressive Power of Videogames. of Power Games. Expressive The Persuasive Television Culture Television The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts. in the Semiotics of the Reader: The Role of Explorations

community. http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:hulib-201712206026 from 2018, Press. the Fireflies of Trauma in Trauma and Film Literature in Postwar Trauma and Responding to http://www.webcitation.org/6KsbCjElw Blackwell. Perspectives and New Horizons. and New Perspectives Press. California Comike Web Catalog 89 Catalog Web Comike Press. from 2018, 9, August Retrieved (zenpen)’. intabyū Kensuke-shi news/201309/07039658.html The Glorio Blog Practice. Historical

tsuka, E. (2012). tsuka, Tsukada, H. (2017). Tsukada, (2017). V. Vuorikoski, Swale, A. (2017, April). ‘Memory and forgetting: examining the treatment of traumatic historical memory in historical of traumatic the treatment examining April). ‘Memory and forgetting: A.Swale, (2017, Steinberg, M. (2012). Steinberg, Ō F. (2014). S., & Fico, D., Lacy, Riffe, Through Working and ‘Victimization and “Response-ability”: (2010). Representing, Remembering, C. D. Stahl, Kingston, J. (2013). (2013). J. Kingston, (1998). Y. Kobayashi, Abe seiken. to no ukeika Masukomi May). (2015, S. Nishizawa, Kendall, G., & Wickham, G. (1999). & Wickham, G. G., Kendall, ugyeonghwa-e 3). ‚Ilbon daehan dansang‘. November (2013, Kim, B. Hashimoto, A. Hashimoto, (2015). no shite to ‘”Okurite (2016). S. Ikegami, Galbraith, P. W., Kam, T. H., & Kamm, B.-O. (Eds.). (Eds.). B.-O. & Kamm, H., T. Kam, W., P. Galbraith, In A. Gordon, Gluck, in the Present’. ‘The (1993). Past C. Fiske, J. (2011). (2011). J. Fiske, Foucault, M. (1978). Eco, U. (1979). (1979). U. Eco, kīman Tanaka korekushon Kantai isshoni tsukuriageteikitai’ to September 7). (2013, ‘Teitoku Famitsū. Comic Market Organizing Committee. Committee. Organizing Comic Market Bogost, I. (2007). Chapman, A. (2016). Aquagaze. (2014, May 1). ‘The Unfortunate Implications of Implications 1). ‘The May Unfortunate (2014, Aquagaze. References ASIA IN FOCUS movement, Ken Liu Keywords: create apositive imageofChinafrom andpowerful thebottom-up. to anenhanced understanding sci-filiterature ofhowChinese can still maintaining its regional context. contributes Thus,thispaper reaching globalised becoming consumers allover theworldyet and transcultural voyage. The findings showthat sci-fiis Chinese the sci-ficommunity andexamining theroutes ofthistransnational sci-fiintheSinosphereChinese by into looking cultural flows within perspective. Iattempt to understand thecurrent role of andfunction sci-fi literature as atransnational cultural tool from abottom-up to consumedglobally. be Iexamine Inthispaper therole ofChinese written sci-fiasatransnationalbut littlehasbeen onChinese product a national literary product to borders, consumed withinChinese be narrative abroad. Previous research hasfocused sci-fias onChinese attention andmay an important be cultural tool to express aChinese (sci-fi) scienceChinese fiction hasattracted increasing global despite considerable efforts made government.by theChinese There littlesuccess withexporting hasbeen culture Chinese abroad, JUNKER NICKLAS Japan?Korea and K-Pop and Manga do for Can it do for China what Literature Fiction Science Chinese Chinese science fiction literature, science Chinese fiction cultural transnational flows, scapes, 24 ISSUE 7

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kexue ( ) is defined as a genre of literature that that literature of a genre as defined ) is In order to find out what makes Chinese sci-fi sci-fi Chinese makes what out find to order In created by these media. Finally, ideoscape refers refers ideoscape Finally, media. these by created Confucian the as such states, of ideologies the to different The freedom. and democracy institutes, one’s into fit to adjusted be slightly might scapes refers ideoscape article, this In topic. research own states than rather people powerful and influential to being promoted, I draw on Arjun Appadurai’s five five Appadurai’s Arjun on I draw promoted, being ethnoscapes, flows: cultural global of dimensions and financescapes, technoscapes, mediascapes, An 1996). (Appadurai, respectively ideoscapes use the is framework Appadurai’s in notion important flows cultural explore to scapes different these of to refers Ethnoscape process. globalization the in as such individuals and groups moving of scape the Technoscape tourists. and workers guest refugees, technology, of configuration global the to refers Financescape informational. and mechanical both stock via capital, global of movement the to refers instance. for markets currency and exchanges inseparable are and together belong scapes These within both movement on a constraint as act they as ideoscapes, and mediascapes on and themselves three first the about think we what convey which electronic the to refers Mediascape scapes. newspapers, as such information, of distribution images the and film, and stations television to different political movements and the state state the and movements political different to era Qing late the since China of visions sponsored day. present the to century twentieth early the in discussed been yet not has sci-fi Chinese However, which agent, cultural powerful a potentially as be to roots, national local its beyond travel can In scale. a global on consumed and disseminated sci-fi Chinese paper, present the 科学幻想 social future hypothetical the with itself concerns the Sinosphere. in developments technological and sci- Chinese at I look culture, a transnational part of shared is that movement cultural on-going fi an as from people of a community by consumed and globally. as well as Asia East in locations different are they how and products of flow the trace To 25 o date, China’s cultural narrative abroad has has abroad narrative cultural China’s date, o perspective, a top-down from portrayed been government, Chinese the by dictated often These findings are important with regard to to regard with important are findings These Science fiction (sci-fi) literature is a global genre genre a global is literature (sci-fi) fiction Science

Chinese literature and Chinese society. They show show They society. Chinese and literature Chinese been has sci-fi Chinese connected closely how the understanding of Chinese sci-fi and its role in in role its and sci-fi Chinese of understanding the in line with Song (2015), however Song also relates relates also Song however (2015), Song with line in suggests (2013) Han dystopia. to sci-fi Chinese modernization. to a response is sci-fi Chinese that connects Chinese sci-fi with the modern Chinese Chinese modern the with sci-fi Chinese connects sci-fi Chinese that arguing tradition, utopian is This society. just a more of hope the articulates Chinese sci-fi to the European colonial project. project. colonial European the to sci-fi Chinese and perspective this from diverges (2015) Thieret history. Isaacson (2013) stresses the importance of of importance the stresses (2013) Isaacson history. questions with dealing genre a new as sci-fi Chinese of emergence the relates he and nationality of Research into Chinese sci-fi has predominately predominately has sci-fi Chinese into Research literary its to regards with genre a new as it on focused and presents characteristics shared by different different by shared characteristics presents and 2015). (Ianuzzi, traditions linguistic and cultural then exposed to the country’s culture which can can which culture country’s the to exposed then interest. and awareness cultural greater to lead Japanese or Korean culture. In the beginning, the the beginning, the In culture. Korean or Japanese manga in interested been have may consumers are they association by but culture, K-pop or culture abroad. Both manga and K-pop are products products are K-pop and manga Both abroad. culture who individuals by and globally consumed are that in interest a particular had have not may initially K-pop are both examples of cultural movements movements cultural of examples both are K-pop country’s their exported successfully have that the export of Chinese culture has not been very very been not has culture Chinese of export the Thung, 2015; Lahtinen, 2014; (Kluver, successful Korean and manga Japanese 2017). Yagya, 2017; criticism of China’s most important soft power power soft important most China’s of criticism therefore and institutes, Confucian the flagship, cultural products to be consumed by the population population the by be consumed to products cultural identity cultural of version the portray to order in on-going been has There export. to wish they and it is considered as part of China’s soft power. power. soft China’s part of as considered is it and choose selectively powers or higher Governments T ASIA IN FOCUS fiction writing” (Jordison, 2008): Liu Cixin ( Awards, the “best known literary award for science Two Chinese writers have recently won The Hugo and for achievements made in the previous year. published in English or translated into English, for the best science fiction or fantasy works Awards are aset of literary awards given annually Awards The Hugo as China, clearly show. The Hugo sci-fi community is turning its attention towards Chinese sci-fi is a successful industry and the global a positive image of Chineseness. Economically, choose to consume cultural products –and create whereby– cultural movement from a bottom-up perspective sci-fi may have the ability to beatransnational Similar to Japanese manga or Korean K-pop, Chinese The sci-fi Chinese from scape abird’s eye view positive and powerful image of China on aglobal stage. narrative of convincing Chinese cultural products abroad, by creating a whether Chinese sci-fi can successfully export in aglobal context contributes towards explaining flows cultural trace to framework Appadurai’s Using given and generated by impersonal macro-forces. that facts and factors are not entirely historically highlights and dynamics, globalizing into viewpoint This perspective puts the these landscapes offer.”(Appadurai, p.33). 1996, formations, in from part their own sense of what agents who both experience and constitute larger for these landscapes are eventually navigated by the last locus of this perspectival set of landscapes, perspectival constructs and individual “the actor is style.” (Appadurai, p.33). 1996, Landscapes are they as international deeply do as capital clothing landscapes, shapes that characterize international us to point to the fluid, irregular shapes of these different angles and“[t]he suffix landscape rather than the movement of individuals. section) refers to cultural differences in the sci-fi and governments, and ethnoscape (in the last A landscape does not look the same from individuals Chineseness have easy access to and angle of aperson’s that supports a a that supports -scape 刘慈欣 allows allows ) 26 the world. The Singapore Writers Festival is one of Writers Festival hosted literary talents from all over individual regarding Chinese sci-fi is Ken Liu. across different landscapes. An important moving also describes the movement of cultures within and describes not only the movement of individuals, it an agent of cultural flows. An ethnoscape therefore the ethnoscape, and as such, the moving individual is A moving individual crosses borders and changes The Ethnoscape and the Moving Individual writers of sci-fi that appear on atransnational level. Chinese sci-fi, and discuss some of the Chinese some of the cultural flows that are emerging from for Novelette Best in 2016. In this section, Itrace for Novel Best in 2015 and Hao Jingfang ( Despite writing in English and growing up in the Wars novel called announced that Liu would bewriting an officialStar also nominated for aHugo in 2012. In 2017, it was The Man Who Ended History: ADocumentary aware no Mono 2012, and 2012 respectively. Ken Liu’s short story, published during the previous calendar year) in 2011, awards given each year for the best fantasy fiction the Hugo, and the World Fantasy Award (a set of fiction or fantasy published in the United States), (which annually recognize the bestworks of science the first work of fiction to win the Nebula award 2018). His short story, and has since received numerous awards (Liu, 2016) postdoctoral work at Stanford University (Berry, mother, apharmaceutical chemist, was completing parents to the United States at age eleven in 1976 in Lanzhou, China and emigrated with his writer and translator of sci-fi, Ken Liu. Liu was born Writers Festival in 2017 was the highly acclaimed Xingjian. One of the writers headlining the Singapore Tash Aw, Neil Gaiman and Nobel Prize winner, Gao such as Carol Ann Duffy, Michael Cunningham, Asia’s premier literary events and has hosted literati In November 2017, the annual Singapore . Liu started to write sci-fi in the early 2000s , won the 2013 Hugo and his novella, The Legends of Luke Skywalker The Paper Menagerie when his his when 郝景芳 , was , was ) . ISSUE 7 (Liu, C., 2014) The Three-Body Three-Body The on their business business their on has been translated translated been has

won the Hugo Award for for Hugo Award the won The Three-Body Problem Problem Three-Body The ), hit the English-speaking English-speaking the hit ), influencer 三体 San Ti Ti San ( publication, Three-Body’s the of time the At and anxious was market fiction science China’s science of marginalization depressed. long The insular and a small led to a genre as fiction the when everyone surprised it […] readership. and China in interest widespread book gained ink of amount The debate. much stimulated account on been spilled have that pixels and a science for unprecedented is Three-Body of fiction novel. The ideoscape, the opinion of powerful and and powerful of opinion the ideoscape, The influential individuals regarding different cultural thoughts individuals’ influence greatly can products, the with tune in is market The products. about sometimes individuals – ideoscape the of impact term the have even The first novel in the trilogy, trilogy, the in novel first The Problem from translation The 2014. November in market was and Liu Ken by made was English into Chinese period a short In above. noted as acclaimed highly copies 110,000 than more sold book the time, of two over reached revenue sales global the and 2015, In 2016). review, (Beijing dollars US million Problem Three-Body The to writer Asian first the was Cixin Liu Best Novel. and award, the receive the receive to ever work translated first the was book The Best Novel. for award German the and languages different thirteen into 2017 in Preis Laßwitz Kurd the won translation German. in Published Work SF Best Foreign for The Ideoscape and some Voices Influential success in China. Each novel sold over 500,000 500,000 over sold novel Each China. in success modern any of sales the exceeded far and copies late appeared genre the since novel sci-fi Chinese trilogy The 2014). Qin, (Amy dynasty Qing the in market sci-fi small the to attention wide drew words: own his in says Cixin Liu as and, China, in 27

). Diqiu 三体 ), was was ), ( KenLiu Liu Cixin San Ti Ti San The Longest ( Science Fiction 魔鬼积木 ) in 2006, and 2006, and ) in ), who), is arguably The Three-Body Three-Body The ), in 1998. His first novel, novel, first 1998. in His ), 刘慈欣 Three-Body 科幻世界 ), published first in serialized serialized in first published ), Mogui Jimu ); however, readers habitually habitually readers ); however, ( 地球大炮 三体 Remembrance of Earth’s Past San Ti 地球往事 ( Kehuan ShijieKehuan ( Liu is considered one of the most interesting interesting most the of one considered is Liu Highlighting the global nature of the Chinese Chinese the of nature global the Highlighting Diqiu Dapao Dapao Diqiu ( refer to the trilogy as the the as trilogy the to refer a huge became successors two its and novel The of a trilogy, a trilogy, of Wangshi form in the Chinese sci-fi magazine magazine sci-fi Chinese the in form World part first the is novel 2008. The in a book as then in China. His great breakthrough, however, came came however, breakthrough, great His China. in novel, famous most his with Problem The Devil’s Bricks prominence to shot swiftly he and 2002, in published He was born in 1963 in Yangquan, Shanxi and he he and Shanxi 1963 Yangquan, in in born was He story, short sci-fi first his published Fall The Financescape and the Bestselling Author Author Bestselling the and Financescape The success. a great been has Cixin Liu Economically, literary work of Liu Cixin ( Cixin Liu of work literary worldwide. sci-fi of author Chinese famous most the audience. Despite being an author in his own right, right, own his in author an being Despite audience. the translating for acknowledged more perhaps is Liu sci-fi writers globally. He is a bestselling author and and author a bestselling is He globally. writers sci-fi a growing by read and to sold being are works his After headlining the Singapore Writers Festival Festival Writers Singapore the headlining After attend to Kong Hong to travelled Liu 2017, in Festival. Literary International Kong Hong the other literary events, the Texas Book Festival in in Festival Book Texas the events, literary other 2016. in festival Live Riot Book York’s New and 2016 sci-fi community, Liu recently headlined the the headlined recently Liu community, sci-fi Town, Cape in (2018) Festival Book Open seventh many among attended, further Liu Africa. South generates only 807,000 (as of December 2018). 2018). December of (as 807,000 only generates other Chinese sci-fi authors – a search on on search a – authors sci-fi Chinese other 25,600,000 generates instance, for Google, on on a search while results, search most important figures in promoting Chinese sci- Chinese promoting in figures important most Gong 2016; (Kidd, world the across filiterature exceeds greatly presence media His 2018). Haiying, United States Liu is considered, by media covering covering media by considered, is Liu States United the of be one to community, sci-fi the and sci-fi ASIA IN FOCUS gained widespread attention in the mediascape. the literature grows. Two authors in particular have reports more on Chinese sci-fi, the attention on connected to the mediascape and, as the media magazines that specialize in sci-fi. This is tightly they are available on the internet in different translated rapidly into different languages and community. In particular, short stories are being spread easily and quickly within the global sci-fi The technoscape enables Chinese sci-fi to be Innovative The Technoscape, the Mediascape and the technoscape and mediascape as outlined below. and they have both also benefited greatly from the has both discussed and promoted these authors, his international travels to literary events, Ken Liu have been translated into English by Ken Liu. In met this demand and both of the authors’ works ( Jingfang Hao originating from China. Two young female writers, a greater market demand for sci-fi literature appreciation of Chinese sci-fi has resulted in as one of the most influential people in the world. been ranked by Zuckerberg, the co-founder of Facebook, has Books of Mark Zuckerberg’s Facebook reading list, Problem Three-Body The presidency in an interview with The New York Times: the trilogy by Liu Cixin as adefinitive book of his of the United States, Barrack Obama, mentioned card. As for Chinese sci-fi, the former president Hao Jingfang ( Jingfang Hao The increasing global attention and on to worry Aliens about. are about to invade. with Congress fairly seem —not something petty to my read, partly because day-to-day problems The of scope it was immense. that So was fun […] interesting. really imaginative, wildly just […] , in October 2015 (Zuckerberg, 2015). 郝景芳 Time Magazine Time 郝景芳 ) and Jia Xia ( ) was born in Tianjin in also appeared on (Grossman, 2010) (Kakutani, 2017) (Kakutani, 夏笳 A Year ), soon 28 literary community. The wide accessibility of the consumption of the work within the sci-fi and wider for national international and distribution and easily accessible on the internet, which allows stories have been translated into English and are and distribute her literary products. The short work is the way she uses the internet to promote into afilm, directed by Korean-American, Josh Kim. author Stephen King. The story is to beadapted other nominees for the prize was the American first Chinese woman to receive the award; amongst ( the Hugo Award for Novelette Best for various short stories. In 2016, Hao Jingfang received She has written two full-length sci-fi novels and and1984 considers herself to beapart-time writer. Chinese sci-fi Chinese?”, Xia Jia responded: Questioned in an interview about “what made Galaxy Awards and six Chinese Nebula Awards. awards for her sci-fi works, among them five was born in in 1984 Xi’an. She has won numerous gained much attention in the sci-fi scape. Xia Jia Jingfang is regarding technology and media. clearly shows how innovative and conscious Hao English, but this new way to approach storytelling 2017). The story has not yet been translated into themselves to nearly different 50 endings (Denton, in which the readers have the possibility to guide other authors, released an interactive story online penetrate people’s quotidian lives.” (Zong. Y., E. 2018). people’s daily anxieties and the social issues that of the present Chinese society, especially young of Chinese SF writers provide readers with glimpses interview, Hao Jingfang stated that “A fair number sci-fi movement from abottom-up perspective. In an Chinese cultural transnational the highlights work Beijing Zhedie Beijing An interesting observation of Hao Jingfang’s travel, space exploration—are the fruits of machinery, new of modes transportation, global fiction’sScience creative inspirations—massive ( Jia Xia In 2017 Hao Jingfang, together with five 夏笳

北京折叠 ) is another writer who has ). Hao Jingfang was the Folding Beijing Folding

ISSUE 7 in the context context the in

is set is useful in understanding understanding in useful is a concept of difference, how is how difference, of a concept is tell demanded a protagonist who gave up all all up gave who a protagonist demanded tell the I think nature. human and humanity hope in capable history Chinese modern in episode only Cultural the is a response such generating of time absurd and a dark such was It Revolution. 1984 in seem lacking like dystopias even that Liu Cixin was sent by his parents to his his to parents his by sent was Cixin Liu necessary the provides Revolution Cultural The to I wanted tale The story. the for background I approach globalization from a regional a regional from I globalization approach The Three-Body Problem Problem Three-Body The and ideas that are characteristic of sci-fi. of characteristic are that ideas and during Henan, County, Luoshan in home ancestral extremely an was This Revolution. Cultural the Liu and history Chinese modern in time turbulent be a to Revolution Cultural the considers Cixin story The 2017). (Lanning, life his in influence major of the portrays clearly and Revolution Cultural the of the of one Part period. historical this of trauma of chapter first the and Spring’, ‘Silent called is novel 1967’. China, Years: Madness ‘The called is part one to connection a strong indicate words few Those they reader, Chinese a For history. Chinese modern a into story the put immediately and markers as act the of years turbulent the namely context, particular stated: Cixin Liu interview, an In Revolution. Cultural and media are usually considered extremely extremely considered usually are media and important agents regarding globalization and not is globalization argues, (1996) Appadurai as brings it contrary, the on homogenization; to equal it with as well. regionalization of a concept as culture regard and viewpoint Spakowski and Frey 1996, (Appadurai difference 2016). If culture As sci-fi? Chinese in portrayed being difference this influential most the is Cixin Liu previously, stated I therefore scale. a global on sci-fi Chinese of writer novel best-selling his of analysis a short how present The Three-Body Problem being is that identity Chinese or Asian East how the to relate can sci-fi Chinese modern in presented concepts of sharing the communityglobal through 29 The Three- (Jia, X.,(Jia, 2014) into English in 2014, a translation that that a translation 2014, in English into Sci-fi is acknowledged asSci-fi a with genre global twentieth century, it was mostly treated as as treated mostly was it century, twentieth material modernity, of dreams and fantasies a of construction the into be woven could that Dream.” “Chinese industrialization, urbanization, and globalization, capitalism. modern in roots processes with via first introduced was genre the when But the of beginning the at China to translation mostly applies to Western homogenization when when homogenization Western to applies mostly Technology 1996). Appadurai, (see theorized of Chinese sci-fi over the last few years indicates indicates years few last the over sci-fi Chinese of Globalization speak. we as globalized being is it that and context Western a in seen mostly however, is, global characteristics (Ianuzzi, 2015) and the rise rise the and 2015) (Ianuzzi, characteristics global started with Ken Liu’s translation of of translation Liu’s Ken with started Body Problem brought Chinese sci-fi to international attention. It is evident that Chinese sci-fi is on the verge of of verge the on is sci-fi Chinese that evident is It direction in change the and globalized, being predominant interests cultural/moral in popular on focused often are consumption its and culture p.202). 2004, Huat, Beng (Chua imports” American being consumed globally, the products have so far far so have products the globally, consumed being “the and Anglosphere, the in produced been mostly when it comes to cultural flows, has taken place place taken has flows, cultural to comes it when many in is change the and years few last the over product culture a popular As noteworthy. ways ideas, cultural products and finance” (Iwabuchi (Iwabuchi finance” and products cultural ideas, that of framing the p.2) 2004, al, et affecting is traffic. ofdirection, A change cultural transnational cultural movement regarding Chinese sci-fi on a on sci-fi Chinese regarding movement cultural goods, of “the movement and level, transnational Chinese sci-fi in the GlobalChinese sci-fi Community previous the in explored briefly scapes The on-going an is there that show clearly section Polish and Italian. Xia Jia’s stories have been published in all major sci- major all in published been have stories Jia’s Xia her of some and globally magazines and fi journals Czech, Japanese, into translated been have works ASIA IN FOCUS be considered from aregional point of view that and, in the case of Chinese sci-fi, We-ness can and linguistic traditions. We-ness is multi-layered that has characteristics shared by different cultural sci-fi; sci-fi is aglobal genre with astrong identity common We-ness globally in being aconsumer of and Hasan, 1989, p.12). Nevertheless, there is a participants, their statuses and roles.” (Halliday refers to who is taking to part, the nature of the particularly not tenor “the of discourse […] [which] not necessarily familiar with the contexts in use, references. common A Anglo-American reader is is included in and fully aware of Liu Cixin’s textual and the connotations that follow. A Chinese reader decode both the meaning in the quotation above, throughout the novel. A Chinese reader can easily Liu Cixin is repeatedly using We-ness markers regionalization global scale. a on of that history, hence it can beseen as an act of world is not (and neither are other worlds) part among Chineseness readers. The Anglo-American Problem Body heavily on modern Chinese history in ideas, cultural products and finance. Liu Cixin draws power of the Anglo-American movement of goods, has in many ways been globalized by the sheer history. However, American history Anglo-American hard to access for those who are not of part Anglo- among Anglo-American‘We-ness’ readers that is West and such –which in turn creates asense of war of independence, sixties psychedelia, the Wild drawing heavily on Anglo-American history –the by creates identity fiction science Anglo-American ideological lens. for politicsandsaweverythingthroughan so hepossessedanextremelykeensense Lei wasatypicalpoliticalcadreofthetime, comparison. in imagination , thereby creating a sense of We- (Liu andLiu,2016,p.308) (Grassman, 2016) (Grassman, The Three- The 30 ongoing cultural movement regarding Chinese sci- Chinese sci-fi is agrowing success and there is an Conclusion abroad. successfully create apositive image of Chineseness perspective and this analysis shows that it can isfi apowerful cultural agent from abottom-up as atransnational cultural movement. Chinese sci- in Chinese sci-fi promote its success in functioning common cultural characteristics that are portrayed possible. The strong Chinese identity and the Sci-fi as a genre makes this expansion of We-ness and unify all readers of sci-fi on aglobal scale. more and more readers and, in the end, will include We-ness gradually expands, including and unifying includes and unifies regional readers. The sense of and can therefore beconsidered acultural agent aspects of Chinese history, culture and daily life, quality sci-fi. The flow of Chinese sci-fi embodies who are first and foremost interested in high Chinese sci-fi brings Chinese culture to readers a popular culture product being consumed globally, sci-fi to be researched in a transnational context. As (1996) framework of cultural flows enables Chinese the ability to make alarge global impact. Appadurai’s within China rather than as acultural tool that has research into Chinese sci-fi has focused on its role context of globalization. To date, most of the enabled Chinese sci-fi to beregionalized in the of Chinese sci-fi, and the different scapes have technoscape have contributed to the globalization beyond Chinese borders. The mediascape and the way for other Chinese authors of sci-fi to beknown translation gained global attention and paved the The Three-Body Problem started with Ken Liu’s translation of Liu Cixin’s both products and ideas within sci-fi. The change over the last few years regarding the direction of that was initiated by Chinese sci-fi has taken place However, as this paper has shown, anotable change literary cultural from the come Anglosphere. has flow on atransnationalfi level. The greatest influence of into English in 2014. The ISSUE 7 31 is a PhD student at the Department Department the at student a PhD is [email protected] Email: of Asian, Middle Eastern and Turkish Studies at the the at Studies Turkish and Eastern Middle Asian, of are interests research His Stockholm. of University literature. Kong Hong and Chinese Nicklas Junker Nicklas this transnational movement has increasedthe movement transnational this cultures. Chinese and China of awareness reader’s that reaches consumers globally from the bottom bottom the from globally consumers reaches that how reveal could area this in studies Future up. ASIA IN FOCUS Liu, C., (2016). andLiu,K. IntheAuthor’s (2017). Universe: E. Interview AuthorLanning. K. withSci-Fi CixinLiu. (2015). China’sLahtinen, A. Power: Institutes. Soft and Confucius ofConfucianism Challenges Kluver, (2014). R. asStrategy: TheSage Networks, Nodes, Power for andtheQuest Geopolitical inthe Kidd, J. (2016, November 17). Kakutani, M.(2017, January16).Transcript: President ObamaonWhat Books Meanto Him. Jordison, AnInternational S. (2008, Contest We August 7). CanWin. Muecke,Iwabuchi, K., S., &Thomas,M.(Eds.). (2004). Introduction: Siting Asian Cultural Flows. In N.(2013). for Fiction Isaacson, Science theNation: Tales ColonyChinese oftheMoon andBirthModern Iannuzzi, G. (2015). The Translation ofEast inItaly: Asian Fiction Science AnEssay andJapanese onChinese Han, S. AResponse to (2013). Fiction: Science Modernization. Chinese (1989).Halliday, R. &Hasan, M.A.K. Grassman, P. (2016, Problem August 19).TheThree-Body andbeyond withLiuCixin. –aQ&A H.(2018). BraveGong NewWorld sci-fi. ofChinese Frey, M.,&Spakowski, N.(Eds.). (2016). Review.Beijing (2016). Novel Sci-Fi Chinese International Bestseller. (2017,Denton, K. March 8).HaoJingfang releases interactive fiction. Chua B. H.(2004). Conceptualizing anEast Asian culture. popular Berry, M.(2016, March 8).Ken Liu’s outputisasamazinghisstories. (1996). Appadurai, A. Amy Q. (2014, November 10).InaTopsy-Turvy world,ChinaWarms to Sci-Fi. References https://futurism.media/in-the-authors-universe-interview-with-sci-fi-author-cixin-liu Comparative Asian Development, 14 Institute.Confucius liu-helps-chinese-writers from https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/books/article/2046108/how-sci-fi-translator-ken- books-mean-to-him.html Times aninternationalcontestweca web.archive.org/web/20090729220341/http:/www.guardian.co.uk/books/booksblog/2008/aug/07/ trans-Asian cultural traffic Fiction. Aspects of science fictionsincethe1980s:China,Italy, Japan, Korea. Practices Anthological Fiction, Science andPublishing Strategies Beyond theAnglo-American Canon.In doi:10.5621/sciefictstud.40.1.0015 perspective problem-and-beyond-a-qa-with-liu-cixin/ Conditional china/china-pictorial-english/20180708/282209421630792 NUS Press. bjreview.com/Lifestyle/201605/t20160527_800057991.html fiction/ Resource Center doi:10.1080/1464937042000236711 hEuQL3IgPBJHNcdjbQdPAJ/story.html from https://www.bostonglobe.com/lifestyle/2016/03/08/ken-liu-output-amazing-his-stories/ Minnesota Press. html from https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/11/books/liu-cixins-the-three-body-problem-is-published-in-us. . Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/16/books/transcript-president-obama-on-what- Science - Fiction Studies, 40 Science -FictionStudies, . . (2. ed.) Oxford: ed.) . (2. Oxford Univ. Press.

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Translated by Emily Yu Zong. Zong. Emily Yu by Translated . Retrieved from https://kenliu.name/ https://kenliu.name/ from . Retrieved About International Affairs: A Russian Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy & International Relations, 61 Relations, Politics,World & International Diplomacy of Journal Russian A Affairs: International posts/10102434874214351 com/time/person-of-the-year/2010/ Chinese Science Fiction. possible-universes-and-the-best-of-all-possible-earths-three-body-and-chinese-science-fiction/ com/author/xia-jia/ Humanities of Indonesia,Humanities of 18 Folding Beijing science-fiction-beyond-politics-an-interview-with-hao-jingfang-author-of-folding-beijing-translated-by- emily-yu-zong/ Zuckerberg, M. (2015, October 1). A Year of Books. of Books. October 1). A Year M. (2015, Zuckerberg, Yagya, V.; Li M. (2015). The Confucius Institute: A “Soft Power” Factor in China’s Foreign Policy in the 21st Century. in the 21st Century. Policy Foreign A “Soft in China’s The Confucius Institute: Power” Li M. (2015). Factor V.; Yagya, Jia, X. (2014, July 22). What makes Chinese Science Fiction Chinese? Chinese Science July 22).Jia, X. Fiction Chinese? makes (2014, What Liu, C. (2014, May 7). May (2014, Liu, C. Grossman, L. (2010, December 15). Person of the Year 2010. 2010. of the Year December 15). Person L.Grossman, (2010, Song, M. (2015). After 1989: The new wave of Chinese science fiction. of Chinese science The new wave 1989: After Song, M. (2015). A.Thieret, in Liu Cixin. and Utopia Society (2015). The unseen power of China. Jakarta. L. Al Azhar, Thung J. (2017). Universitas at Confucius Institute Open Book Festival (2018). Retrieved from http://openbookfestival.co.za/ from Retrieved (2018). Open Book Festival Liu, K. (2018). Liu, K. (2018). of Author with Hao Jingfang, — An Interview 12). Politics May Chinese Science Fiction Beyond (2018, E.Zong Y. ASIA IN FOCUS business. Keywords: ofcompassion towardsa high-degree inweaker people positions. MillennialsareChinese conscious ethicallyandsocially show within organizations. Similar to theircounterparts inothercountries, have ahumbleattitude andthey believe incontinuous improvement benefits are notaccepted by Millennials Millennials.Chinese Chinese process;in decision-making big differences andother salaries in all organization levels; theopinionsofsubordinates are important want to create organizations between that have co-operation good Millennials have apragmatic approach andlogical to leadership; they Millennials prefer distance lowpower to distance. highpower Chinese voice to Millennials.Thedata theChinese suggests that Chinese 111 respondents from three different universities, Chinese Igive context. Usingempathy-based stories ofinquirywith asthemethod in order to understand ofhierarchies theconstruction intheChinese Hofstede’s cultural thetheoretical studiesinboth andempiricalwork attentiongiving special to distance the power dimension of leadership,Chinese style namely theConfucian autocratic leadership, inChina.Ichallengethedominating dynamics narrativepower of heroic perspective, asItryto understand the culture that creates leadership fromIn thisarticle,Istudybusiness Chinese thepost- KURKISUVI Millennials by GivingVoice to Chinese Leadership Business Chinese Finding aNew Narrative of China,post-heroic leadership, empathy-based stories, Millennials,Chinese 34 ISSUE 4 Different kinds of organizations in China have have China in organizations of kinds Different leadership theories have had an impact especially especially impact an had have theories leadership management,on traditional task but related the impact more had have thought of schools Chinese (Chen subordinates their govern leaders how on Liu Chen, Zhang, 2011; & Chee, Wang 2008; & Lee, traditional Chinese the to According 2008). & Liu, 2000s (Bucic, Harris & Arli, 2012; Pendergast, Pendergast, 2012; & Arli, Harris (Bucic, 2000s the find to aim I 2010). Centre, Research Pew 2007; who Millennials Chinese among voices new possible by created stereotypes the break to able be would studies. leadership business and studies cultural note Lee (2008) and Chen leaders. of kinds different multinational given have scholars Western the that a given has which attention, most corporations & (Chen leadership. Chinese of picture one-sided Chinese on research the Furthermore, 2008). Lee, Confucianism, leadership has overemphasized that philosophies many the of one only is which Wang 2008; Lee, & (Chen leadership. Chinese affect left has China of history modern The 2011.) Chee, & thought modern and traditional both with country the of reality The 2008). & Lee, (Chen coexistence in through constructed is leadership business Chinese Western and influence market influence, traditional Western The 76). p. 2015, al., et (Ren influence & Lee, 2008; Wang & Chee, 2011). An effort has has effort An 2011). & Chee, Wang 2008; & Lee, broaden to years ten past the over made been the but research, leadership Chinese of scope the still leader autocratic Confucian the of stereotype differences the contrasted has Research prevails. greatly leaders Chinese and Western between the to given been yet has attention little very and Chen, Chen, (Zhang, & Ang, generation. Millennial Chinese that indicate studies recent Some 2014.) Western their with values common have Millennials individualistic be more to tend they as counterparts traditional other and Confucian fewer have and generation previous the than values Chinese As 2014). al., et Zhang 2015; & Zhu, Wood (Ren, Millennials Chinese on studies additional such, born generation the are needed. Millennials are 1990s early or late the and 1980s the between 35 and Art of War to Sunzi’s Sunzi’s to leadership has been described Republic Prince, e should pay more attention to how we we how to attention more pay should e we whom to and leadership about talk research. leadership through voice give

In addition to being extensively leader-focused, leader-focused, extensively being to addition In The post-heroic leadership perspective treats treats perspective leadership post-heroic The

previous research in this field has neglected the the neglected has field this in research previous (Chen leadership business Chinese within diversity their own role in constructing hierarchies. constructing in role own their constructs Chinese leadership as phenomenon. more leadership Chinese of norms the making By understand better may people Chinese the visible, seeing leadership as a process that involves the the involves that a process as leadership seeing entire organization and the cultural environment. In that culture the understand to I attempt spirit, this the leadership paradigm to new directions, from from directions, new to paradigm leadership the towards leaders of traits bad and good with dealing activities (D’Szouza, Sigdyal & Struckell, 2017; O’Reilly O’Reilly 2017; & Struckell, Sigdyal (D’Szouza, activities Both 2008). & Birkinshaw, Raisch 2013; Tushman, & pushing are OA and theory leadership post-heroic needed: organizations need to be able to innovate innovate to be able need to organizations needed: core their of some maintaining while change, and (Bathurst & Edwards, 2011; Crevani et al., 2010; Wood, Wood, 2010; al., et Crevani 2011; & Edwards, (Bathurst ambidexterity organizational 2005). Alternatively, are exploitation and exploration both that sees (OA) cultural products; leadership should be seen in its its in be seen should leadership products; cultural culture part of integral an as and context social Langley & Sergi, 2012; Grint, 2011; Raelin, 2011; 2011; Raelin, 2011; Grint, 2012; & Sergi, Langley post-heroic In 2006). Uhl-Bien, 2010; Ladkin, as treated are leadership research, organizations rather than merely a trait connected to an individual individual an to connected a trait merely than rather 2008; & Richmond, Levy Carroll, example for (see 2010; Denis, & Packendorff, Lindgren Crevani, leadership asco-constructed between people, great illusion of hierarchy is that power flows from from flows power that is hierarchy of illusion great the to given is power fact in whereas bottom, to top 1988, 284–286). pp. (Pye, subordinates the by leader a way that gives the blame or glory to individual individual to glory or blame the gives that a way The 2011). 2001; (Grint, men often most leaders, as a characteristic of an individual. The success of of success The individual. an of characteristic a as grand the as painted are organizations or nations in written been has History leaders. their of work From Plato’s Plato’s From Machiavelli’s W ASIA IN FOCUS 2001; Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). subordinates hold very little power (Hofstede, have and usually centralized regimes authoritarian China that score high on power distance dimension, dimension (Hofstede, 2001; 2017). Countries such as scores high with 80points on the power distance unequally.” expect and accept that power is distributed of institutions organizations and country within a as the extent to which the less powerful members Hofstede p. (2001, 79), organizations’ hierarchical structures. According to subordinate relationship than to look at an it is more important to investigate the leader- ways to divide power within hierarchies. Therefore, hierarchical to some extent and there are many (Hofstede, 2001; 2017). All organizations are leadership practices the most is power distance The element of anational culture that affects Power Distance practices do the Chinese Millennials prefer? And, what kind of leadership styles and leadership? about talk Millennials Chinese identify with and to what extent? How do by Hofstede (2001), do the Chinese Millennials Which indicators of power distance, as defined study the core of leadership: distribution of power. simplifying Chinese leadership further, and thus Schram,1968; 1973; 1999). Short, Iwant to avoid Lu & Lu, pp. 2008, 211–214; Pye, 1976; Schwarts, and recreate himself completely (see for example characteristics of Mao was his ability to change scholars have argued that one of the most notable with many roles (Wang & Chee, 2011). In fact, some roles. Mao Zedong was agreat example of aleader adapt to different situations and play different constant change, so must the leaders beable to Wang &Chee, 2011) and as everything is under according to circumstances (Chen &Lee, 2008; changed thinking, be practices should leadership Hofstede’s national culture theory has been In this paper, Iseek to answer the questions: On a scale from zero to 100 China “Power Distance is defined 36 organizations by might challenged younger be indications that strong hierarchy in Chinese challenge the idea of high power distance in China. leadership it has fortified. Thus, in this paper I accept the authoritarian stereotype of Chinese the impact of Hofstede’s theory but does not Zhang & Spicer, 2014). This paper recognizes & Kamenou, 2011; Kim, Yoon, Cho, Li &Choi, 2016; in business research on China (see for example Fu 2016; Vasile &Nicolescu, 2016). It is also widely used & Skarlicki & Jones, 2013; Stock, Strecker & Bieling, Callahan &Sandlin, 2018; Minkov, 2014; Shao, Rupp research (see for example Bissessar, 2018; Claus, is still prevalent in cross-cultural management & Gibson, 2006; Touburg, 2016) and yet his theory criticized widely (see Jackson, 2011; Kirkman, Lowe an introductory script that the researcher has to write astory. This story is written based on obtained data by is method, respondents asking (Posti-Ahokas, 2013). In the empathy-based story background cultural and nationality different a when the researcher who is studying aculture has inquiry, as it is a useful method in social research I use empathy-based stories as the method of Data and Methods theindicated, paradigm. which challenges old than the cultural studies of Hofstede have a less authoritarian style of business leadership argument is that the Chinese Millennials prefer ideal is outdated in 21 argue that the authoritarian Confucian leadership preferences of younger a Chinese generation, I examining the empirically By leadership. and how Chinese Millennials relate to power distance The results of this study give some indication on more egalitarian. (Fu et al., 2007, p. 891–892.) young generation might hold values that are level. They concluded that especially the Chinese lower power distance compared to the current (2007) found that Chinese people would prefer generations. For example, Fu, Wu, Yang, and Ye For more than a decade there have been st century China. The main main The China. century ISSUE 7

Several of your your of Several your employees employees your organization. organization. Imagineyourself around fifteen years from The goal of the second script was to generate generate to was script second the of goal The Describe how you are going to react and what what and react to going are you how Describe 130 scripts were handed out in total: 65 of each each 65 of total: in out handed were 130 scripts The other. the 33 and of variation one of 32 and script respondents). 111 of total (a 86% was rate response aged nationals Chinese were respondents the All related were minors or majors Their 23 years. to 18 The second introductory script (with the two two the (with script introductory second The was: in bold) variations different with organization an in working are You now. highest- the of one are You employees. 200 around ranking leaders in the giving not are complain you that employees and that them enough intheir freedom work as their leader. you with satisfied not are they (2A) / Other your and high-ranking old leader of giving not are complains you that organization enough in freedom their work employees your as a leader. you with satisfied is he not and that (2B) your regarding make you would changes of kind a you make would What practices? leadership own of eyes the in again leader good high-ranking (2B)? leaders the other (2A)/ react to the situation at hand and make it better? better? it make and hand at situation the to react evolves. company the in situation the how Describe affects distance power how to as answers The Hofstede organizations. communication within countries in that suggests model dimension cultural employees from criticism distance, power high with effect a big have not does positions level lower in on managers’ criticism compared to behavior in positions level higher in employees coming goal A second 2001). (Hofstede, organization the on much how freedom the get information to was is freedom of aspect The given. are subordinates claim (2001) Hofstede’s understanding for important distance power on high scores that a country in that should be controlled such as subordinates China, the work. own their regarding freedom having of instead 37 in A middle-sized company (100A middle-sized has employees) For this study, I wrote two different different two wrote I study, this For big economic losses (1A)/ good profits (1B) good profits big economic losses (1A)/ are enjoying too big wages and other benefits. benefits. other and wages big too enjoying are managers top other and CEO the should How that their working hours are too long and that that and long too are hours working their that bosses their that and low too are wages their had complaining are employees The years. few past the The first introductory script (with the two different different two the (with script introductory first The was: bold) in variations than those below them in rank. (Hofstede, 2001.) 2001.) (Hofstede, rank. in them below those than the hierarchy was tested. Usually in cultures with high high with cultures in Usually tested. was hierarchy the higher that accepted generally is it distance power wages better significantly get personnel ranking distance affects the way inequality in wages and and wages in inequality way the affects distance in subordinate those by accepted are benefits other or 2B). The scripts were first written in English and and English in written first were scripts The 2B). or script, first the With Chinese. into translated then power high how about idea (2001) Hofstede’s (see below). Each respondent responded to only only to responded respondent Each below). (see 1A, 1B, 2A (either scripts the of one of version one and differ from essay writing (Eskola, 1991; 1997). 1991; (Eskola, writing essay from differ and variation one had both which scripts, introductory particular characteristics. With the variation in stories empathy-based of method the scripts, the experiment a laboratory to similarly function can scenarios (Rajala & Eskola, 1995). The variation variation The 1995). & Eskola, (Rajala scenarios its method this gives it as crucial is script the of script. (Eskola, 1991; 1997; 1998.) When one item item one 1998.) When 1997; 1991; (Eskola, script. changes it script, introductory the in varied is different creates thus and script the of logic the how things avail.” Usually the researcher comes comes researcher the Usually avail.” things how each of variations different five to two with up This often means posing a clear question or giving giving or question a clear posing means often This “What do as such script, the of end the at a task describe “Please next?” and/or happens think you describes what has taken place prior to it. . The The . it. to prior place taken has what describes respondent the instructs it that so written is script response. their with proceed should they how to as constructed. The respondent either continues continues either respondent The constructed. or script introductory the in detailed story the ASIA IN FOCUS according to the two different scenarios in order scripts, and then subsequently into two further sets two sets according to the two different introductory analysis of respondents exceeds 100. For the using quantitative methods is suitable if the number analysis. According to Eskola and Kujanpää (1992), discursive and thematic analysis tabulation, namely data, quantitative the to analyze methods easy for the respondents to write their stories. number of characters used shows that it was rather In addition, the average and median values of the the lengths of the answers between different scripts. displayed. There is no significant difference between number of Chinese characters in the responses are Kujanpää, Eskola 1992; &Wäljäs, 1992). In Table the 1, is for the respondent to write the story (Eskola & script; usually, the longer the answer, the easier it is for the respondent to respond to the introductory July The 2016. answers were written anonymously. University of Technology between May 2016 and Nanjing and Nanjing in China of University Communications China, of University Renmin of the respondents. The data was collected in is either the mother tongue language second or students were asked to write in Mandarin, which All the stories were handwritten in Chinese. The data gathering took place in classroom situations. for 1B; 26 stories and for stories 30 2A; for The 2B. were 29 story responses for script 1A; 26 stories respondents were female and were 31 male. There to business or business management. 80of the Table 1. I used acombination of qualitative and The length of the stories reflects how difficult it Number of responses and Chinese characters in the responses characters Chinese and of responses Number it was natural to divide the data first into thematic thematic 38 distance. using Hofstede’s indicators of high and low power were then put into categories that were formed expressions were written down. These expressions theory driven approach. First, the most relevant were tabulated by combining adata driven and variation in the introductory scripts. The stories get adeeper understanding of the effect of the are still some individuals who prefer ahigh power Millennials might prefer a low power distance, there This gives us an indication that while most Chinese power distance can be found in some of the stories. it is important to note that several elements of high high power distance in the answers. Nevertheless, clearly more emphasis on low power distance than column show the corresponding percentage points. mentioned the indicator, and the third and sixth second and fifth column show how many stories as derived from Hofstede pp. (2001, 103-110). The the corresponding high power distance indicator low power distance indicators and the fourth column distance indicators. The first column presents the responses; it summarizes the results regarding power are presented in Table The table 2. combines all the The effects of power distance within organizations Empirical Findings whereby Iread each of the stories several times. was done using the principals of discursive analysis, and tabulating the stories, amore in-depth analysis Suoranta, 2014). As such, after the thematic analysis 1997, pp. 96–99; Eskola &King, Eskola 1995; & that the stories are written and constructed (Eskola, From the table, we can see that there was Discursive analysis Discursive investigates the way ISSUE 7 important motivator, most The leadership style that was portrayed in in portrayed was that style leadership The Several studies in the past have concluded concluded have past the in studies Several in the stories. Furthermore, the respondents respondents the Furthermore, stories. the in co-operation good of importance the emphasized company. the within communication and not was Millennials Chinese the of responses the nor style Confucian authoritarian stereotypical the considered in decision-making process. This was was This process. decision-making in considered indicator. distance power high common most the Chinese for motivator important most the that & McKeen, Bu example for (see salary is workers & Yu, Hatfield, Huseman, 2003; Frecklington, 2001; not did results The 2003). & Wong, Taylor Yu, 1991; the is salary that confirm importance. of amount a significant given was it but the emphasized respondents the addition, In improving and activities corporate of importance workplace. the in atmosphere general the condemned highly was workers of Exploitation 39 Number and percentage stories where each of distance power mentioned was indicator The two indicators that consider freedom and and freedom consider that indicators two The Table 2. Table the other hand, in 22 stories respondents relayed relayed respondents 22 stories in hand, other the be need to not do subordinates of opinions the that script. It is notable however, that a total of 64 of a total that however, notable is It script. opinions the of importance the mentioned stories On processes. decision-making in subordinates of wages were mentioned in many of the texts because because texts the of many in mentioned were wages introductory the in mentioned were issues these equality in power distribution, they also accept accept also they distribution, power in equality situation. the on depending power, in hierarchy some not related to either low or high power distance, but but distance, power high or low either to related not indicates This both. of elements included instead appreciate Millennials Chinese the while that belong to high power distance cultures. As in most most in As cultures. distance power high to belong clearly were proposed solutions the stories, the of Chinese Millennials might approach some approach problems might Chinese Millennials distance power low to belong that practices with that practices with problems other then but cultures, distance. It is also important to note that some some that note to important also is It distance. ASIA IN FOCUS the continuous change between the opposites. In culture emphasizes the notion of Yin-Yang, that is, practices should adapt to circumstances. Chinese leadership researchof practices: leadership and the Chinese traditional thinking to abroader range in China or elsewhere. Instead, we to need adapt theory suited to the complex reality of organizations define good and bad leadership, cannot bethe only Heroicp.2). leadership theory, which has tried to pp.30–37;1948, Lee, 2000 in Chen &Lee, 2008, major school of thought holds its own ideal (Fung, like figure of the Confucian tradition, but rather every The ideal Chinese leader is not only the caring father- continuum of different kinds of theories and ideals. like leadership in general, Chinese leadership is a to becomplemented with other theories. Just needs paradigm leadership authoritarian Confucian of Hofstede have indicated. This means that the hierarchical leadership style than what the studies Chinese Millennial generation would prefer less The findings support my main argument that the Conclusion & Discussion of critique from both subordinates and other leaders. and showed a high degree of humbleness in the face to bevery willing to listen to other people’s opinions salaries and humane working hours. They seemed treat their subordinates fairly and give them good in weaker positions. Chinese Millennials want to show a high-degree of compassion towards people a fair working environment for all the workers. They contrary, the respondents seem to want to create not supported by the empirical findings. Onthe and have low emotional intelligence (Yu, 2005) was The notion that Chinese Millennials would beselfish organizations. within improvement continuous in Millennials have ahumble attitude and they believe many aspects of aproblem. Further, Chinese hand properly before acting and they try to consider Chinese Millennials would investigate the situation at to leadership issues. Based on the empirical data, stood out was alogical and pragmatic approach was it the Western democratic style either. What 40 important motivator may indicate that the minimum (EU Chamber of Commerce in China, 2017). has been to get and keep a qualified workforce foreign invested enterprises operating in China as one of the biggest issues for European but they are also of value to foreign managers, older generation of Chinese business leaders, practical implications are not only of value to the as subordinates or would behave as leaders. These Chinese Millennials themselves want to betreated to the notion of organizational ambidexterity. indicators in the same responses correspond findings of having both high and low power distance notion of paradox or ambidexterity. In fact, the Western management literature, there is also the from alarge-scale survey being conducted. Secondly, investigated. The results of this study would benefit male, thus agender dimension could also have been of the respondents were female and only 28% were sample was not representative, for instance, as 72% room for different interpretations of the data. The Firstly, the method of empathy-based stories gives and consistency are key (Tan, Wang &Zhang, 2017). not exaggerate generational difference;flexibility employees motivated. However, managers should 2014) could help to keep the Chinese Millennial workers (Ou, Tsui, Kiniki, Waldman, Xiao, &Song, space for the autonomy and individuality of the that gives 2010).Vitaliano, Participative leadership turnover and better performance (see for example properly implemented results CSR in lower employee the expense of (Buyaert, CSR 2012). Nevertheless, often demands fast expansion and large profits at this might bechallenging as economic growth Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). In China, that organizations develop further should their exploitation of workers was not accepted indicates enough to motivate the employees. The finding that enough level for salary alone to no longer be wage in this sector in China has reached ahigh The finding that salary is not the most Some conclusions can bedrawn on how the There are several limitations to this paper. ISSUE 7 41 九零 ( post 90s post ), ) are the popular terms terms popular the ) are 八零后 ( 零零后 ( post 80s post completed her Master in Asian Studies Studies Asian in Master her completed post 00s post [email protected] In spite of these limitations, the results results the limitations, these of spite In ), and and ), Email: Email: working as an International Sales Specialist for a a for Specialist Sales International an as working Province, Zhejiang Ningbo, in company Chinese China. Suvi Kurki currently is She 2018. in Turku of University the at tend to be ethically and socially conscious and and conscious socially and ethically be to tend themselves. express to free feel to want they are in line with the common statements made made statements common the with line in are they that globe, the across Millennials the about one decade apart. It might be that the results of of results the that be might It apart. decade one cohorts. 1990s Chinese the to apply only study this and stand for the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s cohorts. 2000s 1980s, 1990s and the for stand and has led economic rapid to development China’s only born people between differences significant China. Instead Instead China. 后 the sample population was also very homogenous homogenous very also was population sample the the in born 23 year-olds to 18 age, of terms in in used not generally is Millennial term 1990s.The conducted with a population of similar aged Chinese Chinese aged similar of a population with conducted completed only basicschooling. Lastly, who have the generalizability of the results on any population population any on results the of generalizability the Chinese educated highly and young than other be could study similar a research, future For people. note that a student sample can cause issues not not issues cause can sample a student that note of terms in also but generalizability of terms in only about questions raises This reliability. and validity the sample population was very homogenous with with homogenous very was population sample the (2014) & Merunka Peterson education. to regard ASIA IN FOCUS EU Chamber ofCommerce EU Chamber inChina.(2017). Eskola, J., &Wäljäs, Rotter M.(1992). jarole playing. Eläytymismenetelmän jaI-E-asteikon vertailua. Eskola, J. & Suoranta, J. (2014). Eskola, J., & Kujanpää, Elämäntapaa S. (1992). harrastamassa: Tekstiilityötä työväenopistossa. InJ. Eskola Eskola, J., & King,A-L. (1995).Luokanopettajaopiskelijoiden suhtautumisesta jatkotutkintoon. Eskola, J. (1998). Eskola, J. 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. Pew Research Center 42(6), 1101–1121. . Journal of Cross- ISSUE 7 - elaborates this stand stand this elaborates In the book, Van Norden describes philosophy philosophy describes Norden book, Van the In Taking Back Philosophy Taking these are, and while most philosophy departments departments philosophy most while and are, these Western with deal only exclusively do West the in common of bigotry, exemption the with philosophy, value in including “non-Western” philosophy in the the in philosophy “non-Western” including in value tradition the how illustrates Two Chapter curriculum. deals too it that philosophical; is thought Chinese of etc., altruism identity, as such themes common with philosophies. other with dialogue into it puts and Trump’s President US how shows Three Chapter related; are philosophies between walls the and wall a part of is othering and divisions creating that how on concentrates Four Chapter narrative. larger useful; politically and be vocationally can philosophy view Rubio’s Marco criticises especially Norden Van need welders more and less philosophers” “[w]e that expressed since has Rubio that be noted should (it that argues Five Chapter And wrong). was he that not and everyone, for life to a guide is philosophy towers. ivory their in academics of activity the only LCTP with engage to unwillingness departments’ chauvinistic, xenophobic, of broader pattern as “a from “us” separate to efforts racist and nationalistic, words Strong 84). p. 2017, Norden, “them”” (Van other than the canonical Western ones. If this cannot cannot this If ones. Western canonical the than other double the end must we argued, they be achieved, universal its with philosophy Eurocentric of standard departments do which and callpretence, philosophy Western than other anything research and teach not Philosophical canonical“Anglo-European philosophy 2016). Norden, Van and (Garfield Studies” a manifesto is One Chapter chapters. five its across is there that argues it philosophy; a multicultural for 45 . Van . Van Taking Taking New York York New

The include less commonly (LCTP). That is, That philosophies (LCTP).

. On the first day alone, the piece garnered garnered piece the alone, day first . On the 10 because I found his self-righteousness self-righteousness his I found because 10 This is the intervention we have been waiting waiting been have we intervention the is This page by new?” “What is for!” stuck “I got The book germinated from an opinion piece piece opinion an from germinated book The

departments would equally philosophiestaught Norden and Garfield argued for a restructuring of of a restructuring for argued Garfield and Norden located those (especially departments philosophy these that such ones multicultural into West) the in the article entitled “If Philosophy Won’t Diversify, Diversify, Won’t Philosophy “If entitled article the Van a nerve. hit had Is” Really It What It Call Let’s eight hundred replies, and later, thousands more more thousands later, and replies, hundred eight were comments these of Many sites. philosophy on Clearly, p. xii). (Garfield, in nature 2017, vitriolic collaborator of Van Norden) did for for did Norden) Van of collaborator Times philosophy in Western universities, it is a good read. a good is it universities, Western in philosophy long-time L. Garfied (a Jay and Norden Van sense of current academic discussions about the about the academic discussions sense current of of disciplining and departmentalisation of politics 2017, p. 8). No surprise then that the book has has book the that then surprise No 8). p. 2017, reactions strong often and divergent such elicited a get to want who those For readers. its from book is deliberately “cheeky” and occasionally occasionally “cheeky” and deliberately is book as best be summarized perhaps can it sardonic; Norden, (Van die” or diversify must “Philosophy Wuhan University in China, and Vassar College in in College Vassar and China, in University Wuhan latest his polemic, and partisan US. Intentionally the Norden, a highly accomplished scholar in Chinese Chinese in scholar accomplished a highly Norden, holds professorships philosophy, andcomparative Singapore, in – Yale-NUS institutions three at when I brought up Bryan W. Van Norden’s Norden’s Van W. Bryan up I brought when Back Philosophy: Manifesto A Multicultural insufferable…” friends and colleagues declared declared colleagues and friends insufferable…”

Taking Back Philosophy – A MulticulturalTaking Manifesto. (hard 978-0231184366 ISBN: pp., 248 2017, Press, University Columbia York: New W. Bryan Norden, Van cover) Book Review “ ASIA IN FOCUS Norden, 2018). The question I wish Van Norden (Van difference of challenge this particular answer many of the criticisms Fuller raises, yet he does not Philosophy] all the more.” (Deussen, 1907, p. 3). argument in favour of devoting ourselves to it [Indian “furnished us [Europeans] with the strongest of Paul Deussen’s remark from 1907 that difference for example, Western philosophy. This reminds me therefore it could, and should, be put in dialogue with, does stress that Chinese philosophy is different, and Chinese culture has changed over time. His book non-Western cultures, he aptly demonstrates how 8). Van Norden cannot befaulted for essentialising becoming the West’s Other (Fuller, 2018, pp. 157- conception of non-Western cultures may risk grasp. Steve Fuller even questions if Van Norden’s notion somewhat unclear difficult and hence to available for some time now, which makes his own the varying readings of multicultural that have been with multicultural? Unfortunately, he does not detail notion of diversity. But what does Van Norden mean the to intimate multiculturalism’s link equate to is 2018), the problem becomes more visibly focused. canons and texts other than the “standard” (Ganeri, as these other tool kits are in disparate languages, does mainstream Western philosophy? Couched parochialism, and deters the person who solely traditions which gives ground to the problem of to relate to tool kits from other philosophical Rather, as Ganeri writes, is it perchance the difficulty reason to warrant them as structurally racist? universities confirm this. However, is this enough and the philosophy departments of many European Van Norden argues, also tend to bewhite and male, on “non-Western” philosophy. These departments, very few full-time employee who do any research at the department websites of universities uncovers Norden’s critique. It is clear that even acursory look most universities here live up to the example of Van (Ganeri, 2018), writing as I am from Europe where I share Jonardon Ganeri’s hesitation to call it racist In his reply to Fuller, Van Norden addresses Van Norden’s remedy to the state of things 46 2018), with Alexandra Ilieva S. Ilieva adding that “it ultimately unsatisfying” as Alex Sager states (Sager, other. This approach is “compelling, infuriating but philosophy, and then make them talk to each traditions of philosophy, multi-cultures of departments should teach students different Some Post-Colonial Questions” (Oinam, 2018). later, Philosophy’: in India’ ‘Indian or “‘Philosophy as Bhagat Oinam phrased it more than years 85 国的哲学史呢 谓 philosophy (author’s in China?” translation “ of: history of Chinese philosophy, or is it the history of Yuelin posed Chinese in “Is 1930: Philosophy the scope of anon-academic is book, that which Jin had explored more, which is perhaps outside the to Van Norden’s. Ifancy Müller got this one right, his contemporary, whose position Iearlier likened contrast to the Indologist and philosopher Deussen, the famous philologist and Orientalist Max Müller in could envision as atranscultural style of philosophy. (Sideritis, 2017); in other words, an approach one sense that Mark Sideritis would bewatchful of about in aparticular milieu. This would entail thinking I would add, losing each concept’s situatedness be altogether scrapped (Ganeri, 2018) without, the that radical approach would be Ganeri’s, who writes does not go far enough” (Ilieva, 2018, p. 3). Amore “ Van contends Norden that philosophy Indian philosophy the Vedānta and the Sāmkhya. withleast the two prominent systems of ancient one will claim that name who is not acquainted at original, that Ihope the time will when come no and Spinoza, of Locke, Hume, and Kant in the works of Plato and Aristotle, [ of Cartes Des a philosopher who had not read and studied the [a]nd if hitherto noone would have called himself In hindsight many things can besaid about 中国哲学 confluence manufactured notion of culture ?” (Jin,?” 2007, p. 203). Alternatively, ” 是中国哲学的史呢 rather than the the than rather (Müller, 1919, p. xvi) ? comparative 还 should should 是在中 sic ] 所

ISSUE 7 47 is a Doctoral fellow at the the at fellow a Doctoral is [email protected] Email: Email: Eastern Himalayas. Asian Studies. Her research interests include the the include interests research Her Studies. Asian century 20th early in Philosophy Indian of image the in relations China-India modern and China Cluster “Asia and Europe” and Deptartment of of Deptartment and Europe” and “Asia Cluster an and University, Heidelberg Studies, Chinese of Institute Nordic - NIAS at student PhD Affiliated Zhang Lindkvist Lisa the realm of thought. of realm the An asymmetry of ignorance in any form cannot form form cannot form any in ignorance of asymmetry An in especially world, interconnected any of basis the ASIA IN FOCUS Van Norden, B. W. (2018). Response to Steve Fuller, “‘China’ astheWest’s inWorld Other Philosophy”. Van Norden, B. W. (2017). InJ. InPhilosophy? orConfluence Comparison (Ed.),Siderits, Ganeri M. (2017). Sager, (2018, August Review: A. 1).Book Taking Philosophy: Back AMulticultural Manifesto by Bryan W. Van Oinam, B. (2018). ‘Philosophy inIndia’ Post-Colonial or‘IndianPhilosophy’: Some Questions. Müller, F. M.(1919). Jin Y. (2007 [1930]). Feng Youlan “Zhongguo zhexue shi”shenchabaogao S. I.(2018).Ilieva, Taking A. Philosophy: Back AMulticultural Manifesto by Bryan W. Van Norden (review). &Van J.Garfield, L., Norden, B. W. (2016, May 11).IfPhilosophy Won’t Diversify, Let’s CallItWhat ItReally Is. Foreword. (2017). J.Garfield, L. InB. W. V. Norden, J.Ganeri, (2018, August 20).Taking Philosophy Forward. Fuller, S. (2018). “China” astheWest’s inWorld Other Philosophy. P.Deussen, (1907). References Norden. Lujiang Publishing House. World Philosophies, 3 Press. Philosophy review-taking-back-philosophy-a-multicultural-manifesto-by-bryan-w-van-norden/ History of Chinese Philosophy Philosophy East andWest, 68 lets-call-it-what-it-really-is.html/ New York Times UniversityColumbia Press. lareviewofbooks.org/article/taking-philosophy-forward/ LSE Review of Books . Oxford: Oxford University Press. The SixSystems of Philosophy Indian Outlines of PhilosophyOutlines Indian . Retreived from Taking Philosophy: AMulticultural Back Manifesto (2), 134-136. (2), . Retrieved from (3), 1-3. ]. In Liu L. (Ed.), ]. InLiuL. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/11/opinion/if-philosophy-wont-diversify- . Berlin: Karl. Berlin: Curtius. Taking Philosophy: AMulticultural Back Manifesto http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2018/08/01/book- Jing duJinYuelin 48 . London: Longmans, Green andCo. Los Review Angeles of Books Journal of World Philosophies,3 [ Essential Works of JinYuelin

[In-depth Review ofFeng[In-depth Youlan’s . NewYork: University Columbia The Oxford of Handbook Indian . Retrieved from Sophia, 57 (1), 157-164. ]. Xiamen: . NewYork: Journal of , 457–473. https:// The ISSUE 7 should always be introduced to the reader. reader. the to be introduced always should appendices be should submission the whether state Please essay. an or article academic an considered words 200 than more no of abstract A concise references upon submission. Citing is required be avoided. should abstract the in reader The keywords. six of maximum a Provide ideas main the of impression a strong get should short list. this from piece your in discussed including a short include Please biography, institution, affiliated about your information research primary your and degree academic interests. publish may we or not whether state Please contact information. address or email other your when journal the of scope the about Think multi- is Focus in Asia paper. your write you academic different from readers with disciplinary stances and theoretical Thus, backgrounds. The carefully. be used should arguments article your of focus geographical/cultural of English. of 350 words), 3500 length: (+/- words Text and references. graphs photos, excluding in submitted and be prepared should paper The software compatible MS-Word style use APA and citations references all For or footnotes endnotes, include Do not • • • • • • • • • • 49

The language of the journal is English. English. is journal the of language The it publication, for article your submitting When speaker a native by proofread been have must in a public open access journal. access open a public in us please at enquiries, email other any For [email protected] Submissions are warmly received all year round round year all received warmly are Submissions www.tidsskrift.dk/asiainfocus at submission confirmation your in Include quote to right the obtained have you that such and maps pictures, publish interviewees, • Guide which can be found at www.asiainfocus.dk. www.asiainfocus.dk. at be found can which Guide • below. Please be sure to read and adhere to the the to adhere and read to be sure Please below. Style Focus in Asia comprehensive the rules of Preparing your paper your Preparing to conform must it be published can paper a Before summarised is which guide, style Focus in Asia the • • Submissions • publish academic essays, publish academic articles, and reviews. book a high academic level and publish manuscripts manuscripts and publish academic level a high We form. readable and focused a concise, in written societies, from Central Asia to Oceania but excluding excluding but Oceania to Asia Central from societies, perspective the from Zealand, New and Australia at aim We humanities. and sciences social the of their findings in a widely accessible, transnational transnational accessible, a widely in findings their Asian modern is journal the of point focal The forum. Asia in Focus is a biannual journal where Master and and Master where journal a biannual is Focus in Asia institutions European to a affiliated students PhD publish to possibility the have education higher of Aims andAims scope early career researchers career researchers early A Nordic journal on Asia by Asia on journal A Nordic Asia in Focus in Focus Asia ASIA IN FOCUS WWW.ASIAINFOCUS.DK 50