The Cultural Heritage of Architectural Linear Perspective: the Mural Paintings in Nantang Church

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Article The Cultural Heritage of Architectural Linear Perspective: The Mural Paintings in Nantang Church

Manuel V. Castilla

Higher Polytechnic School, University of Seville, 41011 Sevilla, Spain; [email protected]

Abstract: This paper presents a contextual use of the innovative drawing techniques that involved architecture and painting in the Qing court during the first half of the eighteenth century. At this point architectural linear perspective in painting (quadratura) and stage design had become common fields of experimentation for the Chinese and Jesuit artists missionaries. In this conceptual context, Western quadratura was developed in China by Giovanni Gherardini. (1655–1729), and especially by Giuseppe Castiglione (1688–1766), who is remembered as an extraordinarily versatile architect–painter. The focus of this paper is on the “illusory mural paintings of architectural perspective in Nantang Church” (Beijing), which has now disappeared, and which spread the influence of the Western Renaissance. The imported Western linear perspective and the fundamentals of architectural drawing facilitated the systematization and dissemination of the quadratura as an unknown technique in China. Based on the text described by the contemporary scholar Yao Yuan Zhi, an original interpretation of the architectural perspective mural paintings in Nantang Church is proposed. These paintings provide an important case study of Sino-European collaboration in the eighteenth century from different points of view: the representation of the light in drawings and the fact that the concept of shadow in some respects was unknown to the Chinese artist. Keywords: cultural heritage; quadrature; linear perspective; architectural painting Citation: Castilla, M.V. The Cultural Heritage of Architectural Linear Perspective: The Mural Paintings in Nantang Church. Heritage 2021, 4, 1773–1785. https://doi.org/10.3390/ 1. Introduction heritage4030099 In order to understand the dynamic of the linear mathematical perspective transmission process to East Asia and its application to architectural painting, there is a need to Academic Editor: Nicola Masini start with some important antecedents. According to Rossi, “a rich bibliography includes research on its mathematical essence, the role it has played in the representation and history Received: 25 June 2021 of architecture, its use in theatres and the various projective applications to measurement Accepted: 10 August 2021 and representation of surfaces” [1,2]. As a scientific topic in general, perspective tradition- Published: 13 August 2021 ally involves various disciplines that are easily distinguished by the specific nature of their approaches. Art history, architecture, mathematics, descriptive geometry, drawing, stage Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral design and other more technical fields of knowledge have applied geometric principles to with regard to jurisdictional claims in the solution of practical problems [1] (p. 578). The architectural perspective, culminating in published maps and institutional affil- the technique of quadratura, appeared to be exclusive to Italy and was very widespread iations. between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries [3,4]. The term architectural perspective or quadratura refers to the set of perspective constructions realised on wall and ceiling surfaces to simulate diverse spaces thanks to the possibility of measuring and representing depth of space in an illusory way [3,5] (p. 23). Copyright: © 2021 by the author. In the seventeenth century, the mathematician Girard Desargues (1591–1661) devel- Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. oped the basic concept of the principle of projection and section view proposed by the This article is an open access article Renaissance artists. In 1636, this scientist derived his famous “perspective theorem,” which distributed under the terms and states: “When two triangles are in perspective, the points where the corresponding sides conditions of the Creative Commons meet are collinear.” Desargues’ most important work Brouillon projet d’une atteinte aux Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// événemens des rencontres d0une cône avec un plan (proposed draft for an essay on the results of creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ taking plane sections of a cone) was printed in 1639, where Desargues presented innovations 4.0/).

Heritage 2021, 4, 1773–1785. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030099 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 2

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of taking plane sections of a cone) was printed in 1639, where Desargues presented innovations in projectivein projective geometry geometry applied appliedto the th toeory the theoryof conic of sections. conic sections. With this With work this workhe he founded founded the usethe of use projective of projective methods methods in geometry, in geometry, inspired inspired by the theory by the of theory perspective of perspective in art. in art. Additionally,Additionally, the Italian the Jesuit Italian Andrea Jesuit AndreaPozzo (Appendix Pozzo (Appendix A, A1) (1642–1709)A, A1) (1642–1709) pub- published lished Perspectiva,Perspectiva, Pictorum Pictorum et Arquitectorum et Arquitectorum betweenbetween 1693 and 1693 1698, and which 1698, argued which arguedfor per- for perspective spective drawingsdrawings based basedon the on two the orthogonal two orthogonal projections projections of an object. of an object. The first The volume ﬁrst volume became became the mostthe widely most widely published published and translat and translateded treatise treatise on perspective on perspective written written to date to date in 1693. At in 1693. At thethe end end of ofthe the first ﬁrst volume, volume, Pozzo Pozzo included included an an answer inin responseresponse to to those those who advocated who advocatedthe the use use of of multiple multiple viewpointsviewpoints within a perspective perspective illusion. illusion. For For the the most most part, Pozzo part, Pozzo employedemployed a sing a singlele point point of ofview view in inhis his quadraturaquadratura worksworks (Figure (Figure 1a,b).1a,b).

(a) (b)

Figure 1. (a)Figure Andrea 1. Pozzo.(a) Andrea Perspectiva, Pozzo. Perspectiva, Pictorum et Pictorum Arquitectorum. et Arquitectorum. London, ca 1707.London, Public ca domain;1707. Public (b) Andreado- Pozzo. Perspectiva,main; Pictorum (b) Andrea et Arquitectorum. Pozzo. Perspectiva, London, Pictorum ca 1707.Public et Arquitectorum. domain. London, ca 1707. Public domain.

On the other Onhand, the other“the mathematicia hand, “the mathematiciann Brook Taylor Brook (1685–1731) Taylor (1685–1731) made break- made breakthroughs throughs in thein development the development of perspective of perspective drawing. drawing. In 1715 Inhe 1715published he published On the Princi-On the Principles of ples of Linear PerspectiveLinear Perspective. Also, Johann. Also, Heinrich Johann Heinrich Lambert Lambert (1728–1777) (1728–1777) was one wasof the one great of the great math- mathematiciansematicians in eighteenth in eighteenth century. La century.mbert diagrammatized Lambert diagrammatized a few important a few issues important issues of of elementary elementarygeometry based geometry on perspectiv based on perspectivee principles principlesand drew and perspective drew perspective with the with the center center of projectionof projection at infinity at infinity according according to the toproperty the property of affini ofty affinity correspondence” correspondence” [6] [6] (p. 108). (p. 108). 2. Development of Graphic Drawings in the Late Ming Dynasty and the Early Qing Dynasty 2. Development of Graphic Drawings in the Late Ming Dynasty and the Early Qing The role of China in the historical development of graphics declined during the Dynasty Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) dynasties. In these periods, various European The role ofmissionaries China in the came historical to China development and used of the graphics Western declined perspective. during The the painters Ming among these (1368–1644) andmissionaries Qing (1644–1911) applied dynasties. the focus In perspective these periods, in drawing various European by furthering mission- the landscape and aries came to Chinastrong and stereo used feelings, the Western which pe attractedrspective. the The attention painters of among the scholars these ofmission- pictorial works of the aries applied theQing focus dynasty. perspective These scholarsin drawin absorbedg by furthering the theories the andlandscape techniques and ofstrong western drawings stereo feelings,and which paintings attracted and the disseminated attention of them.the scholars Thus, of Nian pictorial Xiyao works (?–1738), of the high Qing Commissioner of dynasty. Thesethe scholars Ministry absorbed of Works the during theori Yongzheng’ses and techniques reign (1678–1735)of western drawings became a collaboratorand of the paintings and Jesuitdisseminated missionary them G.. Thus, Castiglione. Nian Xiyao Nian (?–1738), Xiyao compiled high Commissioner and published of the his book Shi Xue Ministry of Works(Appendix duringA ,Yongzheng’s A2), ( Study of reig Visionn (1678–1735)), which illustrated became the a collaborator basics of illusionist of the paintings and Jesuit missionaryarchitectural G. Castiglione. techniques Nian onXiyao perspective compiled drawings and published [7]. The his publication book Shi ofXue the two versions (Appendix A, ofA2),Shi (Study Xue can of beVision recognized), which asillustrated “excellent the work basics and of the illusionist first of itspaintings kind in the history of and architecturalgraphics techniques in China” on perspective [6] (pp. 108–120). drawings Nian [7]. specificallyThe publication acknowledged of the two Castiglionever- for his sions of Shi Xuecontinuing can be recognized instruction as “excellent in the art of work the Europeanand the first linear of its perspective. kind in the Nianhistory adapted Pozzo’s of graphics in designsChina” [6] for (pp. a trompe 108–120). l’oeil Nian cupola, specifically although acknowledged in the process Castiglione of copying, for the details were his continuinggreatly instruction simplified in the and art manyof the elements European were linear combined perspective. or eliminated Nian adapted (Figure 2a,b) [8]. Pozzo’s designs forWhen a trompe Jesuit l’oeil missionaries cupola, alth travelledough in tothe China, process they of carriedcopying, with the themdetails some indispens- were greatly simplifiedable tools. and These many tools elements were constituted were combined on two bases:or eliminated firstly, the (Figure missionary 2a,b) illusion and in [8]. second place, the resources available in the Western culture to establish the inculturation through the sciences and the arts [9] (pp. 43–57). The linear perspective makes it possible to not only to represent our perception of space on drawings, but also to achieve new spatial

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Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 3 effects on the whole decoration of the painting. These effects lead us to perceive not the actual spatial reality, but a totally ﬁctitious reality created by the illusion of perspective.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 2.2. ((aa)) AndreaAndrea Pozzo.Pozzo. “A“A CupolaCupola inin HorizontalHorizontal Perspective”.Perspective”. PerspectivePerspective inin ArchitectureArchitecture andand Painting,Painting, London,London, caca 1707.1707. PublicPublic domain;domain; ( b(b)) Nian Nian Xiyao. Xiyao. Page Page from fromShixue Shixue, 1735, 1735 taken taken from from Andrea Andrea Pozzo’s Pozzo’sPerspectiva Perspectiva Pictorum Pictorum et Arquitectorum et Arquitec-. Universitytorum. University of Glasgow, of Glasgow, Special Spec Collection.ial Collection. Public domain.Public domain.

TheWhen Italian Jesuit Giovanni missionaries Gherardini travelled (1655–ca. to China, 1729)they carried was among with them the first some painters indispen- in Chinasable tools. to introduce These tools these were perspective constituted techniques on two [bases:10] (pp. firstly, 117–118, the missionary 298–299) at illusion the court and of Kangxiin second (r. place, 1662–1723). the resources Before him,available the mathematician in the Western culture Ludovico to establish Buglio (Chinese the inculturation name Li Leisi)through (1606–1682) the sciences delighted and the the arts emperor [9] (pp. Kangxi43–57). withThe linear paintings perspective completed makes in perspective it possible andto not taught only theto represent technique our to Chineseperception artists. of space Gherardini on drawings, was in but charge also ofto anachieve important new linealspatial perspective effects on the painting whole schooldecoration at the of Emperor’s the painting. court. These This effects technique lead isus alsoto perceive known asnot “ quadratura”the actual spatial[11] of reality, which but the a Jesuit totally artists fictitious had reality a relevant created knowledge. by the illusion In this of sense, per- Gherardini’sspective. references to the “quadratura” style were based not only on the paintings of A. PozzoThe butItalian also Giovanni on those ofGherardini the two highly (1655–ca. experienced 1729) was masters among M. Colonnathe first (1604–1687)painters in andChina A. to Mitelli introduce (1609–1660). these perspective techniques [10] (pp. 117–118, 298–299) at the court of KangxiThe (r. pictorial 1662–1723).quadraturista Before him,illusionism the mathem of Gherardiniatician Ludovico enchanted Buglio the Chinese(Chinese courtiers name Li despiteLeisi) (1606–1682) the vast differences delighted the between emperor the Kangxi Chinese with and paintings European completed styles of in painting perspective [11]. However,and taught Gherardini the technique left Beijingto Chinese unexpectedly artists. Gherardini in 1704 due was to in the charge decision of an to important return to Europe.lineal perspective After his painting departure, school the arrivalat the Emperor’s of the Italian court. Jesuit This architect–painter technique is also Giuseppeknown as Castiglione“quadratura” (1688–1766) [11] of which (Appendix the JesuitA, artists A3) in had 1715 a allowedrelevant Emperor knowledge. Kangxi In this to maintain sense, Gher- the quadraturaardini’s referencesworks at to court. the “ Asquadratura a consequence,” style Kangxiwere based finally not boasted only on a Europeanthe paintings painter of A. of significantPozzo but also importance, on those and of the this two had highly a considerable experienced impact masters on the M. court’s Colonna preference (1604–1687) for overand A. half Mitelli a century. (1609–1660). The Jesuit artist became known in Chinese as Lang Shining. His great abilityThe as pictorial a painter quadraturista allowed him illusionism a magnificent of Gherardini personal and enchanted professional the Chinese relationship courtiers with Emperorsdespite the Kangxi, vast differences Yongzheng, between and Qianlong. the Chin It wasese and Qianlong European in particular styles of who painting discovered [11]. hisHowever, extraordinary Gherardini ability left for Beijing portrait unexpectedly and architectural in 1704 painting, due to asthe well decision as in architecture. to return to Europe.During After the his Qianlong departure, era, the Giuseppe arrival of Castiglione the Italian (Lang Jesuit Shining) architect–painter and J. Denis Giuseppe Attiret (ChineseCastiglione name (1688–1766) Wang Zhi-Cheng, (Appendix (1702–1768) A, A3) in 1715 [12 ]allowed (pp. 109–122)) Emperor were Kangxi responsible to maintain for quadratura teachingthe quadratura oil painting, works linearat court. perspective, As a consequence, and Kangxiin the finally court boasted Academy a European [13]. The enormous attraction aroused by the illusionistic painting explains why it was applied in painter of significant importance, and this had a considerable impact on the court’s pref- interior decorations. It is known that this effect is emphasised where walls and ceilings erence for over half a century. The Jesuit artist became known in Chinese as Lang Shining. appear as though the space is open from the inside towards infinity. Obviously, the idea His great ability as a painter allowed him a magnificent personal and professional rela- of using walls for supporting the rendering scenes is as old as art itself [14] (pp. 585–598). tionship with Emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong. It was Qianlong in particular Thus, the Jesuit artists imported the novelty of using mural painting as a new technique who discovered his extraordinary ability for portrait and architectural painting, as well as from the West. These plaster surfaces were very suitable for painting scenes on the walls in architecture. in churches and palaces, producing a “trompe l’oeil” effect on the viewer. The purpose of During the Qianlong era, Giuseppe Castiglione (Lang Shining) and J. Denis Attiret this effect was to create the belief that such wall and ceiling surfaces were not present but (Chinese name Wang Zhi-Cheng, (1702–1768) [12] (pp. 109–122)) were responsible for opened in a misleading way to infinity. teaching oil painting, linear perspective, and quadratura in the court Academy [13]. The Thanks to Qianlong’s sponsorship, the Chinese and European artists of the court were enormous attraction aroused by the illusionistic painting explains why it was applied in able to innovate a new style of painting. To achieve this, the artists combined Renaissance interior decorations. It is known that this effect is emphasised where walls and ceilings appear as though the space is open from the inside towards infinity. Obviously, the idea of using walls for supporting the rendering scenes is as old as art itself [14] (pp. 585–598).

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perspective techniques with Chinese themes and materials. This produced the appearance, for the first time, of the illusionist life-size. Castiglione employed many baroque stylistic tricks to increase the efficacy of his message including perspective, a discipline of which he was an expert. Through this technique, Castiglione’s mural paintings demonstrate that his motivation and expertise were quite surprising involving the Renaissance perspective, which represented the key and the secret of the geometrical knowledge of Castiglione. Naturally, quadratura was not limited to the mural technique mentioned above. There was a tradition of paintings also on canvas in large formats. However, all pictorial works, regardless of the technique and format, had a common denominator, which was the study of light and its effects. Nevertheless, these effects were not exclusively artistic, but in most cases had a vigorous symbolic character. It is necessary to highlight that the appearance of two-dimensional paintings with a three-dimensional appearance on ceilings, walls, and vaults pre-supposed two constraints: the importance of the viewer’s position related to the work and secondly the symbolic dimension. Both characteristics occurred in this disappeared heritage. Consequently, the viewer’s position at a certain point and the environment are essential to the location inside or outside the illusion [15] (p. 214). A second constraint is the symbolic dimension, which was presupposed in Jesuit artists’ paintings. It was an essential tool in the process of inculturation. In this sense, G. Castiglione used the linear perspective, not only as a technique that charmed Emperor Qianlong, but also as a powerful instrument for missionary activity. It must be noted that the main points of contact for potential converts to Western culture were in the four Catholic churches in Beijing. They housed European missionaries and were the centre of the diffusion of science and religion [16] (pp. 18–22). The dual role of Castiglione, the Jesuit lay brother and the Qing imperial painter–architect [17] (pp. 45–59), was definitely a perfect duality for inculturation. The missionary methodology was taken to an extreme and initiated by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci (Chinese name Li Madou) (1552–1610) [18] who emulated the values of court literati and officials to gain more converts among the Chinese elite. His methods had a powerful influence over his successors at the Jesuit mission in China during the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) dynasties. Sciences, technology, and arts, particularly architecture and painting, culminated in a period of splendour that would not easily be surpassed. The apex of Qing Imperial power witnessed the most active and productive period in the architecture and painting fields during the eighteenth century. The interest of the Emperor in Western art and his gratitude for the artistic work carried out by Giuseppe Castiglione made all Jesuits welcome in his court. Marco Musillo reminds us: On this basis I shall then show that Castiglione’s artistic process of translation involved a system of dynamic, always shifting points of connection. These points of connection gave Castiglione the opportunity to bring his European professional training to bear on his new Chinese artistic environment and, in response to this; he developed an artistic idiom which was much more than just a Sino-European hybrid, [19] (p. 9). As an architect, G. Castiglione was a pioneer in the implementation and execution of a monumental architectural project, which materialized in the construction and interior decoration of the European Palaces at the Garden of Perfect Brightness (Yuan Ming Yuan) in Beijing. This cultural heritage was destroyed by Anglo-French troops in 1860. The Jesuit’s projective dimension, as a symbol of the extraordinary influence on Western architecture, had such significance that it would be analysed in future works. Susan Naquin reminds us that: “Today, he is written about as a man who fused Western and Chinese artistic elements to establish a distinctive high Qing court style” [20] (p. 393). Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 5

in Beijing. This cultural heritage was destroyed by Anglo-French troops in 1860. The Jes- uit’s projective dimension, as a symbol of the extraordinary influence on Western architecture, had such significance that it would be analysed in future works. Susan Naquin reminds us that: “Today, he is written about as a man who fused West- ern and Chinese artistic elements to establish a distinctive high Qing court style” [20] (p. Heritage 2021, 4 1777 393).

3.3. CaseCase Study.Study. IllusoryIllusory MuralMural Paintings:Paintings: “If“If YouYou TouchTouch It, It, You You Will Will Suddenly Suddenly Find Find It It a aWall” Wall” ThisThis researchresearch focusesfocuses onon twotwo perspectiveperspective drawingsdrawings thatthat YaoYao Yuanzhi’sYuanzhi’s description description locateslocates inin NantangNantang ChurchChurch datingdating fromfrom thethe eighteentheighteenth century.century. ThisThis paperpaper presentspresents thethe author’sauthor’s interpretationinterpretation ofof thethe culturalcultural heritageheritage ofof thethe twotwo paintingspaintings inin linear linear perspective perspective andand anan approximatedapproximated analysisanalysis ofof thesethese twotwo drawingsdrawings toto determinedetermine thethe accuracyaccuracy ofof thethe geometricalgeometrical representation.representation. InIn Beijing, Beijing, the the organisation organisation of of the the four four Catholic Catholic churches churches depended depended on the on missionariesthe mission- andaries the and churches the churches were thewere centre the ofcentre Western of Wes arttern and art religion and religion dissemination. dissemination. It is worth It is mentioningworth mentioning the strong the culturalstrong cultural shock caused shock bycaused the illusionistic by the illusionistic paintings paintings on viewers on view- who visiteders who the visited churches the churches for the ﬁrst for time the first as described time as described by Yao Yuan by Yao Zhi (1773–1852).Yuan Zhi (1773–1852). This was mainlyThis was because mainly of because the different of the Asian different mind-set Asian for mind-set the drawing for the of drawing old painting of old traditions. painting Consequently,traditions. Consequently, this was discovered this was discovered thanks to the thanks European to the illusionistic European illusionistic techniques tech- that introducedniques that aintroduced painting genre a painting that wasgenre integrated that was intointegrated real architecture. into real architecture. Therefore, There- with thefore, transmission with the transmission of these Western of these artistic Western traditions artistic traditions to the East to by the Jesuit East by missionaries, Jesuit mis- newsionaries, paintings new werepaintings widely were accepted, widely andaccepted, above and all, above this was all, because this was they because contained they con- an importanttained an important element: the element: shadow .the shadow. TheThe best-knownbest-known ofof thethe fourfour churcheschurches waswas NantangNantang ChurchChurch (Figure(Figure3 ),3), which which was was of of historichistoric heritage heritage in in imperial imperial China. China. It wasIt was important important for for the the functioning functioning of the of mission,the mission, but alsobut foralso its for architecture its architecture and interiorand interior decorative decorative art. This art. transformedThis transformed it into it ainto masterpiece a master- ofpiece Jesuit of artJesuit in theart East.in the East.

Figure 3. Exterior of Nantang Church. Project of Fernando Buenaventura Moggi (1776). Overseas Figure 3. Exterior of Nantang Church. Project of Fernando Buenaventura Moggi (1776). Overseas HistoricalHistorical ArchiveArchive ofof Lisboa. Lisboa. PublicPublic Domain.Domain. According to the written sources, primarily from Ricci’s diary, the beginnings of this According to the written sources, primarily from Ricci’s diary, the beginnings of this church can be traced to a small chapel (1605). The church was not the artistic invention church can be traced to a small chapel (1605). The church was not the artistic invention of of its initial builder Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) but was mainly the result of gradually com- its initial builder Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) but was mainly the result of gradually completed reconstructions and renovations. In 1652 Nantang Church underwent an important pleted reconstructions and renovations. In 1652 Nantang Church underwent an important architectural modification and was monumentally enlarged by the German Jesuit, Johann architectural modification and was monumentally enlarged by the German Jesuit, Johann Schall von Bell (1592–1666). From 1690 and between 1703 and 1711 Nantang received significant architectural renewals and transformations [21] (p. 1). It is noteworthy that the Japanese Mikinosuke Ishida found a Chinese text about the paintings of Castiglione in Nantang [22] (pp. 102–106), which describes its interior decoration in great detail. Based on the existence of this little-known specific source as regards Nantang Church, one may conclude with the performance of Lang Shining in Nantang. Thus, Susan Nanquin writes: Heritage 2021, 4 1778

Ishida’s thorough research and command of the existing secondary sources in many languages not only surveyed the Jesuit’s life but attempted a complete list of the growing number of known works [20] (p. 400). Furthermore, a mention of these sources is made in [19] (p. 124): Mikinosuke Ishida has discovered further evidence from certain Chinese sources about the Nan Tang (Southern Church) of the Portuguese residence. For this church Castiglione made two canvases and two mural paintings. The mural works were on the east and west walls. They are described in the Zhuyeting zaji by the contemporary scholar Yao, Yuanzhi. The murals on the East and West walls were intricately described by Yao Yuanzhi, [22]. In accordance with these sources, the existence of a false dome and four illusionist mural paintings in the church can be confirmed (AppendixA, A4). It is observed in the text that the illusionistic paintings occupied the entire space of the walls of Nantang and included real objects and shapes. Castiglione’s attention to this aspect of illusionism was equal to the care dedicated to the global construction of the murals. These drawing constructions, emphasizing the effect of light and shadow with the linear perspective technique, and among others of less importance, merged into one surprising illusion. To obtain this result, it was necessary to imagine an entire three- dimensional structure that set itself beyond the wall surface and that totally involved the real space. It is worth mentioning that a special feature of these paintings was their ability to activate the sense of touch of the viewer, in order to verify that what was seen was just a painting and had nothing to do with reality. Ingrid Sjöström holds that the main characteristic of the quadratura is the continuity from the false to the real architecture: [ ... ] continuity implies that the fictive and the real spatial volumes merge, and that the actual border between real and painted architecture is camouflaged or arranged in the composition so as to counteract its disruptive effect [23] (p. 15). Therefore, the merging of the work of the missionaries and art culminated in the architectural quadratura. The result was a pictorial illusory space of undoubted beauty as it can be read in the sentence of the text: “[ ... ] if you touch it, you will suddenly find it a wall”: there was a clear marriage of art and science.

4. Nantang Murals: Three-Dimensional Model Representation To achieve a correct representation of the wall paintings, the description of the text and the objects represented were first analysed. Subsequently, and using three-dimensional rendering and ray tracing technologies, the model was built with all the information to finally materialize the representations of the same two-dimensional view in linear perspective in an exact way. Three-dimensional rendering is a process that uses a computer to generate a two- dimensional image from a digital three-dimensional scene. To generate an image, specific methodologies and special software and hardware are used. Therefore, it has to be understood that three-dimensional rendering is a process. Single three-dimensional points cannot provide a global illustration of the structure of the object. Thereby, the creation of a three-dimensional object model is required to depict the formation and the real conditions of the object. In this sense, three-dimensional digitization is a complex work that consists mainly of three phases: (a) Conceptual phase that involves decisions about the technique and method to be adopted; (b) Digital recording according to the plan from the conceptual phase; (c) Simulation and data processing which involves the modelling of the digitized object through geometric data processing, texture data processing, colour etc. [24] (pp. 93–98). The model may be defined as the process through which an idea is developed, simulated, and elaborated into detailed instructions and working tools for the final materialization. Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 7 Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 7

Single three-dimensional points cannot provide a global illustration of the structure Single three-dimensional points cannot provide a global illustration of the structure of the object. Thereby, the creation of a three-dimensional object model is required to de- of the object. Thereby, the creation of a three-dimensional object model is required to depict the formation and the real conditions of the object. In this sense, three-dimensional pict the formation and the real conditions of the object. In this sense, three-dimensional digitization is a complex work that consists mainly of three phases: digitization is a complex work that consists mainly of three phases: (a) Conceptual phase that involves decisions about the technique and method to be (a) Conceptual phase that involves decisions about the technique and method to be adopted; adopted; (b) Digital recording according to the plan from the conceptual phase; (b) Digital recording according to the plan from the conceptual phase; (c) Simulation and data processing which involves the modelling of the digitized object (c) Simulation and data processing which involves the modelling of the digitized object through geometric data processing, texture data processing, colour etc. [24] (pp. 93– through geometric data processing, texture data processing, colour etc. [24] (pp. 93– 98). 98). Heritage 2021, 4 The model may be defined as the process through which an idea is developed, sim-1779 The model may be defined as the process through which an idea is developed, simulated, and elaborated into detailed instructions and working tools for the final material- ulated, and elaborated into detailed instructions and working tools for the final materialization. ization. OnOn thethe otherother hand,hand, rayray tracingtracing technologytechnology isis aa renderingrendering techniquetechnique thatthat cancan produceproduce On the other hand, ray tracing technology is a rendering technique that can produce incrediblyincredibly realistic realistic lighting lighting effects. effects. Essentially, Essentially, an an algorithm algorithm can can trace trace the paththe path of light, of light, and incredibly realistic lighting effects. Essentially, an algorithm can trace the path of light, thenand then simulate simulate the way the thatway thethat light the light interacts interacts with with the virtual the virtual objects. objects. and then simulate the way that the light interacts with the virtual objects. BasedBased onon these these technical technical considerations, considerations, the th murale mural painting painting on the on side the walls side describedwalls de- Based on these technical considerations, the mural painting on the side walls de- inscribed Yao Yuanzhi’s in Yao Yuanzhi’s text were text interpreted were interpreted and are represented and are represented in Figures in4 Figuresand5. 4 and 5. scribed in Yao Yuanzhi’s text were interpreted and are represented in Figures 4 and 5.

FigureFigure 4.4. EastEast Wall.Wall. Three-dimensionalThree-dimensional modelmodel representation.representation. Source:Source: Author.Author. Figure 4. East Wall. Three-dimensional model representation. Source: Author.

Figure 5. West Wall. Three-dimensional model representation. Source: Author.

In the text, Yuanzhi precisely described the existing number of churches in Beijing. The text focused on Nantang Church, giving no doubt that there were at least two mural paintings attributed to Castiglione, painted in the quadratura method. Nevertheless, despite the amazement of Yuanzhi about the realism of the murals and the new and unknown technique, there were other contemporary artists in the court that did not positively interpret this pictorial methodology and who saw serious ﬂaws in it. This is summarized by one of these artists (Tsou I-kuei) in these words: The Westerners are skilled in geometry, and consequently there is not the slightest mistake in their way of rendering light and shade [yang-yin] and distance (near and far). In their Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 8

Figure 5. West Wall. Three-dimensional model representation. Source: Author.

In the text, Yuanzhi precisely described the existing number of churches in Beijing. The text focused on Nantang Church, giving no doubt that there were at least two mural paintings attributed to Castiglione, painted in the quadratura method. Nevertheless, despite the amazement of Yuanzhi about the realism of the murals and the new and unknown technique, there were other contemporary artists in the court that did not positively interpret this pictorial methodology and who saw serious flaws in it. This is summarized by one of these artists (Tsou I-kuei) in these words:

Heritage 2021, 4 The Westerners are skilled in geometry, and consequently there is not the slightest mis- 1780 take in their way of rendering light and shade [yang-yin] and distance (near and far). In their paintings all the figures, buildings, and trees cast shadows, and their brush and paintingscolours are all entirely the ﬁgures, different buildings, from thos ande treesof Chinese cast shadows, painters and [25] their (p. 80). brush and colours areThis entirely particular different interpretation from those of of Chinese Western painters painting[25] by (p. some 80). of the Chinese artists was not Thisunderstood particular by interpretationthe Europeans. of WesternIt may paintinghave been by due some to of the the Chinese Chinese artistssuperiority was notgranted understood to the spiritual by the Europeans. aspect as well It may as havethe ar beentist’s due vision to theabout Chinese the realistic superiority idea grantedof space to(Figure the spiritual 2). aspect as well as the artist’s vision about the realistic idea of space (Figure2) .

5.5. FurtherFurther ConsiderationConsideration andand DiscussionDiscussion TheThe innovativeinnovative pictorial pictorial effect effect of of the the linear linea perspectiver perspective marked marked a before a before and after,and after, and itand could it could create create an optical an optical illusion illusion between betw theeen two the walls two andwalls their and pictorial their pictorial representations. represen- However,tations. However, turning theturning eyes completelythe eyes completely to the right to orthe left, right perpendicular or left, perpendicular to the wall, to thethe twowall, perspectives the two perspectives appeared appeared as a frontal as perspective,a frontal perspective, also called also a “one-point called a “one-point perspective”. per- Accordingspective”. According to Ishida, Langto Ishida, Shining Lang managed Shining managed to create to a deepcreate illusionistic a deep illusionistic architectural archi- designtectural by design making by physicalmaking physical walls disappear. walls disappear. This was This a well-known was a well-known perspective perspective of the Renaissance,of the Renaissance, one that one positioned that positioned the parallelepiped the parallelepiped volumes volumes of the architectural of the architectural painting withpainting one sidewith parallelone side to parallel the mural to the [1]. mural The sidewalls [1]. The weresidewalls perpendicular were perpendicular to it and their to it edgesand their appeared edges to appeared converge to into converge one single into vanishing one single point vanishing (Figure6 ).point The drawings(Figure 6). were The adrawings frontal perspective were a frontal drawn perspective from a station drawn point from in a frontstation of thepoint east in andfront west of the walls. east Theand prolongationwest walls. The of supposedlyprolongation perpendicular of supposedly lines perpendicular to the walls lines indicates to the thewalls location indicates of the the principallocation of point, the principal the orthogonal point, projectionthe orthogonal of the projection station point of the to station the picture point plane, to the and picture the positionplane, and of thethe horizonposition line. of the horizon line.

FigureFigure 6.6.West West Wall. Wall. Geometric Geometric model model construction. construction. Source: Source: Author. Author.

TheThe integrationintegration ofof elementselements andand objectsobjects intointo thethe architecturalarchitectural environmentenvironment createcreate comfortablecomfortable andand distinguisheddistinguished scenery.scenery. TheThe illusionisticillusionistic methodsmethods usedused ininthese thesefrescoes frescoes powerfully suggest a painter with advanced Western pictorial skills. All this occurred due to an extraordinary mastery of perspective through the accurate application of geometry. In the description in the text of the east wall of the church, he tried to give special importance to the prospect of light (chiaroscuro) using the diffused light from the window described. All this is what generated the concept of shadow. In this way, it may be claimed that not only did the artist manage to explain the projection of the table on the wall and ﬂoor, but he also succeeded in representing the impression of shadow of the feather fan, which crowned a Chinese vase (Figure7a). In [22] Ishida writes: [ ... ] Under the sunbeams the shadow of the fan, the shadow of the vase, the shadow of the table all these are perfectly accurate. Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 9

powerfully suggest a painter with advanced Western pictorial skills. All this occurred due to an extraordinary mastery of perspective through the accurate application of geometry. In the description in the text of the east wall of the church, he tried to give special importance to the prospect of light (chiaroscuro) using the diffused light from the window described. All this is what generated the concept of shadow. In this way, it may be claimed that not only did the artist manage to explain the projection of the table on the wall and floor, but he also succeeded in representing the impression of shadow of the feather fan, which crowned a Chinese vase (Figure 7a). In [22] Ishida writes:

Heritage 2021, 4 […] Under the sunbeams the shadow of the fan, the shadow of the vase, the shadow of 1781 the table all these are perfectly accurate.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 7. 7. ((aa)) Detail Detail of of East East wall. wall. Representation Representation of of light light and and shadows. shadows. Table, Table, vase, vase, and and feather feather fan; fan; ((bb)) Detail Detail of EastEast wall.wall. RepresentationRepresentation of of books books in in scrolls scrolls and and on bookshelves.on bookshelves. Representation Representation of light of lightand shadows.and shadows. Source: Source: Author. Author.

AsAs can can be be observed observed in in these these two two represen representationstations (Figures (Figures 44 andand5 5),), the the traditional traditional orientaloriental aesthetics aesthetics attempted attempted to to capture capture th thee enigmatic enigmatic world world of of the the shadow. shadow. When When these these effectseffects were were suppressed, suppressed, the the beauty beauty lost lost its its magnificence. magnificence. In In the the simulated simulated architecture architecture therethere were were lots lots of of descriptions descriptions of of the the lateral lateral decoration. decoration. Some Some objects, objects, typically typically Chinese, Chinese, werewere identified identified and and located located on on the the walls: walls: call calligraphicigraphic scrolls, scrolls, and and two two large large bookshelves bookshelves (Figure(Figure 77b).b). These These representations representations ensured ensured a apl pleasanteasant visit visit to toa hypothetical a hypothetical observer observer ex- ploringexploring the the width width and and length length of the of the room. room. In [22] In [22 Ishida] Ishida writes: writes: […][ ... A] large A large quantity quantity of ofbooks books in inscrolls scrolls with with ivory ivory plates plates used used as as indexes indexes and and jade jade axes axes fillfill up up the the book-shelves. book-shelves. There There is is a a magnificen magnificentt cabinet cabinet containing containing a a number number of of curious curious whichwhich glitter glitter up up and down. […] [ ... On] On the the wall wall are are calligraphic calligraphic scrolls scrolls and and hanging hanging pairs pairs ofof rhymed rhymed epigraphs epigraphs in in decorative decorative style style exhibited exhibited for for inspection. inspection. CastiglioneCastiglione conducted conducted his his illusory illusory scenes scenes taking taking advantage advantage of of the the diffused diffused natural natural lightlight already already presented presented in in that that real real environmen environment,t, namely namely the the light light entering entering from from a a window window thatthat was was half half open. open. The The windows, windows, which which were were a a source source of of filtered filtered light, light, illuminated illuminated each each objectobject in in the the room room and and at at the the same same time time gave gave the the illusion illusion of of the the distinctive distinctive light light of of a a warm warm climate.climate. This This happened happened in in a a beautiful beautiful harmon harmoniousious interaction interaction between between light light and and shadow. shadow. TheThe presence presence of of the the patio, patio, as as well well as as the the set set of of imagined imagined columns columns (Figure (Figure 88a),a), suggest Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 10 aa brisebrise soleil soleil andand increase increase the the feeling feeling of of an an imaginary imaginary de depth.pth. It It is is represented represented in in an an identical identical sequence,sequence, as as shown shown in in Perspectiva Perspectiva Pictorum Pictorum et et Arquitectorum Arquitectorum of of A. A. Pozzo Pozzo (Figure (Figure 88b).b).

(a) (b)

Figure 8. ((aa)) Detail Detail of of the the set set columns columns along along th thee corridor. corridor. Three-dimensional Three-dimensional model model representation. representation. Source: Source: Author; Author; (b) (Figureb) Figure LXXVI, LXXVI, (fragment), (fragment), showing showing “The manner “The manner of delineating of delineating the Designs the Designs of Scenes” of in Scenes” A.Pozzo, in A.Pozzo,Perspectiva, Perspectiva, Pictorum Pictorumet Arquitectorum. et Arquitectorum. Public Domain. Public Domain.

Again, when describing the West wall (Figure 5), the text insisted on the presence of light and shadow. The decor, which was not forgotten, contained traditional elements such as the folding screen, the bell, and an astronomical instrument. This instrument was possibly similar to the one used by Jesuit astronomers and could have been a quadrant or a sextant. The floral decoration of the ceiling reminds one of the wisterias painted by G. Castiglione in Juanqin Zhai (Appendix A, A5). In [22] Ishida writes: […] By the southern window, the sun shadows three tripod-kettles. Three tables are arranged in a row. The gold glitters (Figure 9a). […] On one of them stands a clock which strikes automatically; on the other, an astronomical instrument is placed. Between the two tables are placed two chairs. On the pillar are placed four lamp-basins on which silver-like candles stand. Looking up to the ceiling, you will see the wood carved into flowers. The middle part is raised to look like stamens and pistils (Figure 9b).

(a) (b)

Figure 9. (a) Detail of the west wall. Three tables and windows. Representation of light and shadows (Ray Tracing); (b) Detail of the west wall. An astronomy tool on a table. Representation of light and shadows (Ray Tracing). Source: Author.

The visual impact of the public exhibition of the Nantang murals should have been the result of a strategy designed to approach potential converts. A documented example of this was perhaps the visit by Hong Daeyong (philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, 1731–1783) during the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), who was fascinated by the quality and realism of the murals. The paintings, which were deceptively tactile, produced a strong

Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 10

(a) (b)

HeritageFigure2021 ,8.4 (a) Detail of the set columns along the corridor. Three-dimensional model representation. Source: Author; (b) 1782 Figure LXXVI, (fragment), showing “The manner of delineating the Designs of Scenes” in A.Pozzo, Perspectiva, Pictorum et Arquitectorum. Public Domain. Again, when describing the West wall (Figure5), the text insisted on the presence of lightAgain, and when shadow. describing The decor, the West which wall was (Figure not forgotten, 5), the text contained insisted traditional on the presence elements of lightsuch and as the shadow. folding The screen, decor, the which bell, and was an not astronomical forgotten,instrument. contained traditional This instrument elements was suchpossibly as the similar folding to screen, the one the used bell, by and Jesuit an astronomical astronomers instrument. and could have This beeninstrument a quadrant was possiblyor a sextant. similar The to ﬂoralthe one decoration used by Jesuit of the as ceilingtronomers reminds and onecould of have the wisterias been a quadrant painted or by aG. sextant. Castiglione The floral in Juanqin decoration Zhai (Appendixof the ceilinAg, A5).reminds In [22 one] Ishida of the writes: wisterias painted by G. Castiglione[ ... ] in By Juanqin the southern Zhai window,(Appendix the sunA, A5). shadows In [22] three Ishida tripod-kettles. writes: Three tables are […]arranged By the in southern a row. The window, gold glitters the sun (Figure shadow9a).s three tripod-kettles. Three tables are arranged[ ... ] in On a row. one The of them gold standsglitters a(Figure clock which 9a). strikes automatically; on the other, an […]astronomical On one of instrument them stands is placed.a clock Betweenwhich strikes the two automatically; tables are placed on the two other, chairs. an Onastro- the nomicalpillar are instrument placed four is lamp-basinsplaced. Between on whichthe tw silver-likeo tables are candles placed two stand. chairs. Looking On the up pillar to the areceiling, placed you four will lamp-basins see the wood on which carved silver-like into ﬂowers. candles The stand. middle Looking part is raisedup to the to lookceiling, like youstamens will see and the pistils wood (Figure carved9 intob). flowers. The middle part is raised to look like stamens and pistils (Figure 9b).

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 9. 9. (a()a )Detail Detail of of the the west west wall. wall. Three Three tables tables and and wi windows.ndows. Representation Representation of of light light and and shadows shadows (Ray(Ray Tracing); Tracing); ( (bb)) Detail Detail of of the the west west wall. wall. An An astronomy astronomy tool tool on on a a table. table. Representation Representation of of light light and and shadowsshadows (Ray (Ray Tracin Tracing).g). Source: Source: Author. Author.

TheThe visual visual impact impact of of the the public public exhibition exhibition of of the the Nantang Nantang murals murals should should have have been been thethe result result of of a a strategy strategy designed designed to to approa approachch potential potential converts. converts. A A documented documented example example ofof this this was was perhaps perhaps the the visit visit by by Hong Hong Daey Daeyongong (philosopher, (philosopher, mathematician, mathematician, astronomer, astronomer, 1731–1783)1731–1783) during during the the Joseon Joseon Dynasty Dynasty (1392–191 (1392–1910),0), who who was was fascinated fascinated by the by quality the quality and realismand realism of the of murals. the murals. The paintings, The paintings, which whichwere deceptively were deceptively tactile, produced tactile, produced a strong a strong sensorial and emotional response in Hong Daeyong [26] (p. 57). Clearly, in the eighteenth century, through geometry, the observer found the speciﬁc place for the speciﬁc visual perception. Castiglione found a favourable environment as a Jesuit lay brother putting into practice his humanistic education and experimenting with his pictorial skills. Through his mural paintings, Castiglione created a new body of knowledge as he matured as a painter and an architect, while at the same time enriching his own missionary vocation.

6. Conclusions The representation of cultural heritage is a multi-dimensional process. It depends largely on the nature of the object as well as the purpose of its representation. This research started from the premise that Chinese culture contributed to the development of the linear perspective in China, in addition to receiving concepts and methods from Europe. Thus, it is remarkable that the resurgence of architectural painting during the 17th and 18th centuries, due to the Jesuit missionaries, was a consequence of the political, economic, and social situation during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The main argument Heritage 2021, 4 1783

of this article is that Chinese culture was an important source of inspiration for European artists mainly during the Qing Dynasty. An important consequence of this inspiration was the wall paintings of the Nantang Church (Beijing). Consequently, the cultural heritage of Nantang was a meeting point between the European perspective and Chinese culture. These paintings are examples of Castiglione’s training in the ﬁeld of linear perspective and its application in illusory architectural spaces. This training was fundamentally based on the work of A. Pozzo, as is suggested in the comments on Figure4a,b. As far as this destroyed heritage is concerned, it is clearly necessary to offer an alternative possibility for access that enables its popularization and cultural appropriation. In this sense, to understand the missionary methodologies more precisely, the mural paintings on the east and west walls of the Church of Nantang were interpreted and represented through the reconstruction of three-dimensional models with render and ray tracing technologies, according to the remarkable text described by Yao Yuanzhi. Considering that the iconographic heritage in question comprised drawn architectures that merged with real architecture, it is interesting to propose these dynamic interpretative digital models that can associate the virtual tours of the buildings with the reading of the illusory space. Thus, the profound knowledge of the linear perspective of the Jesuit, enhanced by Chinese elements and materials, provided his works with undeniable interest and beauty, thanks to a sensory involvement, which is much more effective than the static vision of the depicted scenes. The digital models allow the observer to grasp the graphic and artistic strength of this destroyed cultural heritage.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: Not applicable. Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

Appendix A A1. Italian painter and master in the art and science of perspective. For a complete revision of A. Pozzo’s biography, see Vittorio de Feo and Vittorio Martinelli, eds., Andrea Pozzo. (Milano.1996). A2. The Chinese scholar Cao Yi-qiang has discussed the different ways in which the categories of “art” and “science” were recognized in Europe and China in his research on Nian Xiyao’s, (?–1739) Shixue (Theory of Vision) (1729–1735), which is a translation of selections from Andrea Pozzo’s Perspective, Pictorum et Arquitectorum. The theories of graphics discussed in Shi Xue cover almost every aspect of graphics. The principles of perspective include the methods of points of distance, double points of distance, intercepts, and upward viewing. These theories cover almost all the fields of engineering graphics in the West. [7] (pp. 110–111). A3. In relation to the life and work of G. Castiglione, there are magnificent works. The first to highlight is the one by Robert George Loehr, Giuseppe Castiglione, 1688–1766, Pittore di Corte di ch’ienlung, Imperatore della China, (Rome: ISMEO, 1940). A pioneering work on the life and work of Castiglione is by Mikinosuke Ishida entitled, A Biographical Study of Giuseppe Castiglione (Lang-Shinin), a Jesuit Painter in the Court of Peking under the Chi’ng Dynasty, Memoirs of Research in the Department of Tokyo Bunko Tokyo, (1960), where the life of G. Castiglione and his work are exposed. A great monograph of Castiglione can be seen in Cécile and Giuseppe Michel Beurdeley, Castiglione: A Jesuit Painter at the court of the Chinese emperors. (Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1971). Finally, see the excellent work of Marco Musillo, Reconciling Two Careers: The Jesuit Memoir of Giuseppe Castiglione Lay Brother and Qing Imperial Painter, Eighteenth-Century Studies, 42, 1, (2008), 45–59 and a Review Essay by Susan Naquin entitled Giuseppe Castiglione/ Lang Shining, T’oung Pao 95, (2009), 393–412. Heritage 2021, 4 1784

A4. Description of the Nantang’s murals in the Zhuyeting zaji by the contemporary scholar Yao, Yuanzhi: Within the capital there are four Catholic churches in all. One of them is called His- t’ang. It was destroyed by fire a long time ago. One sited at Ts’an-ch’ih-k’ou is called Pei-t’ang. One situed Tung-t’ang-tzûhu-t’ung is called Tung-t’ang. One situed, within the Hsüan-wu-mên at the foot of the Tung-ch’êng is called Nan-t’ang. Within the Nan-Tang there are two ‘linear school’ pictures drawn by Lang Shih-ning. They are spread on the two walls, east and west of the parlour, high and large like the walls. If you stand at the foot of the west wall, close one eye, and look toward the east wall, the inner chamber extends to a great depth, with the bead-blinds completely drawn up. The southern window is half open. The sunbeams play on the floor. A large quantity of books in scrolls with ivory plates used as indexes and jade axes fill up the bookshelves. There is a magnificent cabinet containing a number of curios which glitter up and down. On the north end a tall table stands. On the table stands a vase in which peacock feathers are arranged. A brilliant feather-fan is in the sunshine. Under the sunbeams the shadow of the fan, the shadow of the vase, and the shadow of the table all these are perfectly accurate. On the wall are calligraphic scrolls and hanging pairs of rhymed epigraphs in decorative style exhibited for inspection. If you go through the chamber and go east, you will come to the north part of a large court. There a long corridor runs on and on. A set of pillars stand in line. The stone-pavement evenly shines with brightness. If you go east, you will see as if a house exists, and the door seems not yet open. If you lower your head and look out of the window, you will see two dogs playing together on the ground. If you stand again at the foot of the east wall, and look toward the west wall, you will again see the three chambers of the outer building. By the southern window, the sun shadows three tripod-kettles. Three tables are arranged in a row. The gold glitters. On the top of the pillars in the hall, three large mirrors are hung. On the north end of the hall, screens stand; on the east and west, stand two tables on which red brocade covers are spread. On one of them stands a clock which strikes automatically; on the other, an astronomical instrument is placed. Between the two tables are placed two chairs. On the pillar are placed four lamp-basins on which silver-like candles stand. Looking up to the ceiling, you will see the wood carved into flowers. The middle part is raised to look like stamens and pistils. The lower part hangs down as if left upside down. If you look down upon the floor, you will see it so bright like a mirror that you will be able to count all the square tiles. One white stream along the centre of the tiles shows that it is paved with white stones. If you step further in from the hall, there are two stories of the bedroom. The blinds in the doorway are still and it is profoundly quiet. The table in the room, when seen at a distance, is tidied in perfect order so that you will be tempted to enter. If you touch it, you will suddenly find it a wall. There was no technique of perspective representation in ancient times. Since it is so accurate as this, you will only regret that ancient people had not seen it. Hence this account. A5. Juanqinzhai (Studio of Exhaustion from Diligent Service, sometimes called Lodge of Retirement), a 320 m2 building in the north-eastern section of the Forbidden City, exemplifies and then goes far beyond an architectural style that reached its prime during the middle period of the Qing dynasty.

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