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The Role of Policy Entrepreneurs in Indonesia’S Foreign Policy

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The Role of Policy Entrepreneurs in Indonesia’S Foreign Policy THE ROLE OF POLICY ENTREPRENEURS IN INDONESIA’S FOREIGN POLICY Yasmi Adriansyah A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Australian National University Canberra December 2015 iii I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and has not been submitted for any other degree in the same or other form to any other university _____________________________ Yasmi Adriansyah 18th October 2018 iv CONTENTS List of Illustrations vi Abstract vii Acknowledgments ix Introduction 1 A Tragic Catalyst 1 Indonesia’s Ratification of the CMW 5 The Main Proposition of the Thesis 6 Methodology 7 Thesis Structure 17 Chapter 1 Policy Entrepreneurship and Indonesia’s Foreign Policy: A Literature Review 21 1.1 Policy Entrepreneurship 24 1.1.1 Conceptual Framework 24 1.1.2 Applicability 26 1.1.3 Importance of these Actors 29 1.1.4 Placement of Policy Entrepreneurs 29 1.1.5 Important Skills and Qualities of Policy Entrepreneurs 31 1.2 The Links between Foreign Policy and Domestic Policy 33 1.2.1 Definition 33 1.2.2 Linkages between International and Domestic Politics 35 1.2.3 Drawing on Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA) Theory to Help Explain Policy Changes 37 1.3 Understanding Indonesia’s Foreign Policy Trajectories 39 1.3.1 The Periodisation of Governmental Regimes 40 1.3.2 Specific Issues in Indonesia’s Foreign Policy 46 Conclusion 54 Chapter 2 Patterns of Labour Migration from Indonesia: the Colonial Era to the Post- Colonial Period 56 2.1 Colonial Period (1511 – 1945) 57 2.1.1 Pre-1870 57 2.1.2 Post-1870 61 2.2 Post-Colonial Period 64 2.2.1 1945-1959 65 2.2.2 The 1960s 67 2.2.3 The 1970s 68 2.2.4 The 1980s 71 2.2.4.1 Irregular Indonesian Migrant Labour 73 2.2.5 The 1990s 75 2.2.5.1 Deportation of Indonesian Migrant Labour 76 2.2.6 The 2000s 78 2.2.6.1 Mass Deportation – the Nunukan Humanitarian Crisis 79 2.2.6.2 Labour Migration Policies under SBY Administration 81 iii 2.2.7 The 2010s 84 2.2.7.1 A High Profile Case in Hong Kong 84 2.2.7.2 Moratorium of Sending the Domestic Workers 85 2.2.7.3 Ratification of the CMW 86 2.2.7.4 Indonesia’s Labour Migration Policy under the Jokowi Administration 88 Conclusion 89 Chapter 3 Indonesia’s Foreign Policy on Labour Migration 93 3.1 The Suharto Government – a Period of Transition 98 3.2 The Abdurrahman Wahid Government – an Important Interlude 100 3.3 The Megawati Soekarnoputri Government – Moving Towards a More Institutional Response 100 3.4 The Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono Government – Gradually Coming to Accept the Need for Moratorium 104 3.4.1 Presidential Instruction No. 6 of 2006 105 3.4.2 The 2006 MoU with Malaysia 107 3.4.3 Saudi Arabia Moratorium to Protect ‘Economic Heroes’ 111 3.4.4 The Ratification of the CMW 114 3.4.5 The Grand Design of the Protection of Indonesian Citizens Overseas 114 3.5 The Jokowi Widodo Government – Still Grappling to Implement a Comprehensive Policy 116 3.5.1 Criticism toward the Current Foreign Policy Direction 118 3.5.2 Facing the Existing Challenges 120 Conclusion 121 Chapter 4 The UN Convention on Migrant Workers: Who Drove its International Campaigns for Ratification, and How? 129 4.1 Historical Background of the CMW 130 4.2 The Negotiation and Contents of the CMW 132 4.2.1 The Protracted Negotiation 132 4.2.2 The Specific Contents of the Convention 134 4.3 Challenges of and Obstacles to Ratification 138 4.4 The Role of International NGOs in Promoting the CMW 145 4.5 Indonesia’s Ratification to the CMW 151 Conclusion 154 Chapter 5 Assessing the Influence of Policy Entrepreneurs: Identifying the Key Actors and Examining Their Views and Proposals 159 5.1 Policy Entrepreneurs from NGOs 160 5.1.1 Solidaritas Perempuan (Solidarity for Women) 160 5.1.2 Human Rights Working Group (HRWG) 161 5.1.3 Peduli Buruh Migran (Caring for Migrant Workers) 161 5.1.4 Serikat Buruh Migran Indonesia (Indonesian Migrant Labour Union) 162 5.1.5 Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Jakarta (Jakarta Legal Aid Institute) 162 iv 5.1.6 Migrant Care 163 5.2 The Policy Entrepreneurs: DPR and Government 164 5.2.1 Nova Riyanti Yusuf (Democrat Party) 164 5.2.2 Rieke Diah Pitaloka (Democratic Party of Struggle) 165 5.2.3 Acep Somantri (Mid-career official, Kemenlu) 165 5.3 The Views of the Policy Entrepreneurs 171 5.3.1 CMW will provide greater protection 171 5.3.2 CMW ratification as an international obligation 173 5.3.3 Ratification of CMW will fill the gap of national laws 175 5.4 The Proposals of the Key Policy Entrepreneurs 177 5.4.1 Proposal 1: National Action Plan on Human Rights 178 5.4.2 Proposal 2: ARRAK 90 180 5.4.3 The normative principles in the proposal 184 Conclusion 187 Chapter 6 Assessing the Success of Policy Entrepreneurs: Examining the Work, Resources, Motivations and Success Factors of the Policy Entrepreneurs 189 6.1 The Work of Policy Entrepreneurs 189 6.1.1 Pre-ARRAK 90 -- Policy Entrepreneurs Worked as a Loose Coalition 190 6.1.2 The work of ARRAK 90 – Towards a More Coordinated Coalition 193 6.2. The Resources 202 6.2.1 Financial Resources 202 6.2.2 Ideas and Skills 203 6.3 The Motivational Success 205 6.4 The Success Factors 208 6.4.1 The Importance of Coalition-Building 209 6.4.2 Persistence 211 Conclusion 213 Chapter 7 Conclusion – the Growing Significance of Policy Entrepreneurs in Policy Change 215 7.1 Policy Entrepreneurs, Indonesia’s Foreign Policy, and the Iterative Linkage between Domestic and Foreign Policies 217 7.2 The Forces of Democratisation that Opened Up Windows for Civil Society in Policy Change 218 7.3 Protection Policy was More Symbolism than the Actual Protection 221 7.4 When the Policy Entrepreneurs Fully Seized the Policy Initiative 222 7.5 Increased Collaboration to Intensify the Pressure for Change 224 7.6 Future Challenge: the Need to Move from Awareness-Making and Symbolic Policy Pronouncements to Effective Implementation and Enforcement 225 Appendix 228 Bibliography 229 v List of Illustrations Tables 1.1 Comparison of Domestic Factors in Indonesia’s Foreign Policy (1945-2007) 44 2.1 History of the Placement of Indonesian Labour 75 2.2 Selected Government Major Policies on Migrant Workers prior to Law No. 39/2004 (1970-2004) 78 2.3 The Policies of Migrant Labour Protection under SBY Administration, 2004-2009 82 3.1 Agreements between the Government of Indonesia with International Organisations and with other Countries during the Suharto Administration 97 3.2 Law No. 37 of 1999 on Foreign Relations, Chapter V (The Protection of Indonesian Citizens) 99 3.3 Agreements between the Government of Indonesia with other Countries within the period of Megawati Administration 102 3.4 The Historical Background of the Establishment of BNP2TKI 106 3.5 Agreements between the Government of Indonesia with other Countries within the period of SBY Administration 110 4.1 Status of the Ratifications toward International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families 157 5.1 The Chronology of Intergovernmental Processes in Indonesia toward the Ratification of the International Convention of the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, 2011 – 2013 184 5.2 The Responses of HRWG to the arguments of Kemenakertrans 181 Figure 2.1 Number of Indonesian Overseas Workers, 1969-2002 92 vi List of Abbreviations Apjati : Asosiasi Perusahaan Jasa Tenaga Kerja Indonesia (Association of Companies for Indonesian Migrant Workers) ASEAN : Association of Southeast Asian Nations AICHR : ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights ASEAN-ISIS: ASEAN Institutes of Strategic and International Studies (ASEAN-ISIS) ARRAK 90 : Aliansi Rakyat untuk Ratifikasi Konvensi Buruh Migran 1990 (People’s Alliance for the Ratification of 1990 Convention) BDF : Bali Democracy Forum BNP2TKI : Badan Nasional Penempatan dan Perlindungan Tenaga Kerja Indonesia (National Agency for the Placement and Protection of Migrant Workers) CMW : United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families CSIS : Center for Strategic and International Studies Depnakertrans : Departemen Tenaga Kerja, Transmigrasi dan Koperasi (Department of Manpower, Transmigration and Cooperative Units) DPR : Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (Indonesia’s House of Representatives) DTP : Diplomacy Training Program ECOSOC : UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) EEC : European Economic Community FDR : People’s Democratic Front FPA : Foreign Policy Analysis GBHN : Garis-Garis Besar Haluan Negara (State Guidelines) GPPBM : Gerakan Perempuan untuk Perlindungan Buruh Migran (Women’s Movement for the Protection of Migrant Labour) HRWG : Human Rights Working Group IGWG : Intergovernmental Working Group of Experts on the Human Rights of Migrants ILO : International Labour Organisation INFID : International NGO Forum on Indonesian Development IOM : International Organisation for Migration Kadin : Kamar Dagang dan Industri Indonesia (Indonesia’s Chamber of Commerce) Kemenakertrans: Kementerian Tenaga Kerja dan Transmigrasi (Indonesia’s Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration) vii Kemenlu : Kementerian Luar Negeri (Indonesia’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs) Kopbumi : Konsorsium Pembela Buruh Migran (Consortium for the Defence of Migrant Labour) KNIP : Komite Nasional Indonesia Pusat (Central Indonesian National Committee) LBH Jakarta : Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Jakarta (Jakarta Legal Aid Institute) MESCA : Mediterranean and Scandinavian Countries MFA : Ministry of Foreign Affairs MDG : Millennium Development Goal MoU : Memorandum of Understanding NEP : New Economic Policy NGO : Non-Governmental Organisation NSA : Non-State
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