DISSERTATION Titel der Dissertation Religion in the context of African/Igbo migration From the pre-colonial times to the contemporary period Verfasser: MMag. Augustus Chukwuma Ohajiriogu angestrebter akademischer Grad Doktor der Theologie (Dr. theol.) Wien, im Dezember 2009 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt: A 080 011 Dissertationsgebiet lt. Studienblatt: Katholische Theologie (Religionswissenschaft) Betreuer: Univ.- Prof. DDr. Johann Figl 2 DEDICATION * To my mother Mrs. Ohajiriogu Beatrice and my late father Mr. Ambrose Uzuegbu Ohajiriogu; for showing me the light of civilization. * To all who died on account of frustrations resulting from migration 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Religion in the context of African migration arose out of years of qualitative and quantitative research among Nigerian migrants’ communities in Austria and the study of Religions among men and women of all walks of life. During the course of this research, many fruitful discussions, constructive criticisms and suggestions arose from colleagues and professors which contributed immensely to the formation of this work. Therefore, I am thankful to all my colleagues who contributed to the making of this work. I am highly grateful to Univ.-Prof. DDr. Johann Figl, head of department of Religious Studies who at the same time supervised my work all these years. His fatherly and professional contributions facilitated the pace of the work. I also thank in a special way my second supervisor Univ. Prof. Dr. Gerald Hans Hödl in the department of Religious Studies. I will not forget other Professors who helped me during the course of the work and during the seminars and Privatissimi like Univ. Prof. Jäggle who is the Dean of Theology faculty und Dr. Mrs. Regina Polak working now at the department of pastoral theology, I thank them for their various supports. I wish to thank my home diocese Okigwe and the diocese of St. Pölten through whom I started my studies in Austira more especially the people in Haag where I used as my first home in Austria. My thanks go still Rev. Fr. Karl Schlögelhofer under whose roof I still find a home whenever I visit Haag. All my colleagues and friends who contributed in various forms towards the realization of this work are also remembered: Schlögl Monika and Neuschwendtner Ursula with whom the early stage of the work was discussed and whose pieces of advice played motivating roles to its realisation. I am indebted to Mag. Moser Franz whose constant impulse and questions regarding the work kept on inspiring me to continue the work. I thank my colleagues in BRG/BORG Krems who consciously or unconsciously contributed to the making of this work. My greatest regards go to Wilhelm Ziskovsky and Annette Schocher who proof-read the work when it was at its nascent stage. Their views and contributions helped greatly in the formation of this work as it is right now. I thank Rev. Fr. Samuel Uzukwu who gave the work a critical look from an African perspective. I am also indebted to Rev. Fr. Jude Okeoma, a one time student of mine who turned to be a good friend who also devoted much time during the summer holidays reading, criticising and synthesizing the work. I am thankful and grateful because without their helps perhaps this work would not have been ready by now. I shall not forget to remember Rev. Fr. 4 Reginald Ejikeme who was playing the roles both of a friend and that of a psychotherapist during the formation of the work. All my African friends in the university and members of the various associations and religious groups from where I gathered my ideas should be remembered especially the African Cultural Society in St. Pölten and African Catholic Community in Vienna. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE WORK 15 0.1 MOTIVE, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 16 0.2 SCOPE AND LIMITATION 17 0.3 METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH 17 0.4 SOURCES: LITERATURE REVIEW 19 0.5 STRUCTURE AND DIVISIONS OF THE WORK 20 PART ONE: THE PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN/IGBO TRADITIONAL RELGION AND MIGRATION 25 1. 0 INTRODUCTION 26 1.1 GENERAL UNDERSTANDING OF MIGRATION 26 1.2 AFRICAN TRIBES - THE NIGERIAN CASE 27 1.3 MAJOR TRIBES IN NIGERIA 28 1.3.1 HAUSA 29 1.3.2 YORUBA 31 1.3.3 THE IGBO PEOPLE OF NIGERIA 34 1.4 MAJOR DIVISIONS IN IGBO LAND 38 1.5 NRI MYTH OF ORIGIN 40 1.5.1 THE ROLE OF NRI IN IGBO TRADITION, CULTURE AND MIGRATION 43 1.6 THE IGBO PRE-COLONIAL TRADITIONAL RELIGION 45 6 1.6.1 UNDERSTANDING RELIGION 45 1.6.2 WHAT IS TRADITIONAL IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGIONS? 47 1.6.3 UNDERSTANDING AFRICAN/IGBO TRADITIONAL RELIGION 48 1.7 SACRIFICE AND OFFERING IN AFRICAN/IGBO RELIGION 49 1.7.1 SACRIFICE OF EXPIATION 51 1.7.2 SACRIFICE TO WARD OFF MOLESTATION FROM UNKOWN EVIL SPIRITS 51 1.8 GOD IN AFRICAN/IGBO TRADITIONAL RELIGION 52 1.9 MAN IN AFRICAN SOCIETY 57 1.10 MAN’S RELATIONSHIP TO GOD IN THE WORLD 58 1.11 IGBO TRADITIONAL WORLDVIEW (COSMOLOGY) 60 1.12 THE VENERATION OF ANCESTORS 61 1.12.1 IGBO MORNING PRAYER 67 1.12.2 EKPERE 70 1.12.3 AYIYO 70 1.12.4 IGO OFO 71 1.13 PLACES OF WORSHIP IN IGBO TRADITIONAL RELIGION 73 1.14 SOME SOCIAL AND TRADITIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN IGBO SOCIETY 74 1.14.1 THE FAMILY 74 1.14.2 THE VILLAGE/TOWN 77 1.14.3 THE CLAN 77 1.14.4 MASQUERADE 78 1.14.5 AGE GRADE 80 1.15 IGBO TRADITIONAL RELIGION AND PRE-COLONIAL MIGRATION 81 1.15.1 PATTERNS OF PRE-COLONIAL MIGRATION 84 1.15.2 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PRE-COLONIAL MIGRATION 86 1.15.3 PRE-COLONIAL ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES: CHARACTERISTIC OF THE IGBO PEOPLE AS MIGRANT ETHNICITY 90 7 1.16 INDIVIDUALISM AND TRADITIONAL AFRICA COMMUNALISM 92 1.17 SUMMARY 94 PART TWO: RELIGION AND MIGRATION IN THE COLONIAL AND POST COLONIAL AFRICA/IGBO 97 2.0 INTRODUCTION 98 2.1 NIGERIANS IN CONTACT WITH EUROPEANS 99 2.2 PRE-COLONIAL SLAVE TRADE 101 2.3 SLAVE TRADE WITH THE EUROPEANS 102 2.3.1 AFRICAN SOCIETY IN COLONIAL PERIOD 104 2.3.2 CRUSADE AGAINST THE SLAVE TRADE 108 2.3.3 THE IGBO SOCIETY AND THE FREED SLAVES 112 2.4 NATIONALISM, COLONIALISM AND INDEPENDENCE 113 2.4.1 COLONIAL ERA IN NIGERIA 115 2.4.2 SYSTEM OF INDIRECT RULE 116 2.4.3 THE GROWTH OF NATIONALISTS 117 2.4.4 CONSTITUTIONAL EVOLUTION OF MODERN NIGERIA 120 2.4.5 DEMOCRACY AND POLITICAL FORMATION IN NIGERIA 126 2.5 MIGRATION IN THE COLONIAL AFRICA 129 2.5.1 MONITIZATION OF THE ECONOMY 130 2.5.2 INTRODUCTION OF CASH CROP ECONOMY 130 2.5.3 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 131 2.5.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL URBAN MIGRATION 133 2.6 VARIOUS MISSIONARY GROUPS DURING THE COLONIAL ERA 134 2.6.1 ESTABLISHMENT OF MISSIONS AND SCHOOLS 135 2.6.2 BUILDING OF CHRISTIAN VILLAGES 140 2.6.3 IGBO TRADITIONAL BELIEF SYSTEM AND CHRISTIANITY 142 2.6.4 AFRICAN RELIGIOUSITY DURING THE COLONIAL ERA 147 8 2.7 SOCIAL CHANGES IN AFRICA 148 2.7.1 REASONS FOR THE CHANGES 149 2.7.1.1 WORLD REVOLUTION 150 2.7.1.2. EVANGELIZATION 150 2.7.1.3. EUROPEAN EXPANSION INTO AFRICA 152 2.7.2 FORMS OF THE CHANGES IN AFRICAN SOCIETY 153 2.7.2.1 CHANGE AND FAMILY LIFE 154 2.7.2.2 CHANGE IN THE INDIVIDUAL PERSON 154 2.7.2.3 THE CHANGE IS CULTURAL 155 2.7.2.4 URBANIZATION AS INSTRUMENT OF CHANGE 156 3.0 POST COLONIAL AFRICAN RELIGION AND MIGRATION 157 3.1 PATTERNS OF POST-COLONIAL MIGRATION 158 3.2 DEMOGRAPHIC PROBLEMS IN THE POST-COLONIAL AFRICA 159 3.3 INCOMPATIBILITY OF NIGERIAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES 160 3.4 THE FIRST REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA AND ITS DEMISE 163 3.4.1 THE IMPACT OF BIAFRAN WAR ON IGBO PEOPLE 168 3.4. 2 THE ACTIVITIES OF THE CHURCH DURING THE BIAFRA WAR 171 3.5 RISE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM IN AFRICAN SOCIETIES 174 3.5.1 EMERGENCE OF NEW AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGIONISTS’ MOVEMENTS 176 3.5.2 TYPES OF RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS 178 3.5.3 ROSICRUICIAN 180 3.5.4 GODIANISM 181 3.6 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROLIFERATION OF THE NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS 183 3.6.1 SOCIO-POLITICAL REASONS 183 3.6.2 SEARCH FOR SECURITY 184 3.6.3 THEOLOGICAL AND MORAL QUESTIONS 187 9 3.7 CHALLENGES FROM THE NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS BEFORE THE CHURCH 189 4.0 UNDERSTANDING THE TERM INCULTURATION 191 4.1 UNDERSTANDING INCULTURATION THEOLOGY 192 4.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF INCULTURATION IN AFRICA 195 4.3 INCULTURATION AND THE DOCUMENTS OF THE CHURCH 196 4.4 INCULTURATION AND THE CATHOLIC CHARISMATIC RENEWAL MOVEMENT 198 4.5 SUMMARY 199 PART THREE: RELIGION IN THE FACE OF THE CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN/IGBO MIGRATION 205 5.0 INTRODUCTION 206 5.1 EUROPE FOR UNINFORMED AFRICANS 206 5.2 TRAVELLING TO EUROPE 208 5.2.1 SOME AFRICAN WOMEN IN THE FIELD OF MODERN EUROPEAN MIGRATION 211 5.2.2 CATEGORIES OF AFRICANS IN EUROPE 215 5.2.3 MIGRANTS’ MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND EVANGELIZATION 216 5.3 THE EUROPEAN SOCIO-RELIGIOUS ENVIRONMENT: THE AUSTRIAN CASE 218 5.3.1 SHIFT FROM THE MAINLINE CHURCHES 221 5.3.2 NEW AGE RELIGIOSITY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON EUROPEAN SOCIETY 223 5.3.3 CONSUMERISM AND RELIGION’S CONSTRUCTORS 224 5.4 THE CONSTRUCTION OF AFRICAN COMMUNITIES IN EUROPE: THE AUSTRIAN CASE 228 5.4.1 THE FORMATION OF AFRICAN CATHOLIC COMMUNITY 229 10 5.4.2 THE ROLE OF AFRICAN CATHOLIC COMMUNITIES TO AFRICAN MIGRANTS 235 5.4.3 AFRICAN RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES AS VEHICLES OF INTEGRATION 241 5.4.4 THE RELEVANCE OF RELIGION TO AFRICAN MIGRANTS 243 5.5 MUTUAL INFLUENCE BETWEEN RELIGION AND MIGRATION 246 5.6 RELIGION AND MIGRATION IN AFRICA AND EUROPE: A COMPARISON 248 5.6 SUMMARY 250 PART FOUR: GENERAL EVALUATION, SUMMARY, CONCLUDING REMARKS AND REFERENCES 253 6.