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Vol. 12, No. 3 • October 2012 Law Enforcement Executive Forum Illinois Law Enforcement Training and Standards Board Executive Institute Western Illinois University 1 University Circle Macomb, IL 61455-1390 www.ILETSBEI.com

Senior Editor Thomas J. Jurkanin, PhD

Editors Vladimir A. Sergevnin, PhD, and Susan C. Nichols, MS Ed.

Associate Editors Jennifer M. Allen, PhD Department of Political Science and Criminal Justice, North Georgia College and State University Barry Anderson, JD Professor, School of Law Enforcement and Justice Administration, Western Illinois University Tony A. Barringer, EdD Division of Justice Studies, Florida Gulf Coast University Michael J. Bolton, PhD Chair, Department of Criminal Justice and Sociology, Marymount University Becky K. da Cruz Criminal Justice and Law and Society, Armstrong Atlantic State University Jose de Arimateia da Cruz Political Science and Comparative Politics, Armstrong Atlantic State University Larry Hoover, PhD Director, Police Research Center, Sam Houston State University William Lewinski, PhD Director, Force Science Research Center, Minnesota State University Hyeyoung Lim, PhD Assistant Professor, School of Law Enforcement and Justice Administration, Western Illinois University William McCamey, PhD Professor, School of Law Enforcement and Justice Administration, Western Illinois University Stephen A. Morreale, DPA School of Public Policy and Administration/Criminal Justice, Walden University Gregory Boyce Morrison Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Ball State University Deborah W. Newman, JD, EdD Professor and Chair, Department of Criminal Justice, Middle Tennessee State University Michael J. Palmiotto Professor, Criminal Justice, Wichita State University Wayne Schmidt, LL.M., JD Director, Americans for Effective Law Enforcement Aaron Thompson, PhD Department of Sociology, Eastern Kentucky University Brian N. Williams, PhD School of Public and International Affairs, University of Georgia

Law Enforcement Executive Forum • 2012 • 12(3) Editorial Production Document and Publication Services, Western Illinois University, Macomb, Illinois

The Law Enforcement Executive Forum is published online four times per year by the Illinois Law Enforcement Training and Standards Board Executive Institute located at Western Illinois University in Macomb, Illinois.

ISSN 1552-9908

No part of this publication may be reproduced without written permission of the publisher.

Disclaimer Reasonable effort has been made to make the articles herein accurate and consistent. Please address questions about individual articles to their respective author(s).

Law Enforcement Executive Forum • 2012 • 12(3) Table of Contents

Editorial...... i Thomas J. Jurkanin

Improving the Response to Individuals with Mental Disorders: Creating Valid Training Specifications for Law Enforcement...... 1 Wayne R. Carlson

Critical Issues in the American Criminal Justice System: HIV/AIDS Among Prison Population...... 15 Becky Kohler da Cruz José de Arimatéia da Cruz

Perpetrators of Child Abuse: Conceptualizing Culture as a Way of Assisting Intervention...... 26 Tony A. Barringer Belinda E. Bruster

Understanding Black Adolescent Male Violence: A Critical Issue...... 37 Barry S. McCrary

Countering Criminal Street Gangs: Lessons from the Counterinsurgent Battlespace...... 43 John A. Bertetto

Use of Force Analyzing Perceptions and Misperceptions of Police Officers in Lethal Force Virtual Simulator Scenarios...... 53 Darrell L. Ross Randall L. Murphy Michael H. Hazlett

Teaching 4th Amendment-Based Use of Force...... 74 James Marker

Evaluation of Rubber Ball Grenades: Applications for Law Enforcement and Corrections...... 80 Charlie Mesloh Jennifer James-Mesloh Lindsey Medley Ross Wolf

The First Three Minutes After the Cuffs Go On...... 90 John R. Schafer

Law Enforcement Executive Forum • 2012 • 12(3) Perry v. New Hampshire, Eyewitness Identification, and Suggestibility: “Take a Look Around You”...... 97 Tom “Tad” Hughes

The Coroner/Police Relationship: Perceptions from the Coroners...... 106 Jennifer M. Allen Joseph S. Morgan

Perspectives of Legal Liability Issues and Trends in Coping with Legal Liability Demands Among County Sheriffs: A Preliminary Analysis...... 114 T. Casey LaFrance Jonathan Day Kimberly J. Rice

Security Radicalization in North America: A Strategic Approach to Prevention...... 120 Rick Parent James O. Ellis III

Contemporary Security Threats Impact on the Travel Destination Choice...... 134 Bojan Dobovšek Bojan Kurež Iztok Podbregar

Organized Crime The Influence of Transnational Crime in the World: Current Status and Challenges of Combating It...... 147 Alexander N. Sukharenko

Materials/publications are available through the Illinois Law Enforcement Training and Standards Board Executive Institute.

Law Enforcement Executive Forum • 2012 • 12(3) Editorial

Remembering a Leader, Colleague, and Friend Albert Schweitzer once said, “I don’t know what your destiny will be, but one thing I know: The only ones among you who will be really happy are those who have sought and found how to serve.”

Last month, we lost a valued member of the Forum editorial team, Dr. Gene Scaramella. Gene, by Schweitzer’s definition, achieved true happiness in life; he found how to serve as a police officer; educator; author; friend; “Geno” Scaramella as a young Chicago Police colleague; and loving son, husband, brother, Officer in 1982 and uncle. Gene led by example. He was dedi- cated to his chosen profession, and he always strove to impact the lives of others in a posi- Reference tive and sustained manner. From his early Albert Schweitzer. (2012). Goodreads web- days as a young Chicago Police Officer to his site. Retrieved October 8, 2012, from www. position as Dean of Graduate Studies at Ellis goodreads.com/author/quotes/47146. University, his professionalism and strength Albert_Schweitzer. of character served as an inspiration to all who were lucky enough to cross his path.

Gene was proud of who he was and com- fortable in his own skin. His friends will always remember fondly the late night ses- sions wherein Gene would “hold court” over dinner, with drinks and laughter. Gene was blessed with a marvelous sense of humor, and he had a genuine love for people and life.

It is impossible to fully calculate the many lives and careers that were positively impacted by Gene Scaramella. But we do know one thing: Gene (“Geno”) found how to serve, embraced it with enthusiasm, and was happy in doing so. This edition of the Forum is dedicated to our friend and colleague, Gene Scaramella. We will always cherish the memories.

Thomas J. Jurkanin, PhD Senior Editor

Law Enforcement Executive Forum • 2012 • 12(3) i ii Law Enforcement Executive Forum • 2012 • 12(3) Improving the Response to Individuals with Mental Disorders: Creating Valid Training Specifications for Law Enforcement

Wayne R. Carlson, Manager, Career Development Section, Michigan Commission on Law Enforcement Standards

Introduction (2007 PA 130). The appropriation supported instructor stipends, participant and instructor In December 2003, Governor Jennifer M. materials, facility costs, and other operating Granholm of Michigan convened the Michigan and administrative expenses directly associated Mental Health Commission, which was charged with the delivery of training. We at MCOLES with making specific recommendations for agreed to create valid training objectives (a cur- the improvement of Michigan’s mental health riculum), select instructors, provide resources, system (Executive Order 2003-24). In October and administer training sessions statewide. 2004, the commission presented a final report to the Governor, which contained several recom- MCOLES is authorized by statute to promul- mendations for making the system more respon- gate rules establishing compulsory standards for sive to the needs of those with mental disorders the selection, employment, and training of law (Michigan Mental Health Commission [MMHC], enforcement officers in the State of Michigan 2004). One of the recommendations addressed (Michigan Compiled Laws [MCL] 28.609 et seq.). The the interface between the mental health and commission’s statutory responsibilities include criminal justice systems, including alternatives the authority to put into action medical and non- to arrest and incarceration and training for law medical standards for the law enforcement pro- enforcement officers as first responders. During fession in Michigan. The commissioners all serve public hearings, experts from mental health and either by virtue of their position or by appoint- criminal justice testified that individuals with ment to a term of office by the Governor. The mental disorders are overrepresented in county commission membership is diverse. It consists of jails and state prisons, and they urged the com- representatives from the Michigan Association of mission to promote meaningful jail diversion Chiefs of Police, the Michigan Sheriff’s Associa- programs and structured assessment protocols tion, labor organizations, prosecution, defense, during intake (MMHC, 2004). They testified that the State Police, the Detroit Police Department, treatment should be preferred over punishment, and the Attorney General’s Office. In support of when possible, and jails should not become this, see MCL 28.621 (Executive Order No. 2001- de facto mental institutions. 5), which gave increased responsibility to the commission in the area of inservice training and With the commission report as a backdrop, continuing education. and in light of state budget cuts to commu- nity mental health programs, State Senators The purpose of this paper is to document evi- Liz Brater (D-Ann Arbor) and Alan Cropsey dence of validity and reliability for the mental (R-Ionia) appropriated legislative funding to health training curriculum, which supports the Michigan Commission on Law Enforcement training content, performance outcomes, and Standards (MCOLES) through an interdepart- classroom delivery techniques. To establish mental grant from the Michigan Department of content and construct validity, we linked the Corrections to create mental health awareness training objectives to patrol officer job tasks, training for active duty law enforcement officers the theoretical and applied research in mental

Law Enforcement Executive Forum • 2012 • 12(3) 1 health, professional best practices, and state disorders) and developmental disabilities (mood and federal legislative mandates. Herein, we disorders). We consider mental illnesses as a considered what Sherman (1998) refers to as group of psychotic disorders characterized by “evidence-based policing,” which connects the disturbances in thinking, feeling, and relating. art and science of policing to empirical scientific The onset of mental illness may occur at anytime research. We combined the theoretical and the during a person’s lifetime. Symptoms include practical to create a set of behaviorally based social withdrawal, severe depression, delusions, training objectives, which are supported by the hallucinations, continuous hyperactivity, or inac- professional research. The curriculum focuses tivity. Examples of mental illnesses include para- on the nature and dynamics of mental disor- noid schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, delusional ders, nonclinical behavioral interpretation, disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder negative stereotyping, alternatives to arrest, (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). and the community coordinated response. We consider developmental disabilities as life-long The MCOLES mental health training project mood disorders based on mental or physical began in January 2008 with an initial meeting impairments, generally manifested early in life. with Senator Brater and her legislative aide. The In the mental health literature, developmental original plan was to fund a competitive grant disabilities are also referred to as intellectual dis- program whereby officers from selected agen- abilities or mental retardation. Symptoms include cies could participate in an intensive training sub-average intellectual development and func- program and become law enforcement special- tioning, substantial physical or mental impair- ists in mental health crisis intervention. But as ment, or other substantial functional limitations. the planning progressed, we ultimately decided Examples of developmental disabilities include that awareness training for the wider patrol autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, atten- officer population would have a greater impact, tion deficit hyperactivity disorder, and other particularly if we assembled crossdisciplinary similar cognitive and intellectual disorders audiences to improve mutual understanding (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). of roles and responsibilities. Contacts between law enforcement officers and individuals with We use the term consumer to refer to an individ- mental disorders are infrequent, yet they can be ual with a mental disorder who comes in con- challenging and time consuming, calling upon tact with the criminal justice or mental health refined competencies in interpersonal commu- system, typically through an encounter with a nication and behavioral observation. Training law enforcement officer or mental health first for such encounters must be contemporary and responder. Consumers can be of any race, age, accurately reflect the content domain of the law socioeconomic class, or occupation. They may be enforcement profession. Additionally, the train- victims of a crime or an accident, may call for law ing must be delivered in an abilities-based learn- enforcement assistance, or may be the subject of a ing environment where teaching techniques police emergency response. We purposely avoid are linked to real-world context. To ensure the such terms as idiot, retard, mental, moron, or even training objectives remain evidence-based, we the mentally ill as such labeling may contribute to used established organizational protocols and the stigma associated with mental disorders. procedures to guide our research activities. Validating Training—An Evidence- A Note on Terminology Based Approach Classifications of mental disorders in the profes- Validity is another word for job-relatedness sional literature are not absolute, and definitions and can be considered a subset of evidence- sometimes lack consensus. In the curriculum, based policing theory. The American Psycho- and in this paper, we use the term mental disorders logical Association (APA) prescribes three to include both mental illnesses (psychotic types of validity: (1) content, (2) construct, and

2 Law Enforcement Executive Forum • 2012 • 12(3) (3) criterion (American Educational Research law enforcement officers to possess basic cog- Association [AERA], 1999). Although the APA nitive abilities and mechanical skills. But they standards primarily address cognitive testing also want them to be competent in problem and measurement, the mental health train- solving, communicating, and decisionmaking ing specifications must be based, in pertinent when responding to calls or providing services part, on the essential job functions and core job to the community (Bittner, 1990; Brown, 1979; responsibilities performed by Michigan law Radelet, 1986; Watson, Stone, & DeLuca, 1998). enforcement officers in today’s environment. Any professional training standard (compe- Criterion validity refers to measurements struc- tency) established by a state regulatory agency tured on a stated set of variables (criteria), which such as MCOLES must be supported by evi- includes the ability to predict work-related per- dence of validity and reliability (Birch, 1993). formance based on those variables (AERA/ APA/NCME, 1999; Mehre