The Simulation, Development, and Testing of a Staged

THE SIMULATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND TESTING OF A STAGED

CATALYTIC MICROTUBE IGNITION SYSTEM

MATTHEW CHARLES DEANS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Thesis Advisors: Dr. James T’ien & Dr. Steven J. Schneider

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY

January, 2013

CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

We hereby approve the dissertation of Matthew Charles Deans for the Doctor of Philosophy in Aerospace Engineering degree*.

(signed)

James T’ien

(Chair of the Committee)

Steven Schneider

Paul Barnhart

Yasuhiro Kamotani

Donald Feke

(date) 7/23/2012

*We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material contained therein.

Dedication: I would like to dedicate this work to my fiancée, Leah. Thank you for being there through my stress and struggles and for supporting me even with your own sacrifices. I will always appreciate everything you’ve ever done for me!

Table of Contents

Contents Dedication: ...... ii List of Tables: ...... 4 List of Figures: ...... 5 Acknowledgements: ...... 14 List of Abbreviations: ...... 16 Abstract ...... 22 Part 1: Methane and Oxygen Catalytic Microtube ...... 25 Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 25 1.1: Background ...... 25 1.2: Prior Work ...... 29 Chapter 2: Experimental Methodology ...... 32 2.1 Facility ...... 34 Chapter 3: PLUG Catalytic Computational Methodology ...... 36 3.1: PLUG Code ...... 36 3.2: Chemical Mechanisms ...... 39 Chapter 4: Methane/Oxygen Experimental Results...... 40 4.1: Integrated Staged Design – Testing of Catalyst Element Only ...... 41 4.2: Integrated Staged Design – Testing of Staged Ignition of Augmenter Stages .. 80 4.3: Integrated Staged Design – Testing of the Ignition of Main Igniter Propellant Flows at Atmospheric Pressure ...... 119 Chapter 5: Plug Experimental Simulation Results ...... 136 5.1: Introduction ...... 136 5.2: Variation of Inlet Temperature at Low Power Limit ...... 139 5.3: Power Variation...... 146 5.4: Mixture Variation ...... 150 5.5: Velocity Variation ...... 154 5.6: Pressure Variation ...... 157 Chapter 6: Conclusions ...... 161

6.1: Summary ...... 161 6.2: Future Work ...... 163 Part 2: Simulation of Hydrogen and Oxygen Catalytic Microtube Using a Transient Code ...... 164 Chapter 7: Introduction ...... 164 Chapter 8: Microcombustor Code Computational Methodology ...... 167 8.1: Governing Equations ...... 169 8.2: Chemical Mechanisms ...... 172 8.3: Geometry ...... 172 Chapter 9: Hydrogen/Oxygen Microcombustor Simulation Results ...... 176 9.1: Variation of Equivalence Ratio (Fixed T, V, P, and Power) ...... 176 9.2: Variation of Equivalence Ratio (Fixed Choked Mass Flow and Power) ...... 185 9.3: Variation of Power ...... 188 9.4a: Variation of Individual Preheat Temperatures ...... 194 9.4b: Cumulative Variation of Preheat Temperature ...... 198 9.5a: Nominal Case ...... 199 9.5b: Time Dependency of Nominal Case...... 205 9.6: Variation of Equivalence Ratio around Nominal Point ...... 213 9.7: Variation of Cumulative Preheat Temperature Around Nominal ...... 217 9.8: Variation of Pressure Around Nominal ...... 220 9.9: Variation of Velocity Around Nominal ...... 224 9.10: Variation of Applied Power Around Nominal ...... 227 9.11: Variation of Inner Diameter Around Nominal ...... 230 9.12: Variation of Wall Thickness and Outer Diameter Around Nominal ...... 235 9.13: Variation of Unheated Length Around Nominal ...... 239 Chapter 10: Conclusions ...... 244 10.1: Summary ...... 244 10.2: Future Work...... 246 Appendix A: Calibration and Error ...... 248 Appendix B: Catalytic Tube Array ...... 252 Appendix C: Single Tube Catalyst ...... 269 C.1: Single Tube Catalyst ...... 269

C.2: Single Tube Catalyst with Platinum Tube Extension ...... 282 Appendix D: Staged Design ...... 298 D.1: Staged Design with Wishbone Catalyst – Catalyst Only ...... 298 D.2: Staged Design with Wishbone Catalyst – Catalyst and Primary Augmenter ...... 308 D.3: Staged Design – Catalyst, Primary, and Secondary Augmenter (Vertical) ...... 317 D.4: Staged Design – Catalyst, Primary, and Secondary Augmenter (Horizontal) ..... 324 Appendix E: Integrated Staged Design – All Flows at Altitude with Cryogens ...... 332 Appendix F: Design Equation Reference ...... 356 Bibliography ...... 358

List of Tables: Table 1: Definitions of Equivalence and Mixture Ratio for Methane and Oxygen ...... 47 Table 2: Comparison of Exit Concentrations Between Original Simulations and Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 144 Table 3: Definitions of Equivalence and Mixture Ratio for Hydrogen and Oxygen ...... 176 Table 4: List of Error Percentages for Various Quantities ...... 249 Table 5: Matrix of Trials Conducted with Cryogenic Propellants at Altitude Conditions 350

List of Figures: Figure 1: Comparison of Typical Spark and Microtube Catalyst Hardware ...... 32 Figure 2: Diagram of Computationally Simulated PLUG Channel ...... 39 Figure 3: Image of Updated Catalyst with Scale ...... 41 Figure 4: Diagram of 'Wishbone' Style Dual-Microtube Catalyst ...... 42 Figure 5: Close-Up View of Wishbone Catalyst Tip - Note: Scale detail shown; this detail view is the original catalyst discussed in appendix D with the exterior thermocouple wire ...... 44 Figure 6: Wishbone Catalyst Flow and Heating Power System Diagram ...... 45 Figure 7: Traces of Temperature, Power, Current, and Voltage for Two Cases on Either Side of Activation Point – Note: Flow Timing and Triggers Were Varied to a Small Degree as Marked ...... 48 Figure 8: Catalyst Activation and Low Limit Cycle ...... 49 Figure 9: Temperature Traces for Ignition versus Non-Ignition in an Activated Catalyst 50 Figure 10: Reactivation and Low Limit Cycle of Catalyst Assembly ...... 52 Figure 11: Comparison of Activation and Reactivation Cycles for Both Updated Catalysts ...... 54 Figure 12: Illustration of Differences Between Two Updated Catalysts...... 55 Figure 13: Comparison of Chamber and Catalyst Inlet Pressure Traces Showing Backflow Issue ...... 59 Figure 14: Images of Updated Catalyst in Support with End View Detail ...... 60 Figure 15: Resulting Tip Temperatures of Catalyst with Mixture Ratio and Flow Rate Variation at Atmospheric Conditions - Note: Preheat Temperature of O/F = 1 trials was approximately 1060 K, O/F = 1.66 was approximately 840 K so the Increase from Preheat to Peak are Approximately Equal ...... 61 Figure 16: Temperature Trace of Catalyst Tip at Atmospheric for Two Different Mixture Ratios with Constant Mass Flow Rate of 0.0138 g/s ...... 63 Figure 17: Resulting Tip Temperatures of Catalyst with Mixture Ratio and Flow Rate Variation at Altitude Conditions ...... 65 Figure 18: Pressure Traces of Catalyst Inlet Pressure at Altitude Conditions for Non- and Combusting Trials ...... 66 Figure 19: Comparison of Preheat Tip Temperature Traces of Catalyst for Atmospheric and Altitude Trials with Current of 7.85 amps for both ...... 67 Figure 20: Comparison of Catalyst Tip Temperatures for Altitude and Atmospheric Conditions ...... 69 Figure 21: Trace of Catalyst Tip Temperature at Altitude with Corresponding Visual Images – Note: Tip thermocouple is on the left side of the image; the glow on the right is a reflection ...... 70 Figure 22: Comparison of Catalyst Tip Temperature Traces at Altitude with Corresponding Visuals at Max Temp...... 71 Figure 23: Comparison of Catalyst Tip Temperature Trace for Model versus Experimental Results Using Matched Power Input ...... 75 Figure 24: Trace of Catalyst Current, Voltage, and Power during Startup Surge ...... 76

Figure 25: Comparison of Catalyst Tip Temperature Trace for Model versus Experimental Results Using Resistance Model ...... 78 Figure 26: Experimental versus Model Power with Power Loss Traces ...... 79 Figure 27: Integrated Catalyst through Secondary Augmenter Flow and Heating Power System Diagram ...... 82 Figure 28: Image of Primary Augmenter Radial Flow Channel Detail ...... 83 Figure 29: Interior Borescope Picture of Assembly - Note: Radial Secondary Augmenter Ports in Concentric Circles, Primary Augmenter is Central Flat Face, Dual Tube Catalyst Centered ...... 84 Figure 30: Local Overall Theorized Cold Flow Mixture Ratio Trend ...... 86 Figure 31: Illustration of Exploded View of Catalyst through Secondary Augmenter Integrated Spark Plug Replacement Device ...... 87 Figure 32: Preassembled Part Views of Augmenter Assembly with Manifold Details ...... 88 Figure 33: Image of Assembled Spark Plug Replacement Assembly Containing Catalyst Through Secondary Augmenter ...... 90 Figure 34: Catalyst Tip Temperature Trace of Catalyst and Primary Augmenter Ignition - Trial 512 ...... 92 Figure 35: Trace of Downstream Temperatures for Catalyst and Primary Augmenter Ignition - Trial 599 ...... 94 Figure 36: Primary Augmenter Mixture Ratio and Mass Flow Testing Regime with Resulting Catalyst Tip Temperature ...... 95 Figure 37: Catalyst Tip Temperature as a Function of Primary Augmenter Mixture Ratio with Constant Mass Flow ...... 96 Figure 38: Comparison of Temperature Traces of Catalyst versus Catalyst and Primary Augmenter in Integrated Design at Atmospheric Conditions ...... 97 Figure 39: Maximum Catalyst Tip Temperature for Primary Augmenter Flow Rate and Mixture Ratio Testing Regime ...... 98 Figure 40: Maximum Catalyst Tip Temperature as a Function of Total Combined (Catalyst + Primary Augmenter) Mixture Ratio ...... 99 Figure 41: Secondary Augmenter at Atmospheric Conditions Test Matrix ...... 100 Figure 42: Secondary Augmenter at Atmospheric Conditions Test Matrix as a Function of Total Flow and Mixture Ratio ...... 102 Figure 43: Secondary Augmenter Test Matrix with Constant Primary Augmenter Flow Rate ...... 103 Figure 44: Resulting Catalyst Tip and Main Igniter Temperatures as a Function of Secondary Augmenter Mixture Ratio - Note: Constant Mass Flow Rate of 0.186 g/s in Secondary Augmenter with Constant 20.5 O/F in Primary Augmenter ...... 104 Figure 45: Resulting Catalyst Tip and Main Igniter Temperatures as a Function of Secondary Augmenter Mass Flow Rate - Note: Constant 1.42 O/F in Secondary Augmenter with Constant 20.5 O/F in Primary Augmenter ...... 105 Figure 46: Test Matrix of Integrated Primary Augmenter at Altitude Conditions ...... 107 Figure 47: Temperature Trace of Igniting and Quenching Primary Augmenter at Altitude Trials ...... 108

Figure 48: Timing Trace of Catalyst, Primary, and Secondary Augmenter Mixture Ratios and Voltage with Associated Visual – Trial 666 ...... 111 Figure 49: Test Matrix for Secondary Augmenter at Altitude Conditions – Average Catalyst Mixture Ratio = 1, Primary Augmenter Mixture Ratio = 23.0, Primary Augmenter Mass Flow Rate = 0.017 g/s ...... 114 Figure 50: Test Matrix of Current Versus 1) Mixture Ratio and 2) Mass Flow Rate for Secondary Augmenter at Altitude Conditions ...... 116 Figure 51: Temperature Traces of Catalyst Tip and Main Chamber Thermocouples with Timing for Secondary Augmenter at Altitude Conditions – Trial 666 ...... 118 Figure 52: Image of Main Igniter Body with Nozzle Removed ...... 120 Figure 53: Front View Image of Fully Assembled Ignition System ...... 121 Figure 54: Integrated Catalyst through Main Igniter Flow and Heating Power System Diagram ...... 122 Figure 55: Main Igniter with Choked Gas Torch Flame ...... 123 Figure 56: Main Igniter Test Matrix of Mixture Ratio and Mass Flow Rate with Gaseous Propellants ...... 124 Figure 57: Chamber Pressure as a Function of Main Igniter Mass Flow Rate for Gaseous Propellants ...... 125 Figure 58: Choked Chamber Pressure as a Function of Main Igniter Mass Flow Rate for Gaseous Propellants with Linear Trend ...... 126 Figure 59: Maximum Chamber Temperature as a Function of Main Igniter Mixture Ratio and Overall Mixture Ratio Accounting for All Flows - Note: Large Error Bars on T are Not Uncertainty but an Indication of +/- 75 K Initial Chamber Temperature ...... 127 Figure 60: Chamber Temperature Trace of Main Igniter with Gaseous Propellants - Trial 917 ...... 128 Figure 61: Chamber Temperature as Compared to Chamber Pressure - Note: Error Bars Again Due to Initial Temperature Variation ...... 129 Figure 62: Chamber Temperature as Compared to Total Mass Flow Rate for Main Igniter Ignition with Gaseous Propellants ...... 130 Figure 63: Graph of Calculated Thrust as a Function of Mass Flow Rate for Main Igniter with Gaseous Propellants ...... 132 Figure 64: Image Comparison of Catalyst Before and After Test Series – Note: Separation and Linearity in Former and Helical Shape in After ...... 133 Figure 65: Variation of Initial Temperature for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case with 0.75 W Applied Power ...... 139 Figure 66: Reactant and Temperature Profiles for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case with Varied Inlet Temperatures ...... 141 Figure 67: Profiles of Generated Species for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case Under Varied Initial Temperatures...... 142 Figure 68: Profile of Minor Radicals in Experimentally Matched PLUG Case under Varied Initial Temperatures ...... 143 Figure 69: Temperature Traces due to Variation of Applied Power in Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 147

Figure 70: Traces of Similar Major Product Species Under Varied Power Application for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 148 Figure 71: Traces of Differing Major Product Species Under Varied Power Application for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 150 Figure 72: Temperature Traces due to Variation of Mixture Ratio in Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 151 Figure 73: Traces of Major Product Species Around Mixture Ratio Set Point for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 152 Figure 74: Traces of Minor Product Species Around Mixture Ratio Set Point for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 153 Figure 75: Temperature Profiles Under Varied Velocity for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 155 Figure 76: Traces of Key Major Species Under Velocity Variation for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 156 Figure 77: Temperature Traces Under Varied Pressure for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 158 Figure 78: Traces of Differing Product Species Under Varied Pressure for Experimentally Matched PLUG Case ...... 159 Figure 79: Illustration of Simulated Catalytic System ...... 173 Figure 80: Adiabatic Flame Temperature Through Span of Equivalence Ratios Under Representative Conditions ...... 178 Figure 81: Maximum Surface and Gas Phase Temperatures Under Fixed Representative Conditions with Equivalence Ratio Variation ...... 180 Figure 82: Temperature Traces For Equivalence Ratios for Representative Microcombustor Case with 80 W Applied ...... 181 Figure 83: Reactant and Product Traces for Limit Equivalence Ratios for Representative Condition Microcombustor Case ...... 183 Figure 84: Key Radical Traces for Limit Equivalence Ratios for Representative Condition Microcombustor Case ...... 184 Figure 85: Steady State Temperature as a Result of Equivalence Ratio Variation for Constant Choked Mass Flow Microcombustor Case with 50 W Applied ...... 186 Figure 86: Variation of Velocity and Pressure for Constant Choked Mass Flow in Microcombustor Cases ...... 187 Figure 87: Steady State Reactant and Temperature Traces for End-Tube Reaction Onset Microcombustor Case – Phi = 4.5, Mass Flow Rate = 0.005 g/s, with 50 W applied ...... 190 Figure 88: Steady State Temperature and Reactant Profiles for 60 W Phi = 4.5 Constant Choked Mass Flow Microcombustor Case ...... 191 Figure 89: Steady State Composition Traces for 60 W Phi = 4.5 Constant Choked Mass Flow Microcombustor Case ...... 192 Figure 90: Steady State Species Generation Rate Traces for 60 W Phi = 4.5 Constant Choked Mass Flow Microcombustor Case ...... 193

Figure 91: Steady State Temperature Profiles Under Variation of Preheated Inlet Gas Temperature Microcombustor Case ...... 195 Figure 92: Comparison of Steady State Temperature Profiles for 900 K Preheated Catalyst and Base Temperature Microcombustor Cases with 30 W Applied ...... 197 Figure 93: Steady State Temperature and Key Gas Phase Radical Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case ...... 200 Figure 94: Gas Phase Ignition Kernel View of Steady State Temperature and Key Radical Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case ...... 201 Figure 95: Steady State Composition Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case ...... 203 Figure 96: Transient Gas Phase Temperature Profiles for Startup Transient in Nominal Preheated Case ...... 206 Figure 97: Select Transient Gas and Solid Phase Temperature Profiles for Startup Transient in Nominal Case ...... 208 Figure 98: Transient H Radical Profiles for Startup Transient in Nominal Preheated Case ...... 209 Figure 99: Post Power Shut-Off Transient Temperature Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case ...... 211 Figure 100: Post Power Shut-Off Transient H Molar Production Rate Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case ...... 212 Figure 101: Steady State Temperature Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Equivalence Ratio Variation ...... 213 Figure 102: Steady State Gas Reaction Heat Generation Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Equivalence Ratio Variation ...... 214 Figure 103: Steady State Reactant and Product Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Equivalence Ratio Variation ...... 215 Figure 104: Steady State Key Radical Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Equivalence Ratio Variation ...... 216 Figure 105: Steady State Temperature Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Preheat Temperature Variation ...... 217 Figure 106: Steady State Key Species Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Preheat Temperature Variation ...... 218 Figure 107: Steady State Temperature Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Pressure Variation ...... 220 Figure 108: Steady State Gas Combustion Heat Generation Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Pressure Variation ...... 221 Figure 109: Steady State Water Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Pressure Variation ...... 222 Figure 110: Steady State H Mass Fraction Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Pressure Variation...... 223 Figure 111: Steady State Temperature Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Velocity Variation ...... 224

Figure 112: Steady State H Mass Fraction Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Velocity Variation...... 225 Figure 113: Steady State Temperature Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Power Variation ...... 226 Figure 114: Convection Heat Flux Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Power Variation ...... 228 Figure 115: Steady State Radiation Power Loss Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Power Variation ...... 229 Figure 116: Steady State H Radical Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Power Variation ...... 229 Figure 117: Steady State Temperature Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Inner Diameter Variation ...... 231 Figure 118: Steady State Radiation Heat Loss Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Inner Diameter Variation ...... 232 Figure 119: Steady State Combustion Heat Release Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Inner Diameter Variation ...... 233 Figure 120: Steady State Key Radical Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Inner Diameter Variation ...... 233 Figure 121: Steady State Reactant and Product Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Inner Diameter Variation ...... 234 Figure 122: Steady State Temperature Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Outer Diameter Variation ...... 235 Figure 123: Steady State Radiation Power Loss Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with Outer Diameter Variation ...... 237 Figure 124: Steady State Key Radical Profiles for Nominal Preheated Microcombustor Case with O