Muslim Immigration to Europe – the Challenge for European Societies – Human Rights – Security Issues – Current Developments

1. Jahrgang MBS Te x t e 106 2008

Dr. Christine Schirrmacher Muslim Immigration to Europe – The Challenge for European Societies – Human Rights – Security Issues – Current Developments

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Hope forHope Europe for Europe TableInhaltsverzeichnis of Contents

The Present Situation – History and Background...... 3 Concrete Fields of Discussion...... 9 Summary...... 12 The Author...... 13 Impressum...... 14

Panel lecture presented at the conference „Continents – Globalization – Security“ sponsored by the European Union in Europe and International House, Pecs (Hungary), Nov. 22, 2005.

1. Aufl. 2008 Muslim Immigration to Europe ...

Muslim Immigration to Europe – The Challenge for European Societies – Human Rights – Security Issues – Current Developments Dr. Christine Schirrmacher

The Present Situation – History and Background

Globalization is a subject of great signi- wars (above all, the Iranian Revolution ficance for Europe, too. The world has of 1979, the war in the Balkans, and moved closer together. This is true also the Iran-Iraq war from 1980 to 1988), for the Islamic world and Europe. through the influx of refugees and asy- New chances for the shaping of a shared lum-seekers, and by virtue of a higher future in the twenty-first century, as birthrate compared with the Western well as challenges, result from this situ- population, the number of Muslim ation. immigrants in Europe increased to roughly 16 to 20 million persons. North Africa is closely linked with Even in the last 20 years, when this France by virtue of its colonial past, development was foreseeable, European as are Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India countries found it difficult to consider with Great Britain. Nearly two mil- themselves as countries “open to immi- lion Muslims live in Britain; in France, gration.” There was repeated failure to about six million; in Germany, 3.2 discuss cultural, social, and political as million. The immigration of Muslims well as religious commonalities and dif- to Germany began roughly 45 years ferences, to consider the mistakes that ago when, in the post-war period, the were made, and to work out rules for recruitment of workers from southern life together in the future. The German (and southeastern) Europe, and later society, for example, assumed all too from Anatolia (Turkey), appeared to naturally that these people would pre- be the solution for an expanding labor fer the Western, secular way of life to market. their own tradition, would give up their The first 10,000 Muslims came to religious-cultural roots over time, and Germany beginning about 1960. They would “assimilate” themselves. Today, were primarily male workers without it is clearly evident that in many parts families; women and children fol- of Europe, a contrary development – a lowed later. Through revolutions and return to tradition and a retreat into

Ho p e f o r Eu r o p e 3 Dr. Christine Schirrmacher a world of their own – has long since a permanent life together. Both sides at begun. first thought their coexistence would Most of the Muslims who live in last only a few years. Especially the Europe today will remain; their num- majority society concerned itself too ber will continue to increase. The little and not intensively enough with political or economic situation in their the cultural and religious peculiarities home countries frequently offers them of the immigrants. The “other culture” no prospect for a return; their children was either admired uncritically or and grandchildren have grown up in ignored and rejected. The knowledge Europe, and they, too, will not return. about Islam among many people in In view of this situation, several chal- Europe is still too undeveloped. Many lenges result: Muslims at first wanted to become “Europeans” but then turned away in disappointment. Many make contact 1. Social Aspects with a mosque that preaches distance Never before have so many people and withdrawal and extols the nation- from the Islamic cultural sphere lived alism from the home country and permanently in Europe. But are they Islam as an identity as an alternative also at home in Europe? in a “godless” Western society. Then it Many young people of the second and is perhaps only a small step to a turn third generation speak too little Ger- toward political Islam (Islamism) or man (or French, Spanish, or Dutch) to even to extremism. be successful in a vocation. What future do these young people face? Not a few of them retreat into their own world, A New Situation for Both Sides their own language, the mosque, and The situation is new not only for the Turkish or Arab neighborhood. Europeans but also for the Muslim Forced marriages and murders of communities. They must undertake honor occur precisely within the paral- a new definition of their theological lel society in which its members take and political-social position here in justice into their own hands. At long the “diaspora” in a non-Muslim West- last, the duty of speaking the language ern society. Many questions arise: Is it of the host country finally is being dis- possible in non-Islamic countries to do cussed openly in Europe. Without the without the amplification of the call command of the language, there is no to prayer by loudspeaker – in Mus- integration; without integration, there lim countries an everyday occurrence? is no vocational success and no shared May meat slaughtered by non-Muslims future. (and, of course, not ritually slaughtered Neither the immigrants nor their by them) be eaten by Muslims – a host countries originally reckoned with situation that hardly ever will occur in

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Islamic countries? How are the Islami- it believe the peaceful declarations from cally based social conventions (e.g., no the neighborhood mosque association, contact between young men and girls) or does it consider the mosque to be to be adhered to in a liberal, pluralistic the meeting place for “sleepers” and ter- society in which only a few people still rorists? Are the people who pray there stand up for religious values? Is one’s those who practice their religion or own son allowed to marry a German, those who form political cells? Is the non-Muslim woman who possibly headscarf worn as a personal confes- judges the family of her husband to sion of faith or as a political symbol? be “unbelievers”? All of these are ques- Do European societies at all desire a tions that never arose in the Islamic coexistence with the immigrants? And land of origin, and they are questions does the majority of immigrants today to which the Muslim community must still desire integration? How far do the find answers, answers which can turn tolerance and freedom of democratic out to be quite different even within the societies reach, and where does indif- Muslim community. ference or rejection begin? But even beyond the conduct of daily life, many questions arise in regard to 2. The Political Challenge religion: How can the Islamic faith be passed on to the younger generation Today, everyone is aware of what is that lives in the midst of a pluralistic meant under the subject of the “politi- secularized society that is often not cal challenge:” Many people in Europe characterized by visible ethical and reli- in the last 30 years considered the occu- gious values? Many families begin to pation with this political dimension in practice their religion for the first time Islamic countries to be subject matter in the diaspora, in the desire to preserve appropriate for some Near East experts. their cultural roots. Others observe the It was assumed for a long time that regulations more strictly than they do extremist efforts limited themselves to in their lands of origin. Especially in internal conflicts in countries like Alge- Turkish Islam in Germany, a conser- ria, Palestine, or Iran. Today, this view vative religion is thus “conserved” that has changed fundamentally, and quite hardly exists in this form in present-day rightly so. Turkey. Whoever focuses one’s attention only And how does the Western majority on countries such as Afghanistan as society act? Does it understand the tall areas of refuge for extremist networks minaret, which perhaps towers above will no longer grasp the present-day sit- all the other buildings in the neighbor- uation in all of its implications. Euro- hood, as a cultural enrichment or as a pean metropoli also have become the threat? Or perhaps in earlier years as an scenes of terrorist attacks, among them enrichment but today as a threat? Does Amsterdam, Madrid, or London, which

Ho p e f o r Eu r o p e 5 Dr. Christine Schirrmacher for quite a long while have been con- schooled personnel, but not with less sidered to be the hub of international determination, is also to be counted political Islam. With logistical and as a form of political Islam. Politically financial support from the Near and motivated Islam exerts its influence over Middle East, Europe has become the mosque associations and umbrella orga- area of refuge and action for extremist nizations, and this in two ways. First, groups. Mosques and Islamic centers it declares itself as organized Islam to have become scenes of significant inci- be the spokesperson of “the” Muslims dents. International Islamistic terror- in Germany and employs titles such as ism, long underestimated in regard to “Zentralrat der Muslime,” although this its significance and its claim to power, “central council” is likely to represent has not stopped before the gates of less than one percent of the Muslims in Europe but rather today – as dread- Germany. All together, from five to, at ful as this conclusion is – has become most, ten percent of all Muslims in the an element of European reality. It is country belong to one of these organiza- no longer the only goal of present-day tions, that is, a minority. Nevertheless, extremist groups to pursue the conflict politically organized Islam formulates in and in the vicinity of Israel in the statements proclaimed to the public. Middle East, or to struggle against the Since the Muslim community has no regimes in their own Islamic countries membership status or hierarchy com- they deem to be “open to compromise” parable to those in the churches, orga- or “un-Islamic.” Horror and terror are nized Islam thus appoints itself to be carried into the Western world, too, the partner in dialogue with the church in the name of Islam, and Muslims as and to be the contact organization for well as non-Muslims are killed because the state, although a majority of at least they are representatives of the “godless 90 percent of all the Muslims in Ger- West” or because they are “collabora- many do not desire to be represented by tors” with it. one of these organizations. Representatives of Islamism seek influence in universities and in poli- Islamism as a Political Power tics, demand equality with the Chris- Of course, political Islam does not tian churches and increased rights, or consist only of violence and terror. even demand adjustments in legislation Violent extremism is only one wing of (e.g., the law for the protection of ani- political Islam and, in terms of num- mals had to be altered to allow special bers, is on the whole a small spectrum. permission for the ritual slaughter of That area of Islamism that pursues its animals not previously named). Other goals by legal means, with a strategy, points of contention carried before the with financial resources stemming in highest courts in the last few years also part from foreign donors, with well- include the question of the headscarf

6 MBS Te x t e 106 Muslim Immigration to Europe ... for women teachers with civil servant hand, are recognized and analyzed status or the call to prayer broadcast by soberly, then this will contribute to loudspeaker. the sophisticated perception of the The preeminent goal is the recog- Muslim community and, in the end, nition of Islam as a religion possess- to the avoidance of false judgments. ing equal rights in Europe and the If apolitical Muslim groups distance acquaintance and pervasion of Western themselves emphatically from violence, society with Islamic values. The second terror, and Islamism – indeed, it is even step is the establishment of Sharia, the more valuable if they find arguments in Islamic order, first of all over the Mus- the Koran and the writings of Muslim lim community. But in addition, politi- theologians that reject the justification cally organized Islam also has an effect of a violent Islam – then this will serve within the Muslim community through to make more clearly discernible the its desire to urge Muslims in Europe to differences existing between it and the adopt a stricter observance of Islam. If peaceful majority in the Muslim com- female teachers from organized Islam munity in Europe. Neither a resistance give instruction in religion in the pub- directed against Muslim neighbors and lic schools while wearing the headscarf, fellow citizens arising out of fear nor a and if they thus display their traditional minimalizing of the political activities role that legally discriminates against of the known groups will contribute to women, then the pressure upon female peaceful coexistence and the construc- students in this environment to wear tive shaping of a shared future. the headscarf more frequently obvi- ously becomes greater. Thus is a traditional, non-enlightened Islam fostered Making an Accounting is Required and carried into the parents’ house. Critical questions also must be Thus, consideration of the back- allowed if the urgently necessary objec- ground of political Islam is today nei- tive discussion is to take place, critical ther “far-fetched” nor an off-beat intel- questions of the majority as well as of lectual field of activity but rather of the minority society. Subjects of such the greatest significance for European questions could be the mistakes of the society. Neither scare tactics nor mini- past, the failed integration, but also malizing of the risk nor generalizing are subjects such as forced marriages and appropriate here. A sober stocktaking is so called murders of honor. Both have required. existed in Germany for more than 40 years but until recently were of little interest to the majority society. The fact Differentiation Creates Sobriety that today there is rather an increase in If the background and motives of murders of honor and that there is still political Islamic groups, on the one a large number of forced marriages of

Ho p e f o r Eu r o p e 7 Dr. Christine Schirrmacher young Turkish girls in Germany at the tion and faith are bound closely to each same time poses the question about other, and the tradition is grounded in the defense of European values, such religion, the tradition retains a deter- as how women are to be protected and minative power in daily life. For this how European notions of the equality reason alone, it is not easy to separate of men and women are to be established the political sphere from the religious in an environment that, through the one in a question such as the signifi- importation of antiquated traditions, cance of the headscarf or the function fundamentally questions these values. of the mosque. With religion and tradi- Only a sober discussion of present tion (which does not always have to be problems will bring us a step forward. specifically Islamic), social and political aspects are bound together. Thus, the headscarf is for many Muslim women 3. The Question of Religion more than a personal confession of In a time in which, in the West, faith; it also stands for recognition of the general mood is that religion has the legal stipulations in Sharia concern- hardly any public significance anymore ing marriage and the family, and of the and, in the consciousness of many, is legally disadvantaged position of the so characterized by the Enlightenment woman. Thus, the significance of the and secularization that it has only little headscarf goes far beyond a personal to do with the European order of val- confession. ues, Islam appears as an exceedingly By virtue of the fact that Islam raises energetic, worldwide-networked, and the subject of religion anew, Western above all self-confident religion with society, too, will have to ask itself what an apologetically presented claim upon values it wishes to defend. Do the val- absolute truth. ues of European society rest upon the In Islam, of course, we encounter not foundation of a Jewish-Christian leg- only a religion but also a social system acy? If so, must this Jewish-Christian that is clearly bound with religion and legacy be preserved in order to be able tradition. At the same time, religion is to preserve Europe’s central values? Or, in a much greater measure an element can both be decoupled from each other? of daily life, of public life, and of the The in part heated debate, within the family than is the case in general in framework of a possible entry of Tur- Europe. The tradition woven closely key into the European Union, about together with Islam contains detailed whether Europe is a “Christian club” rules in regard to clothing and food, or not definitely has shown that this feasts and holidays, the conduct of men question, in the last analysis, always and women, marriage and divorce, the maintains an unspoken presence in the relationship of Muslims to non-Mus- course of the confrontation with Islam. lims, and war and peace. Because tradi- European countries first must answer

8 MBS Te x t e 106 Muslim Immigration to Europe ... this question for themselves before tions have emphasized repeatedly that they will be able to give an acceptable Islam not only respects human rights answer to Turkey. but even has formulated more exten- Discernible is also the fact that Islam sive catalogues of human rights than has gained in attractive power rather the West and is really the “author” of than lost. One today can no longer all human rights. At the same time, speak of the much-invoked “wearing however, a second look at the contents down” of religion in the second and of the human rights declarations in the third generation. There is certainly the Western and Islamic contexts reveals sphere of “secularized” Islam – Mus- clearly that all the Islamic declarations lims who pursue the same forms of place the Sharia as a preamble before leisure-time entertainment as do Euro- any kind of human right. In practical pean or German youth – but consid- application, this means that an apos- ered as a whole, Islam has remained a tate can no longer demand any human lively religion among the immigrants. rights at all, since he, according to the Not, perhaps, in the sense that every stipulations of Sharia, has committed a individual Islamic religious regulation crime worthy of death and, thus, can is observed to the last detail in every no longer claim any religious freedom family, but indeed in such a manner or other human rights. In the opinion that Islam offers support and identity. It of the vast majority of Muslim theo- is, in part, the case that precisely young logians, the right to religious freedom people – after their parents have lived and human rights ends with the defec- a relatively enlightened form of Islam tion from Islam – even if the death – again turn to a stricter observance of sentence only rarely is carried out by Islamic regulations. courts but in most cases is done so by the offender’s family or the society. Here lies the real focus in the dis- Concrete Fields cussion between the Western and the of Discussion Islamic understanding of human rights and not in the superficial discussion of A sign of a detailed treatment of the whether Islam recognizes human rights subject of “Islam” would be a discus- at all. If, however, there are reports sion about concepts and content that, from all Islamic countries about viola- in another religious-cultural context, tions of human rights and limitations could have a different meaning. upon religious freedom – especially for converts – then these become under- standable only in the context of the A. The Question of Human Rights official Islamic definition of human There is, for example, the discussion and minority rights. Only on the basis about human rights. Muslim organiza- of a detailed knowledge of the religion,

Ho p e f o r Eu r o p e 9 Dr. Christine Schirrmacher culture, and legal system of Islam will tyrs entry into Paradise (Sura 4: 74), it be possible to conduct this discussion without examination of their faith: “I at all in wider settings and in the public will let no action that one of you commits realm. go unrewarded, whether it is done by a man or a woman . . . And those who, for my sake . . . have suffered hardship, and B. Suicide Attacks who have fought and been killed, I will Another example: The terror attacks forgive them their bad deeds, and, as a from 2001 and the following years were reward from God, I will let them enter condemned repeatedly from the Mus- gardens in whose valleys streams flow. lim side with the argument that the With God, one is rewarded well” (3: Koran emphasizes that the one who 195). The martyr, however, can expect kills a human being has “killed the Paradise (Sura 47: 4-6). “And if you are whole world” (Sura 5: 32). Numerous killed or die for God’s sake, then forgive- Muslims emphasized that the attacks ness and compassion from God are better are in no way to be justified with the than what you manage to do” (3: 157). aid of Islam. It is correct that the Koran (Sura 4: C. The Question of Tolerance 29), as well as Islamic tradition, disapproves of murder, just as it disapproves Another example is the question of of suicide. Murder is one of the serious tolerance and of the concept of toler- crimes listed in the Koran. The tradi- ance. A frequently expressed reproach tion explicitly condemns suicide: Who- made by Muslim apologists is that ever commits suicide out of the fear of Islam accepts Christianity, but the poverty or out of despair will not enter Christians do not accept Islam. It is fre- Paradise. quently pointed out in this connection Of course, those who carry out that Muslim conquerors – in contrast attacks in Palestine and other places do to the Christian churches and crusaders not consider themselves as those who – did not force the Christians to choose commit suicide but rather first of all as between conversion to Islam or death. martyrs, that is, as human beings who In addition, so the argument goes, fight and die for the cause of Islam, Muslims accepted Jesus Christ quite for the cause of God. An attack that fundamentally as a respected prophet is carried out with the high probability and the Old and New Testaments as of the attacker’s own death is hardly revelations, while Christians refused ever interpreted as suicide but rather as their recognition of Mohammed as well Jihad, as commitment to the cause of as of the Koran. God, as the final weapon against the Here, too, a discussion about the wrongful oppression of the community concept of “tolerance” easily moves in of Muslims. The Koran promises mar- the wrong direction without a detailed

10 MBS Te x t e 106 Muslim Immigration to Europe ... knowledge of Islam: What is under- It is worrisome that many Muslim stood under the term “tolerance” within organizations in Europe today urge Islam? In any case, not the recognition that nothing “negative” be permitted of another religion on an equal basis. to be published anymore about Islam, The Koran already makes clear that since this would mean discrimination. Mohammed, to be sure, campaigned In other words, everything not written for the recognition of the new religion from the Muslim point of view is to by Christians (and Jews) and urged be prevented from being published (a Christians and Jews to become mem- development that is far more advanced, bers of it, but, in his later years, after for example, in Great Britain, thanks the Christians of his time refused to to the efforts of Islamic lobbyists). The follow him, he considered the Christian point of departure for these consider- faith more and more to be blasphemy ations is the dhimma status assigned in and the Christian revelation to be falsi- the Muslim view to the Christians, that fied. Christians in areas conquered by is, the status of the protected minority Islam, indeed, were permitted as a rule that is placed under Islam and is subju- to retain their faith. But they became gated to Islamic law. Here, how “awake” subjugated persons (Arabic: dhimmis – Western society is will be very essential protected minorities), who paid taxes as it follows this development, as well for their “unbelief” and had to endure as to what extent it is ready to defend many legal disadvantages, even perse- the freedoms of the press and speech cution and death. established only after great effort. The Koran, indeed, certifies the Old and New Testaments as God’s revela- D. The Question of Women tion, and Jesus is a respected prophet in the Koran. But he is respected only A further example is the frequently as a “herald of Islam,” a precursor to cited situation of women. Here, too, a Mohammed who is only a human detailed knowledge of Islam would lead being and who brought salvation to to a better initial situation in the dis- no one. Jesus, in the Islamic position, cussion and, finally, to more honesty in was falsely revered by the Christians regard to the really controversial points. as God’s Son, and thereby Christians Muslim apologists emphasize that the completely distorted Jesus’ “originally woman in Islam enjoy equal status Islamic” message. The Christian rev- before God with men and, indeed, that elation as a “falsified text,” is given Islam endows them with true dignity, only very little respect in Islam, and freedom, protection, and respect. In the the person of Jesus as he is represented Western view, a woman with headscarf in the Old and New Testaments, just and cloak is an “oppressed creature.” as little. What is right?

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The Koran, indeed, speaks of the to this rule) – that stands much more in fact that man and woman were cre- opposition to European conceptions of ated equal before God, without giving law than does a piece of clothing. But, an indication that the woman might these controversial “women’s questions” be a creature of “less value.” At the have appeared to the present only too same time, the Koran speaks – and the seldom in public discussion. Islamic tradition even more clearly – of the different duties assigned to the man and the woman, from which different Summary rights are derived and, indeed, with which the legal discrimination of the It is not necessarily the case that the woman is sanctioned. She is legally dis- same content lies at the root of the criminated against in the law of inheri- same concepts. This cultural-religious tance (she inherits only half of what the content results rather from the specific man inherits), in witness rights (her tes- cultural-religious-political context in timony is worth only half as much as which it originated. Concepts such as the testimony of a man), and in mari- “tolerance” and “equality” – robbed of tal law (a divorce is made more difficult their occidental roots – cannot simply for her; in some countries it is almost be transferred without problem to other impossible; in most countries, polygamy cultures and religions and then, as a is allowed for the husband). A founda- matter of course, also offer the same tion of Islamic marital law that is rec- content. ognized everywhere is the wife’s duty to The present debate about the foun- be obedient and the man’s right of dis- dations of this society and about the cipline in regard to her that forbids her confrontation with a quite different to make her own self-determined deci- value system and religion has in a sense sions against his objections (to leave the forced itself upon us with all its might. house, to maintain contacts to persons This frightens us deeply and yet, at of whom he disapproves, and similar the same time, opens paths to a sound restrictions). If she does not render him discussion as long as Western society this obedience, then, according to the is able to resist falling into panic and opinion of the majority of theologians, raising the barricades but rather is able he is permitted to resort to means of to take stock soberly of the conditions discipline in accord with Sura 4:34. in its countries and among the immi- It is, thus, much more this mari- grants and to seek constructive solu- tal law (polygamy, duty to obey, dis- tions. Perhaps the debate about “inte- cipline, law of inheritance) – that, in gration” also is so agitated because the the Islamic world, is interpreted in the cultural-social or religious peculiarities vast majority of cases in a conservative of Europe, which should be defended sense (Turkey forms a certain exception here, have been defined clearly only in

12 MBS Te x t e 106 Muslim Immigration to Europe ... rare cases. Does Islam perhaps make ical forces. There cannot be any double Western society’s lack of goals and val- legal standard – neither in regard to the ues particularly clear? position of women nor in regard to the The majority of Muslims that lives recognition of polygamy, for example – and thinks apolitically in Europe and for only an agreement upon a shared is worried about the rights that Islamic legal and value system will be able to groups, bit by bit, successfully demand guarantee the preservation of our state expects an answer from the state, whose in the long run. It is rewarding to argue task it is – on the basis of a detailed and to struggle for these shared values knowledge of Islam – to arrive at a rea- and to defend a new Europe’s founda- sonable demarcation over against polit- tions for society, church, and state.

TheÜber den Author Autor

Christine Schirrmacher (MA in Islamic Studies 1988, PhD in Isla- mic Studies 1991, University of Bonn, with a thesis dealing with the Muslim-Christian controversy in the nineteenth and twen- thieth centuries) is presently Professor of Islamic Studies at the “Evangelische Theologische Faculteit” (Protestant University) in Leuven/Belgium und head of the „Institut für Islamfragen“ (Insti- tute of Islamic Studies) of the German Evangelical Alliance. She is a member of the „Internationale Gesellschaft für Menschen- rechte“ (International Society for Human Rights) (IGFM/ISHR), Frankfurt and board member of the „Orientdienst“, a organization working among Turkish immigrants in Germany. She has visited many contries of the Muslim world of the Near and Middle East and is author of several books, e.g., the 2 volume introduction “Der Islam” (1994/2003), “The Islamic View of Major Christian Teachings” (2001), “Herausforderung Islam – Der Islam zwischen Krieg und Frieden“ (2002) (The challenge of Islam – Islam between war and peace), “Kleines Lexikon der islamischen Familie” (Muslim family values) (2002)), “Frauen und die Scharia – Die Menschen- rechte im Islam“ (2004/2006) (Women under the Sharia- Human Rights in Islam), “Der Islam – eine Einführung” (2005) (Islam – A Short Introduction), “Islam und Christlicher Glaube – ein Vergleich“ (2006) (Islam and Christianity compared).

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