A NEW INTRODUCTION to ART HISTORY Artby Ferdinanda Florence

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APPROACHES TO

A NEW INTRODUCTION TO ART HISTORY ArtBy Ferdinanda Florence

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3970 Sorrento Valley Blvd., Ste. 500, San Diego, CA 92121 CONTENTS

Introduction ix What Impacts How We See and Make Art? x

What Is Art? xi

What Is Art? A Case Study with Augusta Savage xiii

Vocabulary in Introduction xvii

01 Art and Culture: The Choice between Abstraction and Illusionism 01 Beyond the Literal: Abstract Art for the Supernatural 03

Shared Concept, Contrasting Visions: The Theme of Death in Three Cultures 07

The Western Path to Illusionism: From Classical to Medieval to Renaissance 12

Realism versus Reality: Illusionistic Art and Deceiving Truths 14

Vocabulary in Chapter 1 18 02 Culture and the Vocabulary of Space in Two Dimensions 20 Picturing A 3d World in 2d: Landscape in Traditional Eastern and Western Art 20

Traditional Western Space: Perspective and the Italian Renaissance 24

Traditional Eastern Space: Oblique Projection and Pattern 30

Negative Space 35

iii Trading Spaces: Eastern Use of Western Space, Western Use of Eastern Space 37

New Vocabulary in Chapter 2 40 03 Approaches to Abstraction 42 Traditional Approaches to Abstraction 42

Modern Approaches to Abstraction 47

Modern Appropriation of African Art 54

Unity and Variety 57

New Vocabulary in Chapter 3 63 04 Beyond Pictures: Nonobjective Art 65 Abstract Expressionism and Nonobjective Art 65

Nonobjective Body Art in Traditional Cultures 69

The Garden and the Tea Bowl: Zen Buddhism and Nonobjective Japanese Art 70

Nonobjective Art and the White Walls of the Modern Art Gallery 72

Minimalism and Conceptual Art 74

Nonobjective Earthworks: Christo and Jeanne-Claude 76

Nonobjective Art and the Issue of “Crafts” 79

New Vocabulary in Chapter 4 86 05 Line and Drawing 87 Line Direction 88

Line Shape (Organic or Geometric) 91

Line Texture 93

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History Expressive versus Analytical Line Vocabulary: Art Nouveau and Bauhaus 95

Drawing Media and Line Vocabulary 99

“Just a Sketch”: The Traditional Western Approach to Drawing 102

Women Artists and Drawing as a Fine Art Medium 104

New Vocabulary in Chapter 5 107 06 Light and Space 109 The Relationship between Light and Space 109

The Universal Vocabulary of Light and Space 110

Italian Renaissance Light and Space 111

Northern Renaissance Light and Space 115

Baroque Light and Space 117

Light, Space, and Modern Art 120

Installation 122

No Safe Distance: Performance Art 124

New Vocabulary in Chapter 6 126

07 The Choice Between Idealism and Verism, and the Power of Print 127 Idealism and Verism: Universal Criteria 128

Idealism and Verism: Cultural Criteria 130

The Social and Political Power of Verism 131

Verism and the Power of Printmaking 134

Contents v Verism and Photography 135

The Ethical Problems of Verism 138

Techniques of Printmaking 141

New Vocabulary in Chapter 7 148 08 Classicism: Art, Architecture, and Propaganda 149 Ancient Roman Propaganda 149

The Classical Female as Allegory 152

The Impact of the Enlightenment 152

Neoclassicism and the French Revolution 154

The United States: Classicism, Racism, and Manifest Destiny 157

The United States and Classical Nudity 159

Classicizing Architecture and Propaganda 162

Modern Classicism and Propaganda 167

New Vocabulary in Chapter 8 172 09 The Public Memorial and the Vocabulary of Time 173 The Challenges of a Public Memorial 173

Idealism versus Verism: A Tale of Two Lincolns 176

Timeless Vocabulary: The World War II Memorial 178

The Vocabulary of Time’s Passing: The FDR Memorial 181

The Challenge of Catharsis: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial 183

Catharsis and Compromise: The 9/11 Memorial 186

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History Classicism Rejected: Holocaust Memorials 189

Catharsis, Change, and Contemporary Issues: The National

Memorial for Peace and Justice 192

New Vocabulary in Chapter 9 196 10 Color and Painting 197 Color Mixing and Color Harmonies 198

Symbolic Color 206

Painting Media 212

New Vocabulary in Chapter 10 218 11 Patronage and Artist Agency 220 Power, Patronage, and the Artist’s Vocabulary 221

Women and Patronage 222

Patronage, Power, and the State 224

Artist Agency and Ethical Responsibility 228

Addressing Modern Times 232

New Vocabulary in Chapter 11 240 12 Controversies and Art 241 Expectations about the Modern Artist 242

Questioning Expectations: Dada and Pop 245

Controversy and Nonobjective Art 247

Nudity and “Obscenity” 249

Contents vii Context, Race, and Agency 255

Irony and the Sacred 258

Controversy, Technology, and Social Media 265

New Vocabulary in Chapter 12 268 Index of Artists 269 Appendix: Art Timelines 273

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History INTRODUCTION

hen you receive a gift, it’s customary to thank the giver and perhaps say, “I appreciate that!” But you may or may not like W the gift. You might prefer a different color or size. You might like the color and hate everything else about it! What does that mean, then, to “appreciate” a gift? We often say about gifts that “it’s the thought that counts.” So, the key to appreciating art is to understand the thought that goes into the making of it. This is where things get tricky. We can rightly question whether we can ever truly know what was in the mind of the artist when they made the artwork. Though artists give a great deal of thought to their work, they don’t necessarily think consciously about their work while they are working. The job of art experts (such as art historians and critics) is to infer and interpret all the thoughts that drove a particular artwork’s creation—not just the thoughts in the artist’s mind (conscious and subconscious), but also the driving concerns of those who paid for the art and gave direction to its making (known as patrons). Indeed, it is the thought that counts. What, then, are the thoughts that drive art making? Image omitted due to Brain science is a field of great advances and of many still unanswered ques- copyright restrictions. tions. We are still trying to figure out how the brain works and how creativity happens. There is no question, however, that successful art making requires coordinated brain functioning. It was traditionally argued that the driving force behind creativity lay in the “right brain.” The right side of the brain was believed to be more adept at making the kinds of decisions that creative work demands; it could see the “big picture” and make connections between distant, scattered threads. The “left brain,” in contrast, was believed to be better at linear thinking—following a chain of thought down the line, step by step.1 Different parts of the brain are certainly responsible for specific skills.

1 Though now repudiated as pseudoscience, this left brain-/right brain-dominance model is hard to shake, as it provides such a useful (if oversimplified) way of talking about complex brain functions. The phrase “right-brain thinking” provides a tidy short-hand for creative, free-form problem solving, while “left-brain thinking” clearly speaks of a less creative, more literal or mechanical approach.

Augusta Savage, Lift Every Voice and Sing exhibited at 1939–40 New York World’s Fair. Plaster. Photo by Carl Van Vechten.

FIGURE 0.1 Miné Okubo, Untitled (Children at play, Topaz Relocation Center, Utah, circa 1942–43, watercolor on paper. Oakland Museum of California.

However, scientific studies of people’s brains in action show a dynamic dance of dual hemispheres, as the left and right brains work interdependently to solve creative problems. The job of the “art appreciator,” then, is to understand just what problems are being solved and how. Then appreciating is easy! You are not expected to like every work of art that you see—that wouldn’t be realistic or fair—but you can still appreciate every work that you see, on some level. (And once you are able to uncover the reasons behind the artwork, you will find a lot more to like.) That is a gift well worth having. I think of it as a kind of superpower—one that is essentially free, accessible to all, and that lasts a lifetime.

WHAT IMPACTS HOW WE SEE AND MAKE ART? There are three main factors that determine how art is made and also determine how any given viewer interprets (sees or “reads”) the artwork. These factors are operating whether we are aware of them or not, and whether we acknowledge them or not! As viewers, we often see far more than we think we see, and make inferences and assumptions that can be confirmed or challenged, the deeper we look into a work of art.

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History x Universal Experience These are the basic, human experiences understood by virtually all people. Being cheered by the sun, being afraid of the dark, telling an angry face from a sad or happy face—the knowledge of simply being human affects both art making and art viewing. Take, for example, the watercolor painting by Miné Okubo of children playing figure( 0.1). Anyone from a sixth-century Viking to a twenty-fifth-century space traveler could recognize that little children are standing in a circle with buildings behind them.

Cultural Influence The influence of one’s own culture is sometimes hard to recognize; something that you might consider “universal” is actually not shared by all cultures, but rather just something considered “normal” for your culture. Our cultural background—shaped by where and when we were born and the society in which we grew up—acts as a sort of filter through which we see the world. This influences us as artists, and as viewers. We look at the world through a pair of “culture glasses”; although we can (and should) learn about other cultures and empathize with others as human beings, we cannot fully remove our “glasses” when we look at others—or their art. Both being aware of our own cultural filters and understanding how culture influences vision are essential skills for art appreciation. In Untitled, figure 0.1, our universal, human understanding tells us that the taller figures are adults, tending to the children. However, most viewers would further assume that the children are playing (rather than, say, gathered for a sacred ritual). Further, most viewers today would assume the adults are women, even though their faces and figures are undefined. This assumption comes from our knowledge of traditional gender roles, which ascribe characteristics like dresses, aprons, and child-rearing to women.2

Personal, Individual Perspectives We are each a product of our culture. However, you are an individual, and your individual experiences—combined with a unique brain, a unique body, a unique combination of genes inside—give you unparalleled perspectives on your world. You are shaped by your environment, but your vision is always, essentially, personal. Much as Okubo’s Untitled speaks universally about childhood and play, it was a decidedly personal subject for the artist. We know that she witnessed this scene, and many other moments from day-to-day life, living behind the barbed wire of an internment camp in Utah. Okubo documented her experiences as an interned Japanese-American in her illustrated book, Citizen 13660. Knowing Okubo’s personal history, we see clearly the contrast between the joyful children in Untitled, and the grey, joyless barracks, barren landscape, and indifferent sky. With this knowledge, the viewer may begin to look more deeply into this painting and question if indeed all the children here are blissfully unaffected by their surroundings. The boy in the lower right corner stands apart from the others, his arm held—or grabbed—by a woman in a blue skirt; perhaps he is acting out and misbehaving, or perhaps he is shy and afraid. How you, as a viewer, respond to this scene depends a great deal on your own personal experiences and worldview.

WHAT IS ART? There are three essential aspects to art. From theater sets to fashion design to sculpting, at the highest level of visual creativity, these three aspects work in perfect concert to give the viewer a meaningful (and hopefully memorable) experience. Such an experience invites viewers to make connections, either consciously or subconsciously, between their world and the artist’s world.

2 Note that a viewer need not hold certain cultural viewpoints in order to recognize them. In this example, one need not personally value or uphold traditional women’s roles in order to guess that the adult figures are women.

Introduction xi Visual Vocabulary The visual vocabulary works much like a verbal vocabulary; you have the visual elements (such as line, light, color, etc.) that act like the “parts of speech” in language (noun, verb, adjective). The visual elements are arranged in a composition in a logical, persuasive order—the way that the components of language are arranged to communicate effectively, to “make sense.” The different ways in which the elements can be arranged are called the principles of design (such as unity and balance). The visual vocabulary also includes the styleof the art—whether it looks “real” and detailed or simplified and distorted. The visual vocabulary acts like a computer operating system, the Linux or Windows of the artwork, running behind the scenes to enable and optimize visual performance.

Media The media are the materials of the artwork and the physical process of making and shaping those materials. An example of a medium is watercolor on paper, as we see in Miné Okubo’s work figure( 0.1). Most watercolor artists work on paper, and many begin with a light pencil sketch with few details. It’s likely that Okubo chose watercolor as a medium because it is easy to transport and rewards quick and decisive mark making; here, it enabled the artist to capture the rapid movements of the children in the waning afternoon light.

Concept In essence, the concept is the idea behind the work—the artist’s interest or intended point. The concept is what the artist believes is essential about the work; this might be as simple as a feeling or as complex as a political agenda. The artist must be clear about what they are trying to do. Without clarity, the artwork “falls down” for the viewer. Note that lack of clarity is not the same as ambiguity. Ambiguity can present an interesting challenge for the viewer, forcing the viewer to struggle with what they believe or want to see. In the best art, these three aspects—visual vocabulary, medium, and concept—act in concert, working together to communicate meaning to the viewer. The choice of medium and visual vocabulary each reinforce the concept, just as the medium and visual vocabulary must complement each other. Concept is no more or less important than the other two aspects of art; however, it can often be the most challenging aspect for artists to marry with the others. In college classes, art students are often asked (especially in more traditional academic programs) to focus on the first two aspects, learning the visual vocabulary and experimenting with a range of art media. At this level, art students learn to control the media, to get the best results and see which medium is most agreeable for the kind of art they wish to make. Students try to create engaging visual compositions, applying theoretical knowledge of elements and principles to actual practice. Their training involves developing the physical and mental discipline necessary to create art: learning proper work habits and procedures, developing hand-eye coordination, and paying close attention to the world around them. Over time, students will develop their conceptual voice and be able to articulate more fully what their work is “about.”

DISCUSSION: What’s Behind the Artwork? Find a picture of a work of art that you like. It might be a photograph, sculpture, painting, or some other medium. Identify the work by artist, title, date, and medium. If you found the work online, without searching an art database, it might be difficult to get this information. (This is why museum websites are so useful; since the artwork belongs to the museum, they know all about it and are glad to tell you!

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History xii In contrast, if you find a work posted on some blog somewhere, it’s likely copied from another website, which copied the art from another website. The Internet is filled with examples of copying without attributing; it’s the World Wide Web of plagiarism!) If you can’t find the identifying information right away, don’t give up; a little Googling around might get you to the source, which may be the artist’s website or a museum website. Explain what you like about it and note what aspects of the artwork seem to communicate universally—that is, things you see that anyone would be able to understand. Then, note what aspects of the artwork seem to have a cultural meaning, if any, and share what the work says to you personally. Be sure to credit any sources you used to gain insight into the work. In reply to others’ comments, note any aspects of the artwork they picked that resonate with you. Are you drawn to the visual vocabulary, the artist’s choice of medium, the concept, or a combination of the three? Why?

WHAT IS ART? A CASE STUDY WITH AUGUSTA SAVAGE To see the three essential aspects of art in action, let us use an important work by the sculptor Augusta Savage as a case study (figure 0.2). First, we are struck by the sculpture’s visual vocabulary. The great arm embraces and supports the figures in a smooth, diagonal line. Another diagonal rises from the palm of this hand; our eyes are drawn upward, from head to head, to the dramatic apex of Savage’s human harp. The figures have become the strings of the instrument—their voices appearing to build in strength with the repetition of taught vertical lines. The crouching figure, displaying musical Image omitted due to notes on a plaque, appears youthful and poised. copyright restrictions. The dominance of clean, strong lines in Savage’s Lift Every Voice and Sing is matched by its grand scale; at 16 feet tall, the sculpture presents a heroic monument to perseverance and hope. Much of this visual vocabulary can be “read” at a universal level; even without knowing anything about the artist or her subject, the attentive viewer can “hear” the style, line, light, and space, speaking loud and clear. Next, let us consider the medium. Savage sculpted this work—custom-made for display at the 1939 New York World’s Fair—in plaster, which

is a common (and inexpensive) sculpting medium. Copyright © 1940 Vechten by Van Trust. However, Savage intended to cast the work even- FIGURE 0.2 Augusta Savage, Lift Every Voice and Sing, tually in bronze, an expensive and labor-intensive exhibited at 1939–40 New York World’s Fair. Plaster. Photo by medium used by ancient societies (such as the Carl Van Vechten. ancient Greeks and Romans) for important subjects.

Introduction xiii Her bronze sculpture of an African American boy, called Gamin (French for “street urchin”), had won her national acclaim. In the choosing the bronze medium, Savage intended to make a cultural statement about the worthiness of her subjects, as well as her own worthiness as a sculptor. As a woman of color in a segregated and male-dominated art world, Savage was particularly keen to establish herself as a legitimate artist, equal to her better-recognized (and better-funded) contemporaries. Despite the popularity of Savage’s sculpture at the fair, the artist could not raise sufficient money to have a bronze version cast.Lift Every Voice was demolished with the rest of the exhibits when the fair closed. Finally, let us turn to the concept of Lift Every Voice and Sing. The “subject” of a work of art includes the basic information about who and what the piece shows. However, the meaning of a work of art—its concept—goes far deeper than mere subject matter. Savage’s sculpture certainly includes singing figures and music, but that’s not essentially what Lift Every Voice and Sing is “about.” The title of Savage’s sculpture is based on a song celebrated today as the “Black National Anthem,” Andrew Herman, “Augusta Savage,” https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Savage,” “Augusta Herman, Andrew File:Archives_of_American_Art_-_Augusta_Savage_-_2371.jpg, 1938. written at the turn of the century to honor African Americans’ struggles and successes, both past and present. The sculpture reflects the FIGURE 0.3 Augusta Savage with her sculpture Realization, c. 1938. unified strength of African American communities, from the times of slavery to today, expressed through music and symbolized by the harp into which the figures are formed. This is Savage’sconcept . The sculptor’s choice of eye-grabbing visual vocabulary, together with her intended medium of bronze, all complement and reinforce this concept. Note further the universal, cultural, and personal dimensions of this concept. As humans, we all understand what struggle and hardship mean. Those who have personally experienced hardship may connect with Savage’s sculpture on a deeper level. African American viewers also share a cultural understanding of the subject (and the work is especially personal for those who know the lyrics to “Lift Every Voice and Sing” by heart). These three elements—medium, visual vocabulary, and concept—fall within the artist’s control. Yet there is a fourth factor—one almost entirely beyond the artist’s control—that can have an incalculable impact on an artwork’s meaning and can determine ultimately whether the artist is successful: context.

Context Working in Harlem, New York, in the early 1900s, Savage was a pioneer of the great social, artistic, literary, and musical movement known as the Harlem Renaissance (see modern art timeline, appendix, figure 3). Savage had the opportunity to show her work through the Harmon Foundation, which supported many African American artists in New York. This financial support, orpatronage , presented something of a double-edged sword for Savage and her contemporaries. The Harmon Foundation gave artists a venue to show their work, at a time when galleries were virtually closed to artists of color; however, the Harmon shows were not integrated, so few African American artists had the opportunity to show their work alongside white artists’ work. The Harmon Foundation tried to secure patrons for the artists, but prospective buyers (who were predominately white) were unlikely to purchase art that directly confronted racial issues. Common subjects included figure studies, rural landscapes, and city scenes of jazz playing, singing, dancing, and so on. The Harmon patrons weren’t the only group to demand uplifting, positive imagery, however. As we will examine further in chapter 11, leading African American scholars were concerned about the pervasiveness of negative stereotypes in the US and wanted African Americans to put their best faces forward as much as possible. Artists of the “new Negro movement” (as it was called at the time) were expected to present their subjects in a positive light—as noble, decent, and industrious.

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History xiv Consider Augusta Savage’s Lift Every Voice and Sing against this contextual backdrop. Savage had learned some bitter lessons by the time she sculpted the work in 1939. The Great Depression had begun ten years earlier, undermining what little success the Harmon Foundation had contributed to Harlem artists’ careers. Savage spearheaded an effort to channel federal funds to artists during the Depression, opening a school and becoming director of the Harlem Community Art Center in the late 1930s. Savage’s ongoing struggles to secure jobs for fellow artists of color, as well as make sales of her own work such as the heart-wrenching and compelling Realization shown in Figure 0.3, surely inform Lift Every Voice and Sing. Savage knew this work would be seen widely, by a diverse audience, at the World’s Fair. She also knew she had to balance competing goals—to acknowledge an emotional and painful path (both personal and historical) while meeting expectations of uplifting affirmation. The result is a work that was one of the most popular in the fair, one with an enduring legacy that still touches people on a universal, cultural, and personal level. That is art.

ART HISTORY EXERCISE: The Power of Context The legacies of many talented artists are undone by their circumstances. Artists whose work is dismissed or maligned in their lifetimes may receive recognition posthumously when their work is “rediscovered” as relevant and appealing. Artists themselves may be embraced by critics as “the next big thing” or rejected for not looking or acting “correctly” according to social norms and prejudices. The case of Augusta Savage (1892–1962), for example, is both inspiring and heartbreaking. Born just thirty years after the Civil War, Savage was one of the Harlem Renaissance’s breakout successes. Yet, like many of her Harlem contemporaries, she struggled to make ends meet and died in obscurity. It was not until the end of the civil rights era in the late 1960s—when race and gender became hot-button, mainstream issues—that forgotten Harlem Renaissance artists were “remembered” by the art market. Since the 1960s, critics have acknowledged Savage’s contribution to the New York art scene, as both an artist and teacher. One is tempted to ponder whether Savage’s life might have taken a different course if she were born just ten years later. For this exercise, research Savage’s biography further and compare her work and career trajectory with that of another artist featured at the 1939 World’s Fair, Paul Manship (1885–1966). (Manship’s 1934 sculpture Prometheus glides over the skating rink at Rockefeller Center in New York.) Note times when Savage encountered setbacks beyond her control, and times when Manship was granted opportunities that were closed to Savage. Then, compare a specific work by Savage with a specific work by Manship, identifying each by title, date, and medium. Address the universal and cultural messages each appears to convey, and compare the overall feeling and message of the two works. For further research and analysis, compare Augusta Savage’s art and career with that of painter Loïs Mailou Jones (1905–1998). Unlike Savage, Jones lived to see the end of the civil rights movement (when her work, too, was “rediscovered”) and enjoyed a successful career through the 1980s and 1990s.

STUDIO EXERCISE: The Visual Vocabulary of Power Augusta Savage’s Lift Every Voice and Sing uses a powerful compositional strategy that gives the impres- sion that the figures’ voices are rising in both fervor and volume. Using repeated shapes that grow in size, gaining in height along an invisible (implied) diagonal line, Savage also suggests a movement growing in number, vitality, and strength. As the line continues to rise, the resulting triangle shape ( ) suggests progress that is still ongoing.

Introduction xv For this exercise, your concept will be a rallying cry to support a cause or concern that’s important to you. Decide on a subject that you feel needs to rise in number, visibility, and/or strength. Then, create a work of art following the layout of Lift Every Voice and Sing:

• Choose an image that captures your concept, one that you can repeat, with small visual variations, several times. • The image should be repeated with increased size, brightness, and boldness, along a rising diagonal line. • For two-dimensional artwork, consider the background. Use a solid color or pattern rather than leaving it blank. You might include a counter image, falling down along a diagonal and fading as it falls, to suggest symbolically what needs to be defeated in order for your cause to rise.

Use any medium that you are comfortable with (collage, drawing, photography, clay sculpture, etc.). Note that you might start working on the composition first and then come up with a concept along the way; artists do this all the time! When you are done, write a paragraph explaining your concept, as well as your thought process (noting what conscious decisions you made along the way).

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History xvi VOCABULARY IN INTRODUCTION

Words related to art periods or movements are in ALL CAPITAL LETTERS. composition: Visual elements and principles of design concept: The idea, feeling, or message that is central to a work of art

HARLEM RENAISSANCE: Movement in Harlem, New York, led by African American intellectuals, writers, artists, and musicians, lasting from the late 1910s (post WWI) to the late 1930s medium, media (plural): Materials and methods of making art patron; patronage: The person who pays for art, sponsors the artist; the act of supporting or sponsoring an artist principles of design: Organizing principles used in creating a work of art. Includes unity and variety; balance; rhythm and pattern/repetition; time and motion; emphasis and focal point; scale and proportion; and contrast scale: Principle of design addressing the relative size of an object compared with other objects sculpture; sculptor: Three-dimensional work of art (having height, width, and depth); creator of three-dimensional art style: Visual quality of art, imparting a particular “look” (such as abstract or illusionistic) visual elements: Essential components of a work of art: line, which can be used to build a two-dimensional shape; light (value or key); texture; space, which can be defined by a three-dimensional form; and color

Introduction xvii JanRy�anji Van (PeacefulEyck, Arnolfi Dragon ni Portrait Temple), dry (Giovannigarden (karesansui), Arnolfi ni and original Giovanna design, Ce- nami),late 1600s, 1434. Kyoto, National Japan Gallery, London, England. 32.4 × 23.6 in. Oil on oak panel.

CHAPTER 01 ARTCULTURE AND CULTURE & THE VOCABULARY TheOF Choice SPACE between Abstraction IN TWO and Illusionism DIMENSIONS Subtitle Subtitle Subtitle Here

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Jan van Eyck, “Arnolfi ni Portrait,” http://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfi ni_Portrait. jpg, 1434. 01 fish scales and fine hair strands that this painting shows. We know this is a painting, not an actual, present, physical being, but she is depicted as though she were sitting right in front of us; this is the “istic” part of “naturalistic.” Note that the style term “naturalistic” is quite different from the adjective “natural.” There is nothing natural about a woman with fish legs! John Waterhouse was a member of a British group of artists, working in the mid-1800s, called the Pre-Raphaelites. While the Industrial Revolution was (literally) running full steam ahead, the Pre-Raphaelites looked to romantic fantasy subjects of yesteryear. The inviting, naturalistic details of their paintings were meant to sweep the viewer away into a “better” reality—a world of knights, maidens, and mystery. Pictured in figure 1.2 is a mermaid who is far less naturalistic than Waterhouse’s watery lady. This mermaid appears to be much simpler and “streamlined,” without all the surface details seen in Waterhouse’s painting. Rather than illusionistic or naturalistic, this design is best described as being abstract in style. This means that the things represented here (mermaid with long hair grabbing her “fish legs”) are shown with a minimum of details, and/or the visual infor- J. W. Waterhouse,J. W. Mermaid,” “A http://www.royalacademy.org.uk/exhibi- tions/waterhouse/learn-more-waterhouses-mermaid,989,AR.html, 1901. mation is distorted from what you would expect to see in “real life.” Abstract art can be deceptively simple. A logo, like this Starbucks FIGURE 1.1 John William Waterhouse, A Mermaid, 1900. Royal Academy of Art, Lon- design, compresses a lot of information into a succinct, effective mes- don, England. 26.4 × 38.61 in. Oil on canvas. sage. If you’ve ever had to design a logo, you know how challenging this process can be. So much information, so many ideas, must be reduced into a spare yet comprehensive image. The artist must be very selective, putting in those few elements that will say exactly the right thing. The viewer is challenged, too. You must apply all of your knowledge—based on your experiences as an individual, as a human being, as member of one or more cultural groups—to understand and appreciate what you are seeing. The Starbucks logo has evolved over time. In the 1970s, the design was more illusionistic, based on a medieval European mermaid type, with flowing hair and bared breasts. This image perfectly fit the concept of a Seattle coffee shop, offering flavors from the far- flung corners of the world. The logo was hippie, rustic, and exotic, in tune with the tastes of the era. By the late 80s, Starbucks was a newly expanded corporate entity; the mermaid became sleek, cool, and stylized (reduced to a visual “shorthand”), her scaly textures and unkempt tresses replaced by perfectly parallel waves. Again, the culture and the design were in sync. The design used today, with most of the figure’s fishy body cropped away, has lost almost all its original meaning—many people don’t even recognize that it’s a mermaid! What remains, however, is a potent symbol of successful Copyright © picsishouldshare (CC 2.0) BY-SA at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Starbucks_1.jpg. corporate marketing. In this case, as the design grew more abstract, FIGURE 1.2 Starbucks cup. it grew more complex in meaning—not less!

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History 02 BEYOND THE LITERAL: ABSTRACT ART FOR THE SUPERNATURAL To see how abstraction and illusionism can offer vastly different views of “reality,” let us compare two works with a similar subject, pointing to wholly divergent concepts. The freestanding sculpture (sculpted “in the round” or all the way around) in figure 1.3 features the dragon-slaying saint, George; the work was commissioned by the Armor- er’s Guild in Florence, Italy, and sculpted by the famed Italian Renaissance sculptor, Donatello (see European art timeline, appendix, figure ).2 This sculpture is decidedly illusionistic; the figure appears corporeal, with a solid, weighty body.1 You can clearly see the saint’s muscular form beneath the armor, and his feet are firmly planted on the ground. The alert look on St. George’s face further shows that he is not just physically present but also mentally present. This saintly warrior is ready to step right out of his niche on the exterior of Orsanmichele (the guild’s headquarters) and face whatever enemies would dare pick a fight. Conceptually, the sculpture stands for the guild itself—a proud defender of the city of Florence—rather than for some mag- ical dragon-slaying power. Like much illusionistic art, Donatello’s sculpture provides the viewer with a lot of detailed information, without the apparent need for much context. Certainly knowing FIGURE 1.3 Donatello, St. George, c. 1415–1419. Copy of marble this is a dragon-killing saint is helpful, but original (moved indoors). Florence, Italy. we see all the qualities of a great warrior on display, even without that background information. As we will see later in this chapter, illusionism can be deceptive, and

1 The term “corporeal” derives from the Latin word corpus (body), from which we get the word “corpse.” A corporeal figure has the appearance of a three-dimensional body. A non-corporeal figure would look flat, floating, or ghostlike—having no “body” or fleshly volume.

C hapTER 01: Art and Culture 03 seemingly straightforward imagery can be misconstrued. However, it’s clear that St. George can be viewed in a more literal, what-you-see-is-what-you-get way than the haniwa warrior shown in figure 1.4. Haniwa are terracotta sculptures made in Kofun-period Japan (see Chinese and Japanese art timeline, appendix, figure ).1 The era is named after the rulers’ great, key-shaped burial mounds (kofun); a mass of figures would serve the practical job of holding the mounds in place, while also serving their spiritual role as afterlife guardians and caretakers. There are different types of haniwa, including a female figure believed to represent a shaman. All are highly abstract in style. Here, the warrior haniwa presents both simplifications and distortions: His facial features are reduced to simple horizontal and vertical lines; his slim arms bend like rubber bands; and his legs (clad in padded armor) are far too wide, compared with his upper half. As we’ll discuss further in the next section, thanks to our cultural familiarity with illusionism, Donatello’s warrior seems to make more visual “sense” than the haniwa warrior. However, for much of human history, abstraction has proven to be the more prevalent, and more sensible, style choice. In addition, for much of human history, artwork has been used to support supernatural beliefs, a job for which abstraction is uniquely suited. In many traditional societies abstract art is essential for not only showing but enabling non-corporeal, supernatural activities—from providing a gateway for ancestor spirits, to ensuring the safe conduct of a soul into the afterlife. When it comes to dealing with the spirit world and godly powers, illusionism might seem, in contrast to abstraction, both inadequate and pointless. If one were to challenge the haniwa artist to make a more illusionistic sculpture, they might reasonably respond, “Why should I invest precious time and resources simply to mimic what I see around me?” Fighting a dragon is one thing; fighting to keep away the evilkami (gods or spirits in Shinto belief) so that the king can become a kami himself upon his death—now that’s a job for abstraction! The clay goddess sculpture shown in figure 1.5, made by an artist on the island of Crete almost three thousand years ago, looks like she could be a cousin to the haniwa

Copyright © by MiguelHermoso (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Guimet_Haniwa_01.JPG. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Guimet_Haniwa_01.JPG. at 4.0) BY-SA (CC MiguelHermoso by © Copyright soldier. How could two figures, made thousands of miles and thousands of years apart, have so much in common—from FIGURE 1.4 Haniwa figure, Kofun period, Japan, 6th c. CE. Ceramic (terracotta), 47 inches tall. Musée the terracotta medium to the sinewy, bending arms, to the Guimet, Paris. bell-shaped body? The answer lies in the effectiveness of

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History 04 Image omitted due to copyright restrictions. Copyright © by Zde (CC 4.0) BY-SA at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:- Goddess_with_upraised_arms,_terracotta,_Gazi,_1300-1100_BC,_AMH,_145281.jpg. http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/tree-of- Life,” of Mendieta, “Tree Ana life-35360. Copyright © 1976 by Ana Mendieta.

Goddess with upraised FIGURE 1.5 FIGURE 1.6 Ana Mendieta, Tree arms. Late Minoan culture, c. 1300–1100 of Life, 1976. Photo-documentation of BCE. Ceramic (terracotta), 34 in. high. an earth-body work in mixed media. Archaeological Museum of Heraklion. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. abstraction to transform the human body into a conduit for spiritual power. Note the opium poppies blossoming from the goddess’s crown; this diadem of mind-altering drugs points to rituals conducted by priestesses of the Minoan culture for centuries. Taken in sacred caves, the drugs would help open a doorway to the realm of the earth goddesses, who were believed to control the fertility of crops. This sculpture likely acted as a conduit between the earthly and the godly, activated by worshippers directly (with sacrifice and prayers) or handled by an expert priestess. The prayers likely came with desperate intensity after the 1500s BCE, when a devastating volcanic eruption on a nearby island caused immediate destruction as well as prolonged agricultural distress in Crete. This work, one of many featuring upraised arms and crowns, comes from the late Minoan era, when the goddess’s powerful intercession would have been urgently needed. As we’ll explore further in chapter 3, many artists over the past century embraced abstraction to renew seemingly broken bonds between the natural and supernatural worlds. Echoing the case of the late-Minoan goddess sculpture, by the 1970s there was a distinct urgency to protect and heal an environment (and modern societies) wracked by decades of industrialization. Thanks to the moon landing, humans saw the earth from space for the first time in 1969 and became palpably aware of how precious, small, and alone our beautiful blue marble appeared in all that darkness. Feminist artists sought an antidote in the earth goddess figures found in many prehistoric societies; one of the leaders of that movement was Cuban-born artist Ana Mendieta. Mendieta’s parents sent Ana and her sister away from Cuba after the revolution brought Fidel Castro to power. A 13-year-old girl at the time, Ana found herself supplanted from her native land and rather abruptly relocated to Iowa. Her ensuing feelings of displacement, both physical and social, became a touchstone for her artwork. By merging abstract goddess imagery with elemental materials and her own body, Mendieta sought to harness fundamental feminine powers for personal, and societal, healing. In Tree of Life, 1976 (figure 1.6), Mendieta’s body appears to emerge from the tree, at once alive but also frozen, like petrified wood. She raises her arms upward, linking the earth and sky like the ancient goddess figures. Camouflaged in

C hapter 01: Art and Culture 05 mud, Mendieta transforms herself into an abstract sculpture, a modern conduit for ancient forces. The artwork here is the performance itself; the photo is simply a way of documenting the moment of transformation. Like elements of nature, Mendieta’s art is powerful but ephemeral. Image omitted due to In her Silueta series, Mendieta combines her own silhou- copyright restrictions. ette, in the goddess pose, with various natural materials, allowing these silhouette “bodies” to undergo transfor- mative processes. In figure 1.7a, her goddess silhouette is created with a framework of fireworks that spark and burn away; in figure 1.7b, her silhouette appears in a shallow depression in the sand of a beach, which the surf

Ana Mendieta, “Silueta de Cohetes.” Copyright © 1976 Mendieta. Ana by gradually fills and dissolves. Throughout the series, the viewer is touched by a sense of both resilience and decay, FIGURE 1.7A Ana Mendieta, Anima, Silueta de Co- hetes (Firework Piece), from the Silueta series, Mexico; stillness and change. The fireworks inSilueta de Cohetes photograph, 1976. (Firework Piece), figure 1.7a, are both exhilarating and dangerous, emitting sparks and jets of flame. Their vivid display is short-lived, however, as they quickly burn themselves out. This metaphor for mortality becomes all the more poignant in light of Mendieta’s short life (she died in 1985, at the age of 36).2 Figure 1.7b shows another of Mendieta’s earthworks—artworks built on or into the natural environment—from the Silueta series. The goddess silhouette here is given life by the element of water rather than fire; swirling and foaming, the pounding surf provides energy and movement to the body, even as it gently erodes the form with each breaking wave. Like Silueta de Cohetes, all that remains are photographs documenting the transient work, which is designed to be consumed, like a sacrifice, Image omitted due to and ultimately erased. The enormity of Mendieta’s con- copyright restrictions. cept—which is at once deeply personal, spiritual, social, and political—is effectively delivered with the deceptive simplicity of the abstract style.

2 Mendieta fell to her death from the window of the New York apartment she shared with her husband, artist Carl Andre,

Ana Mendieta, “Untitled.” Copyright © 1976 by Ana Mendieta. under suspicious circumstances. Andre was acquitted of her murder, a controversial case that split the art world and gal- FIGURE 1.7B Ana Mendieta, Untitled, from the Silueta series; photograph, 1976. vanized many of Mendieta’s feminist colleagues.

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History 06 ART HISTORY EXERCISE: Comparisons of Style Comparisons can help highlight the ways that culture can impact artists’ decisions. By comparing two pieces of art with the same or similar subject matter, art historians can identify the parallels or differences in the artists’ approaches. Comparisons also can highlight how the form of an artwork (its visual characteristics) relates to its function (what it means, or how it “works” in the society for which it was made). In an essay, compare a female haniwa figure with a Minoan goddess figure. First, identify the art fully, noting the title, date, medium, and present location (it’s likely located in a museum, though it may live in a private collection). Address the artists’ use of style, pointing out details in each work that lean toward abstraction or illusionism. (Keep in mind that some parts of a single artwork can be more illusionistic or abstract than other parts!) Then compare how each work was meant to “function,” based on your research and the artworks’ original locations. What job was the artwork meant to do? Was it spiritual or practical or both? As an alternative, research the terracotta warriors of Emperor Qin of China. Use good, scholarly sources (such as a museum website, academic site, or journal article) to get contextual information about these pieces (how and when they were made and for what purpose). Following these guidelines, compare one of the terracotta warriors of Emperor Qin to one of the haniwa warriors.

SHARED CONCEPT, CONTRASTING VISIONS: THE THEME OF DEATH IN THREE CULTURES Death is a universal human experience, but cultures differ considerably on matters of how, when, or - whether to represent death in art. Even within a single culture, approaches may vary based on the taste of patrons or the current political or economic climate. As always, context plays a large role in what artists make and how.

The Memento Mori The rich, illusionistic details in the painting shown in figure 1.8a reveal the luxurious lifestyle enjoyed by well-connected gentlemen in 1500s Northern Europe. The confident poses, elegant clothing, and fine jewelry are almost universally understood signs of privilege. mons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hans_Holbein_the_Younger_-_ The_Ambassadors_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg, 1533. Identified by art historians as two French ambassa- http://com “The Ambassadors,” Younger, the Holbein Hans dors living in Germany, the men are surrounded by FIGURE 1.8A Hans Holbein the Younger, objects that represent both geographic and intellectual The Ambassadors (Jean de Dinteville and exploration. From the Oriental carpet to the celes- Georges de Selve), 1533. National Gallery, tial globe, the items represent tangible achievements London, England. 81.5 × 82.5 inches.

C hapTER 01: Art and Culture 07 within reach and intangible things to be observed and understood from afar. The figures themselves represent the economic and political authority of the wealthy landowner (the bolder ambassador at left) and the religious authority of the bishop (the ambassador in dark robes on the right).3 Of course, between the heavens and the earth, there stands mortal humanity. The overarching concept of artist Hans Holbein is to present a memento mori—a Latin phrase that literally means “reminder of death.” Here Holbein proclaims a solemn warning: Despite all the riches arrayed between the two gentlemen, the finality of death will render all this splendor irrelevant. In Holbein’s era, Europe had just seen the devastation wrought by the Plague, which peaked in the mid- 1300s and ultimately claimed a third of the European population. The Black Death was a culture-shaking reminder that life is fragile and fleeting; a cough or sneeze today could mean a coffin a few days later. High status and luxurious living were lauded as reflections of God’s blessings, but artwork such as Holbein’s were meant to remind the wealthy that their souls must be prepared for death so that they can be deemed worthy of heaven and earn the true riches awaiting them there. Note the Christian crucifix peeking out behind the drapes in the upper-left corner of the painting; this little figure suggests that Christ has a different perspective on these men than we, the viewers, could have—after all, we aren’t able to see into the men’s souls! In fact, this painting makes no attempt to reveal the spiritual state of the men before us. The painting’s illusionism reaffirms the world as it appears. However, there is one glaringly abstract part of this very illusionistic work—a part that aims to impact the viewer in a far less literal way. The biggest and most disconcerting reminder of death appears right in front of our eyes, in the form of an optical illusion: the distorted shape on the floor. This oblong blob acts as a focal point; the viewer can’t help but notice it. Despite all the eye candy in the painting, the viewer is drawn to that strange and abstract shape, contrasting with the illusionism surrounding it. This is a distorted, abstract image of a skull; however, to appear as an illusionistic object, it must be viewed from a sharp angle. If you position your head near the upper-right corner of the painting and look down, you will see the shape compress into the clear image of a skull—an effect known as anamorphosis (figure 1.8b). Like death, the skull in the painting is unavoidable and always in front of you, and yet it still has the power to surprise you. Out of the corner of your eye, it can jump out at you at any time, when you least expect it. Today a sneeze, tomorrow … who knows? A hundred years after Holbein, Dutch artist Willem van Aelst painted the still life shown in figures 1.9a and .b The still life was a popular memento mori motif in Europe in the 1600s. Artists’ paintings of sumptuous feasts, fruits, and flowers show a Christian belief prevalent in Holland at the time, that financial well-being Copyright © Jean-no (CC BY-SA 3.0) at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Holbein_Ambassadors_anamorphosis.jpg. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Holbein_Ambassadors_anamorphosis.jpg. at 3.0) BY-SA (CC Jean-no © Copyright inevitably comes from hard work and moral living. The blessings and pleasures FIGURE 1.8B Anamorphosis of the world should be enjoyed while they last. The lovely flowers cascading over of Holbein’s Ambassadors.

3 Some art historians see signs of religious conflict here; the broken string on the lute, which sits on the bottom shelf, may refer to irreconcilable viewpoints at the start of the Protestant reformation.

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History 08 Willem van Aelst, “Flowers in a Silver 1663. Vase,” Willem van Aelst, “Flowers in a Silver 1663. Vase,”

Willem van Aelst, Flow- FIGURE 1.9A FIGURE 1.9B Willem van Aelst, Flowers in a Silver Vase (detail). ers in a Silver Vase, 1663. Oil on canvas. Legion of Honor, San Francisco.

the marble mantle, now in full bloom, will not stay fresh forever! The elaborate pocket watch (tied with a blue ribbon) reminds the viewer that time is fleeting. When you look at the rich details in Van Aelst’s painting, consider the rhyme of seventeenth-century English poet Robert Herrick. The opening stanza of his poem, “To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time” captures the essence of the memento mori:

Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, Old Time is still a-flying: And this same flower that smiles today Tomorrow will be dying.

STUDIO EXERCISE: The Modern Memento Mori Traditional memento mori still-life paintings might be subtle in their message, with a delicious piece of fish fillet on a plate signaling the brevity of life (after all, that fish won’t be delicious if it sits out too long!). Alternatively, a still life could be very overt, featuring a skull on a marble table (foreshadowing a cold stone sarcophagus), lit by a sputtering candle. For this exercise, browse memento mori still-life paintings from the 1500s and 1600s to get a sense of the wide range of symbolism that has been used. Then, select at least two traditional and two contemporary symbols to update thememento mori still-life tradition in an original work of art. Choose objects that in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries speak of the passage of time, death’s knocking on the door, and the transience of the finer things. (For example, the smartphone might be a good modern symbol of time’s-a-wasting.) Arrange these objects on a suitable surface and set up the lighting to create a dramatic effect. Take a photo of your setup or draw the image if you are more confident

Chapter 01: Art and Culture 09 in your rendering skills. In a paragraph, explain your symbolic choices and how they send a memento mori message to the modern world.

Calaveras and Día de los Muertos/ Day of the Dead Funerary customs are purely cultural constructs. There are no universal aspects to dealing with the dead. Just as some cultures keep death as private and somber events, there are others that celebrate the deceased with boister- ous, public displays, designed to honor (and appease) the dead, ushering them toward an afterlife of even greater joy and richness. Some cultures celebrate ancestors with

Copyright © Salvador Alc (CC 3.0) BY-SA at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:D%C3%ADa_de_muertos_1. JPG. yearly rituals, designed to renew connections between this world and the afterlife. Mexican “Altar de muertos” detail: sugar FIGURE 1.10 Rather than spook the living with illusionistic skulls, skull, cempasúchitl flower and candle. some cultures use abstract skull imagery to symbolize how the dead can be supportive and helpful to the living. Made of sugar or sculpted from clay, skulls (calavera) are popular decorations in Day of the Dead celebrations. The Mexican Día de los Muertos tradition commemo- rates the deceased with elaborate altars (ofrendas) and festivities, bringing not only families but whole communities together with music, dancing, and feasting. This tradition reflects both indigenous Mesoamerican beliefs and the influence of Catholicism from Spain.4 The delightful sugar skull shown in figure 1.10 is accompanied by marigolds, flowers traditionally used to honor the dead. The power of death-themed art to merge political, social, and religious concerns is nothing new. Commonly found in Day of the Dead celebrations, calaveras imagery carries a memento mori message—and more—in the work of Jose Guadalupe Posada. An artist working in the years leading up to the Mexican Revolution, Posada was an illustrator whose prints of finely dressedcalaveras suggested the inevitability of death, for rich and poor alike, with politically charged humor. Lovely in life, La Calavera Catrina in fig ure 1.11 is still trying to impress the gents with her toothy smile and grand chapeau. udalupe Posada, “La Catrina,” http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:La-Calavera-Catrina-Web. Catrina,” “La Posada, udalupe G é 4 In Catholic Christianity, the Day of the Dead is “All Souls Jos jpg, 1913. Day” (November 2 or 3), which follows “All Saints Day.” The evening before All Saints Day is commonly known FIGURE 1.11 Jose Guadalupe Posada (1852–1913), La Catrina, woodblock print. as Halloween.

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History 10 Kane Quaye and the Ghana Funerary Tradition In the coastal West African nation of Ghana, an abstract innovation was added in the mid-twentieth century to long- standing, festive funerary practices. Traditionally in Ghana, a great celebration, including feasting and dancing, would Image omitted due to be held to honor the deceased. Attendees would bring con- copyright restrictions. tributions to show their appreciation and also defray the enormous expense of the event. Today, elaborate funeral celebrations are still expected, but may also include the burial of the dead in a custom-built “fantasy coffin,” an art form introduced by Ghanaian sculptor Kane Quaye (1922–1992). Both functional and symbolic, Kane Quaye, “Mercedes Benz Coffin.” Copyright © 1991 by Kane Quaye. Quaye’s wooden art coffins were carved and painted in an FIGURE 1.12A Kane Quaye, Mercedes Benz Cof- abstract style to symbolize the identity, interests, and hopes fin, side view, 1991. Wood, paint. 9 feet long. Seattle Art Museum. of its eternal occupant. The idea of using an object to symbolize a person’s status is also deeply rooted in Ghana traditions (the use of symbolism and metaphor can be found in kente cloth and other art forms of the Akan peoples, including the Ashanti). Quaye’s first creation was intended as a sedan chair for a chief in the shape of a cocoa pod, an important crop in Ghana; however, the chief died before he could Image omitted due to use it, and Quaye offered the pod as a coffin instead. Quaye’s copyright restrictions. own grandmother was his next client; she lamented never getting the chance to fly in an airplane and requested an airplane-shaped coffin. The Mercedes Benz Coffin shown in figures 1.12a and b

similarly provides the deceased with an upgraded afterlife Kane Quaye, “Mercedes Benz Coffin.” Copyright © 1991 by Kane Quaye. “ride.” As in the haniwa and Minoan goddess sculptures Mercedes Benz Coffin, front. (figures 1.4 and 1.5), the abstraction in the Mercedes FIGURE 1.12B Benz Coffin is an essential part of how the artwork functions. Quaye did not intend to reproduce faithfully every detail of the luxury car. Not only would additional, illusionistic details spoil the charm of this work, illusionism would also undermine the coffin’s supernatural power to conduct the occupant into the afterlife. Here, each detail is an important contribution to the work’s overall purpose. As seen in figures 1.12a and ,b painted lace curtains cover the “windows,” adding a sense of luxury and also privacy for the occupant. Of course, the viewer would not be able to see into the car anyway, as the windows are made of wood (like the rest of the car). Therefore, the job of the curtains is purely symbolic. Quaye even added a rear spoiler to make Copyright © Jean-Michel Rousset (CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ at 3.0) File:Kane_Kwei_Carpentry_Workshop.jpg. the deceased’s afterlife ride faster and sportier. As seen in FIGURE 1.13 The Kane Quaye Carpentry Work- figure 1.13, artists in the Kane Quaye Workshop carry on shop, 2010. the late artist’s work today, updating the coffin designs for contemporary tastes.

C hapTER 01: Art and Culture 11 DISCUSSION: Death and Art Art has long been used to address universal, cultural, and personal concerns about death (and what may or may not come next). You’ve seen how death can be addressed quite literally in artwork (as in, “Look, there’s a skull!”), and also symbolically (“What lovely flowers!–but since they are cut, they will die even- tually, as must we all”). For this discussion, first talk about your comfort level with visual symbols of death. Note if you would be okay with having a portrait of yourself made in the mode of Holbein’s The Ambassadors, with a skull lurking in anamorphosis on the floor. Would you like a calavera portrait of yourself, wearing your favorite outfit? Do you find Kane Quaye’s art coffins in bad taste or charming? Would you would want to be buried in one, and if so, what shape would you want? State whether your feelings come from your cultural background. Then, share a memento mori still-life painting, or a fantasy art coffin made by Kane Quaye or in that tradition, that you found online. Identify the artwork by title, artist, date, medium, and museum, and try to interpret the different symbolism. Search online, as needed, to understand these symbols better. Be sure to credit your source for any borrowed information. In reply to others, note your feelings about the artwork they selected, noting to what extent your background (personal and/or cultural) impacts those feelings. Building on what others have discussed, share the personal, cultural, and/or universal meanings you see in the work, and note how the work they chose compares with the artwork you selected.

THE WESTERN PATH TO ILLUSIONISM: FROM CLASSICAL TO MEDIEVAL TO RENAISSANCE Culture shapes an artist’s decisions, just as it shapes our perception of the art. Much of our attitudes about artwork in the United States have been shaped by a pivotal movement in European art history: the Italian Renaissance. Even those unfamiliar with their artwork have likely heard the names of a few of the Renaissance masters, thanks in part to the lingering popularity of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Michelangelo, Donatello, Raphael, and DaVinci. Their illusionistic paintings and sculptures defined “good art” for the Western world. Now, more than five hundred years later, we still tend to credit illusionistic art for being “more real,” demonstrating more skill and carrying deeper meaning than abstraction. Figures 1.14a through c show a 1,500-year arc of Italian art history in a nutshell. The first image, figure 1.14a, shows the dominant style of theclassical Greek and ancient Roman world (see European art timeline, appendix, figure ).2 In ancient Greece around 400 BCE, illusionism reigned supreme. Gods were depicted in human form—perfectly proportioned, beautifully unblemished, and also corporeal—solid, tangible, and real. The ancient Roman civilization, which absorbed the Greek culture (and many others) as it grew to an enormous empire, continued the Greek tradition of illusionistic art making. Figure 1.14a is a detail of a panel decorating a Roman altar—an entire building designed for sacrifices to the gods, and for praising the successful reign of Emperor Augustus, made about two thousand years ago. An example of relief sculpture, the image of an earth goddess emerges as a sculpture protruding from the wall. She is carved in high relief—her head extended outward from thebackground most of

FIGURE 1.14A Detail of the east FIGURE 1.14B Sarcophagus with Virgin FIGURE 1.14C Michelan- side of the Altar of Augustan Peace, and Child and the Arms of the Sanguinac- gelo, Madonna and Child, known as the Tellus Panel. ci Family, North Italian, late 1200s to early 1501–04. Marble. Church of 1300s. Verona red limestone. Metropoli- Our Lady, Bruges. Fig. 1.14B: Copyright © by Pharos (CC 2.5) BY at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:WLA_metmuseum_Virgin_and_Child_in_Majesty_1150_2.jpg. Fig. 1.14C: Copyright © Michelangelo; photo by Saiko (CC 3.0) BY-SA at https://com mons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chiesa_di_nostra_signora,_bruges,_int.,_madonna_di_bru tan Museum of Art. ges_03.JPG.

all, so that viewers standing below could easily see her features. She holds two well-fed babies in her arms, possibly a reference to the twin ancestors of Roman lore (Romulus and Remus). Though also made in Italy, the sculpture shown in figure 1.14b is fundamentally different in style from its Roman predecessor. This is a detailed view of a sarcophagus, with the imagery carved in low relief. Such ancient stone coffins were typically made for wealthy, high-status patrons and placed where they could be viewed rather than buried in dirt. Like most funerary art, sarcophagi were designed to reflect the beliefs of the person buried within. The mother shown here is Mary, also known as the Virgin or the Madonna, believed by Christians to be the mother of God’s son (called Jesus or Christ). The Roman world adopted Christianity as the official religion in the 300s, a fundamental policy shift toward a new state-sponsored belief system, accompanied by a major a shift in geopolitics. The political center of the Roman Empire was now 850 miles to the east, in present-day Istanbul; meanwhile, so-called barbarian tribes, including the Huns, Goths, and Vikings, were pushing into the old Roman territory in the west—and bringing their abstract art with them. The period in Europe from the 300s to about 1400 is known as the Middle Ages, or the medieval period (“medi” means “middle,” and “eval” derives from the Latin word for “ages”). The unknown medieval artist of figure 1.14b, working around the year 1300, adeptly used abstraction to convey the highly complex abstract concepts of the Christian faith (see European art timeline, appendix, figure ).2 Mary sits on a throne in heaven, yet she is shown as in life, holding her child. The viewer sees both the human woman and the sainted mother of God in one artwork—her body position tells us she is seated, yet the cushion of the throne seems completely untouched by her weight. Also paradoxical is the child, who is both human and god, both accepting prayers in heaven, and offering blessings—symbolized by his two raised fingers—to the faithful, who have come before this sarcophagus to pray for the deceased. From the medieval Christian perspective, Christ is at once the eternal child, a picture of innocence and gentleness; an adult man, risen from the dead; and an eternal king, ruling heaven next to his godly father. The cross in the halo surrounding Christ’s head, together with his adult-like solemnity and posture, bring together all these simultaneous, supernatural identities in one figure. The artist of figure 1.14c is none other than the Italian Renaissance master, Michelangelo. The subject itself has not changed from the medieval relief, yet now we see a clear return to the illusionistic style of the Classical world. This

Chapter 01: Art and Culture 13 freestanding sculpture shows every fold in Mary’s robes, and Jesus appears just as cherub-like as the two babies in the Roman earth goddess’s arms. Indeed, the face of this Renaissance Mary could be that of a Greco-Roman goddess—quite different from the mask-like features of the medieval Mary. Most Christian viewers today would find Michelangelo’s version much more familiar, even though only two hundred years separate figures 1.14b and c. Yet to the medieval viewer, Michelangelo’s Mary would have seemed sadly demoted, reduced to just a woman (though a lovely one). The figure of Jesus would unnerve rather than console—how could this squirming baby answer prayers, let alone wield the power to save a soul? Not all artwork in the Middle Ages was as abstract as figure 1.14b; some illusionistic characteristics of the Classical era continued to appear in medieval sculpture and painting. However, the fundamental differences between figures 1.14b and c show that, clearly, something happened between 1300 and 1500 to propel this return to illusionism—and set the course for European art for centuries to follow. One of the main catalysts was the rise of a new class of merchants, whose power lay in newfound economic status, as well as family ties to kings and popes. This merchant class profited from the ever-expanding trade of precious goods and commodities (silks, spices, slave labor)—which began to take on global proportions with advancements in naval technology, weaponry, and cartography. These new patrons of the arts were less inclined to embrace the medieval view of humanity as frail, flawed, and puny in the face of the Almighty. Rather, these economically and politically powerful patrons grounded their religious convictions in a humanist worldview. As religious humanists, they saw themselves as made in God’s image and favored with godly gifts of intellect and righteousness. From this perspective, they were not only authorized but compelled to explore (and exploit) the world that God had so graciously provided them.5 During the Middle Ages, Italian artists did not “forget” about Roman art (how could they, when it was half-buried all around them?). Their rejection of the illusionistic Roman style was a cultural choice. Conversely, Italian Renaissance cultural values prompted a resurgent desire to embrace Greek and Roman art and philosophy, which better fit the religious humanist mind-set. Called rinascimento in Italian, the word “renaissance” is French for “rebirth,” referring to the renewed interest in the Classical world and its emphasis on strong, worldly figures. Medieval art was thoroughly, and deliberately, rejected. To the artists of the Italian Renaissance, the art of the Middle Ages lacked any redeeming features. Indeed, in order for art to be “reborn” in the age of Michelangelo, abstraction had to die. This worldview echoes today; though they may not be consciously aware of the cultural influences of the Italian Renaissance, viewers still tend to measure art by its fidelity to nature and equate goodness with illusionism.

REALISM VERSUS REALITY: ILLUSIONISTIC ART AND DECEIVING TRUTHS At first glance, illusionistic art may seem easier to understand, or appear more direct in its meaning. In contrast, some viewers approach abstraction with caution and assume the meaning of abstract art must be intentionally hidden or incomprehensible. However, both illusionistic and abstract art can enter symbolic territory, where only those well versed in the artist’s culture can “read the signs” and interpret the artist’s intended meaning. Further, artists can use illusionism to manipulate the viewer and offer a convincing illusion of things that are not true. The double portrait shown in figure 1.15a was painted in 1434 by Jan van Eyck, a well-known artist working in Flanders. Today Flanders is part of Belgium, in Northern Europe. The wedding portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and

5 One cannot overlook the bitter and obvious irony of professed humanists denying the humanity of others for the sake of profit and power.

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History 14 his bride Giovanna Cenami looks rather naturalistic. Objects are - not only recognizable but look so detailed that you could reach out and touch them. Notice the shining polish on the candelabra and the soft, tactile folds of Giovanna’s gown. Like The Ambassadors, this work was made during the Renais- sance in Northern Europe; in the Northern Renaissance, the medieval preference for little hidden symbols continued to be popular long after such “Easter eggs” were rejected by Italian artists as “too medieval” (see European art timeline, appendix, figure ).2 For example, in the Arnolfini Portrait, note the small, succulent fruit near the window. On the most literal level, they may suggest the outdoors or sweetness. However, these fruits also carry symbolic meaning, suggesting a fruitful marriage with thriving offspring. Many of the symbols appearing in this work may still be easily “read” today. Fur is still considered a luxury item in today’s society, so the meaning of Giovanna’s fur-trimmed cloak is clear to us. Dogs have long represented faithfulness, and the little dog in the foreground (“front” area) of the painting symbolizes the same. Note that the breed of dog (a “toy,” clearly not meant for hunting or other practical labor) suggests luxury as well. The meaning of symbols— —is directly related nolfini_Portrait.jpg, 1434. iconography http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Van_Eyck_-_Ar Portrait,” “Arnolfini Eyck, van Jan to the culture’s values and belief systems. Art historians apply their knowledge about a culture to such symbols to find deeper FIGURE 1.15A Jan Van Eyck, Arnolfini Por- meanings. In studying the iconography of a work of art, one must trait (Giovani Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami), be careful not to confuse one’s own cultural expectations with 1434. National Gallery, London, England. 32.4 × 23.6 inches. Oil on oak panel. those of the original artist. Note that several symbols in this painting do not immediately translate to the modern viewer. Giovanna’s pale skin, delicate hands, and shaved hairline might say “unhealthy” or “bizarre” today—but in the Northern Renaissance, all three attributes (characteristics or accessories) suggested a well-to-do lady. Were Giovanna’s hands really so small? Was she really so pale? Remember that the artist, Jan van Eyck, wants to show you his version of reality—his culture’s definition of the perfect upper-class lady. According to Northern Renaissance culture, pale skin was the sign of a leisurely life; only working women (the lower class) labored outside under the tanning rays of the sun. The delicate hands would symbolize how other people would do the hard work for her. The shaved hairline was considered elegant and regal. Most curious to modern viewers is the lady’s apparent pregnant form. Look carefully; the lady has folded and bundled her robe in front of her abdomen to give herself a pregnant silhouette. The lady is not yet pregnant—but she is signaling her desire to Jan van Eyck, “Arnolfini Portrait(detail, the little http:// dog),” commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfini_Portrait. jpg, 1434. produce children for Giovanni once they are wed. Her position by the bed reaffirms her traditional role in society; he stands, FIGURE 1.15B The little dog, a sign of fidelity in contrast, by the window. He is a merchant, an international and wealth.

Chapter 01: Art and Culture 15 - - Jan van Eyck, “Arnolfini Portrait(detail, dainty hands),” http://com mons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfini_Portrait.jpg,1434. Jan van Eyck, “Arnolfini Portrait(detail, figures reflected in the convex http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfi mirror),” ni_Portrait.jpg, 1434.

Dainty hands, pale skin, symbol- FIGURE 1.15C FIGURE 1.15D Figures reflected in the convex izing wealth. mirror. - businessman; the message here is that her world is domestic— his is the much wider world. The bulk of the symbolism in this painting is actually religious. The culture represented here is Christian; the floor is decorated with Old Testament scenes, and the convex mirror on the wall is surrounded by New Testament images of Christ. This culture viewed the marriage union as a sacred and binding religious contract—as well as a socially approved business

Jan van Eyck, “Arnolfini Portrait(detail, http://commons. signature),” artist’s the wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Van_Eyck_-_Ar nolfini_Portrait.jpg, 1434. The artist’s signature. FIGURE 1.15E arrangement between her family and his. The single lit candle in the chandelier symbolizes the presence of God. Arnolfini’s shoes (a rather spiffy pair of clogs, called pattens, in the left corner) have been removed, symbolizing respect for this sanctified space. Finally, two figures (reflected in the mirror) seem to stand as witnesses to make the union official. Jan van Eyck’s signature (“Jan van Eyck was here”) confirms more than just his status as the painter; it also seems to suggest his presence as witness to the event (perhaps he is one of the two “guests” in the mirror?). By studying a culture, we can begin to read the symbols in that culture’s artwork. However, just because we can “read the signs” does not automatically mean that we “know the truth”! Again, we must be careful not to confuse an illusionistic style with reality—no matter how “realistically” convincing the artwork might appear. The French term trompe l’oeil (pronounced “trump-LOY”) captures this idea—the art “fools the eye” but not the mind. Jan van Eyck may have already been dead for several years when these two “tied the knot.” This may not be a wedding portrait at all, but rather a betrothal—a promise to marry in the future. Supporting this theory, scholar Edwin Hall points out Giovanni’s gestures: One hand is raised as though in blessing, and the other is taking Giovanna’s hand into his own. Known wedding images of this time show couples shaking hands firmly; here, Giovanni’s hands seem to be saying that he is accepting a promise rather than joining a binding union. Perhaps the future Mrs. Arnolfini was still living in Italy with her parents (the ones who arranged the marriage) when Van Eyck painted this work and only Mr. Arnolfini

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History 16 was available for a sitting; this would explain why Giovanna has generic, doll-like features while Giovanni has such a distinctive face. To make large paintings such as this one required an extensive investment in materials and the labor of an entire workshop. Oil paintings in the 1400s required a well-prepared wooden support; hand-ground, semi-precious pigments mixed with linseed oil; and countless layers of translucent glazes—with the earliest, most basic layers applied by assistants, rather than the master, to cut down on time and expense. Whatever the momentous occasion it was meant to document (betrothal or marriage), this painting was undoubtedly pricey, and the artist’s primary consideration was to serve the interests of its patron—the one who paid for it. It is Giovanni’s reality, as he wished to define it. Of course, things do not always turn out as we wish. In spite of the many references here to a fruitful marriage, document evi- dence suggests that either the two had no children or had no surviving heirs. Alas, the symbol of fidelity (faithfulness) embodied by the little dog didn’t pan out either:

We do have records of Giovanni having an extra-marital affair. In 1470, thus late in Giovanni’s life, a woman took him to court to have returned to her jewelry he had given her. She also sought a pension and several houses that she had been promised.6

Jan van Eyck would never include a symbol of infidelity in his painting—or even hint such a thing was possible—any more than he’d allow all his workshop employees to sign the painting. Art will always be a manipulation of reality, driven by the personal and cultural concerns of the artist and the patron. Even when “real life” is the model and the artist seeks to be as faithful as possible, they must necessarily omit some things. Therefore, do not look to art for “realism.” As no artwork can fully reproduce reality, we know that illusionistic art is lying to us! Paradoxically, once you stop looking to art for the truth, that is when art can be fully understood and appreciated for what it does do. As contemporary artist Felipe Dulzaides once said, “[Art] is a trick—but it’s an honest trick.”7

6 Dr. Alan Farber, “Jan Van Eyck’s Arnolfini ‘Wedding’ Portrait,” Art Department, SUNY College, Oneonta, NY, http://employees. oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth200/gender/Arnolfini.html 7 Personal interview, July 11, 2009, San Francisco.

Chapter 01: Art and Culture 17 VOCABULARY IN CHAPTER 01

Words related to style are in italics. Words related to art periods or movements are in ALL CAPITAL LETTERS.

abstract, abstracted, abstraction: Style in which details are eliminated or distorted from the object on which the image is based

attribute: Accessory, object, or motif associated with a person

background: Space that appears farthest from the viewer, in the “back” of the picture

classical: Related to the ancient Greek and Roman eras

corporeal: Appearing to have a solid body, physical presence; a characteristic of illusionistic figures in art

earthwork: Artwork dependent on the natural environment (built on, in, or from a landscape)

focal point: A principle of design in which an element is made to stand out in some way and grab the viewer’s attention

foreground: The space toward the “front” of a picture

freestanding sculpture: Sculpture that stands clear of a wall or other vertical support

high-relief sculpture: A relief sculpture that pops out from a vertical support, suggesting a deep, three-dimensional space

iconography: Study of signs and symbols and their meaning

illusionistic: Style giving the illusion of a three-dimensional reality, as seen in the natural world

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE: Period in 1400s–1500s Italy following the Middle Ages

low-relief sculpture: A relief sculpture that emerges only slightly from a vertical support, suggesting a shallow three-dimensional space; also known as bas-relief

MEDIEVAL: Related to the Middle Ages (in this chapter, refers specifically the European Middle Ages)

memento mori: Reminder of death

naturalistic: Style giving the illusion of the natural world

NORTHERN RENAISSANCE: Period of 1400s–1500s Europe following the Middle Ages in Northern Europe

relief sculpture: Sculpture that is attached to a wall or other vertical support

APPROACHES TO ART: A New Introduction to Art History 18 stylized: Style featuring simplified forms; abstract trompe l’oeil: French phrase meaning “to fool the eye”; having exceptionally illusionistic space

Chapter 01: Art and Culture 19