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Img/User/7493 E.Pdf [Last Accessed: 23.5.16] City Research Online City, University of London Institutional Repository Citation: Ajates Gonzalez, R. (2016). Agricultural cooperatives: promoting or hindering fairer and more sustainable food systems? The case of Spain and the UK. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City, University of London) This is the accepted version of the paper. This version of the publication may differ from the final published version. Permanent repository link: https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/17685/ Link to published version: Copyright: City Research Online aims to make research outputs of City, University of London available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the author(s) and/or copyright holders. URLs from City Research Online may be freely distributed and linked to. Reuse: Copies of full items can be used for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge. Provided that the authors, title and full bibliographic details are credited, a hyperlink and/or URL is given for the original metadata page and the content is not changed in any way. City Research Online: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ [email protected] PhD Thesis Agricultural cooperatives: promoting or hindering fairer and more sustainable food systems? The case of Spain and the UK Raquel Ajates Gonzalez Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Policy Centre for Food Policy Department of Sociology City, University of London December 2016 1 [This page is intentionally left blank] 2 Table of contents Page Table of Figures, Tables, Boxes and Images 7 Acknowledgements 9 Abstract 11 Acronyms and abbreviations 12 1. Introduction: Setting up the problem 14 1.1. Structure of the thesis and introduction to the research questions 14 1.2. Why this research? Relevance and research objectives 17 1.3. Introducing agricultural cooperatives: definitions, principles and 20 typologies 1.3.1.What is a cooperative? 21 1.3.2.Types of agricultural cooperatives 24 1.4. Summary 27 2. Past and present: Agricultural cooperatives in Europe 28 2.1. Historical background: The evolution of agricultural cooperation from the 28 1800s to the 21st century 2.1.1 Early European thinkers of cooperation: the ideologies that 28 inspired the movement 2.1.2 History of agricultural cooperation in the UK: from workers’ 31 union to the European Union 2.1.3 History of agricultural cooperation in Spain: Anarchism, 38 Francoism and the Catholic Church 2.1.4 Conclusions from historical background 44 2.2 Agricultural cooperation in the 21st century 45 2.2.1 Agriculture in the European Union: the CAP and the rise of 46 Producer Organisations 2.2.2 UK agricultural cooperation in the 21st century 51 2.2.3 Spanish agricultural cooperation in the 21st century 53 2.2.4 Fruit and vegetable cooperatives in Europe 57 2.2.5 Summary 60 3. Theorising cooperativism: a multidisciplinary research topic 62 3.1 Methodology used for systematically identifying, collating and reviewing 62 literature 3.2 Literature on agricultural cooperatives by discipline and theme 65 3.2.1 Biosocial sciences literature 65 3.2.2 Historical literature 67 3.2.3 Development studies literature 70 3.2.4 Economics literature 71 3.2.5 Food policy literature 76 3.3 Review of literature defining sustainable food systems 79 3.4 Summary 85 4. Methodology and theoretical framework 86 4.1 Research objectives and evolution of the research questions 86 4.2 Theoretical and conceptual framework 89 4.2.1 Critical approach to epistemology 90 3 4.2.2 Initial theoretical framework 94 4.2.3 Conceptual framework 100 4.3 Multilevel cross-country comparative research 102 4.4 Case study methodology 108 4.5 Types of data collected and data analysis method 111 4.5.1 Defining boundaries: from country level to individual cooperative members 111 4.5.2 Multilevel data for a multilevel analysis 115 4.5.3 Six phases of thematic analysis 124 4.6 Qualitative Quality 127 4.6.1 Triangulation and crystallisation 129 4.6.2 Transcription process and the use of quotes 132 4.7 Ethical considerations and confidentiality 133 5. Leading the way: market-oriented agricultural cooperatives in Spain and UK 135 5.1 Introduction 135 5.2 UK: Farmway as an illustration of consolidation of the AC sector 135 5.2.1 Case study: From Farmway to Mole Valley Farm 135 5.2.2 The members’ perspective 136 5.2.3 The experts’ perspective 141 5.3 Anecoop, or Spain as the garden of Europe 148 5.3.1 Case study: Anecoop 149 5.3.2 The members’ perspective 152 5.3.3 The experts’ perspective 157 5.4 Conclusion 167 6. Experts’ views on the European policy context: The price of remaining competitive 168 6.1 Introduction 168 6.2 Legal forms and cooperatives: a dilution of the cooperative spirit? 169 6.3 Governance: the skimming of the cooperative principles 172 6.4 Sustainability: “Monsanto will swap you six for half a dozen” 174 6.5 Cooperative education 181 6.6 The importance of language and terminology 183 6.7 Path dependency and inevitability of the corporatisation of the AC sector 185 6.8 Social movement 190 6.9 The future is polarised 194 6.10 Conclusions 197 7. Emerging models of cooperation in food and farming: Multi-stakeholder cooperatives 198 7.1 Multi-stakeholderism: a new idea coming of age? 199 7.2 The “Open Cooperative” framework 203 7.3 Case studies 204 7.3.1 UK case studies: Manchester Veg People and OrganicLea 205 7.3.2 Spanish case studies: Actyva and Esnetik 209 7.4 Can these MSCs be considered “Open Coops”? 211 7.4.1 Internalising negative externalities 212 7.4.2 Reconnecting: economic democracy 215 7.4.3 Co-producing commons 219 7.4.4 Global outlook: socialising knowledge 221 7.4.5 Legal aspects 225 7.5 Challenges and opportunities ahead 227 4 7.5.1 Cultural 227 7.5.2 Sectorial 228 7.5.3 Legal 228 7.5.4 Economic 228 7.5.5 Policy context 229 7.5.6 Academic 229 7.6 Conclusion 230 8. Fighting the cooperative corner: interrogating alterity 232 8.1 Introduction 232 8.2 Conceptualising third spaces of cooperation 234 8.3 Opening up spaces of possibilities and closing gaps to maintain resistance 234 8.3.1 Informal cooperative behaviours and social capital amongst members 235 8.3.2 Governance models for diverse memberships 236 8.3.3 Putting the movement back into agricultural cooperatives 238 8.3.4 Multi-stakeholderism as a legal model 240 8.3.5 Cooperative principles: how relevant are they in regulating third space practices? 242 8.4 Multi-stakeholder cooperatives’ practices: generating third spaces and valuing the marginal 243 8.5 Conclusion: Distributed governance and distributed economy as methods of resistance 248 9. Theoretical implications: a new integrated framework for deconstructing agricultural cooperatives 251 9.1 Introduction 251 9.2 Overcoming biases in the study of agricultural cooperatives 254 9.2.1 Beyond quantophrenia: overcoming the reductionism of ACs 9.2.2 Western epistemology’s three fundamental biases: 254 ethnocentrism, androcentrism and anthropocentrism 9.3 An integrated theoretical framework for agricultural cooperatives 257 9.3.1 The cooperative triangle 257 9.3.2 The double cooperative hourglass 262 9.3.3 The role of policy 266 9.3.4 Policy differences and similarities between Spain and UK 270 9.3.5 Cooperative sustainability 274 9.4 Conclusion 276 10. Conclusions: implications for agricultural cooperatives, food policy and alternative food initiatives 278 10.1 Implications for the agricultural cooperative sector 278 10.2 Reflexive practice 281 10.2.1 Reflections on the research questions 281 10.2.2 Reflections on methodology and methods 282 10.2.3 Acknowledging limitations: Reflections on methodological choices 284 10.3 Value of this research: disciplinary, theoretical, methodological, empirical and social contributions 287 10.4 Implications for food policy and agricultural cooperatives’ policy 289 10.5 Opportunities for future research 291 5 Appendices Appendix I. Table: Why Spain and the UK? 292 Appendix II. Timeline of agricultural cooperation - Spain 295 Appendix III. Timeline of agricultural cooperation - UK 298 Appendix IV. General data on ACs in EU 301 Appendix V. Country data on ACs – Spain/UK 302 Appendix VI. DEFRA Survey on UK ACs – key results 309 Appendix VII. Interview scripts (semi-structured) 315 Appendix VIII. Example of field notes and reflections on data collection process. 317 Appendix IX. Examples of translated quotes 322 Appendix X. Participants’ Information Sheets (English and Spanish versions) 323 Appendix XI. Participants’ Consent Forms (English and Spanish versions) 329 References 333 6 Page Table of figures, tables, boxes and images Table of figures: Figure 1.1 Typology of cooperatives across sectors based on members’ role 24 Figure 4.1 Multilevel theoretical framework 99 Figure 4.2 Food policy triangle 114 Figure 9.1 Cooperative Triangle: illustrating the multi-dimensional character of 259 agricultural cooperatives 262 Figure 9.2 The food system hourglass 264 Figure 9.3 The double cooperative hourglass Figure 9.4 Spain/UK similarities in the policy contexts affecting the agricultural 273 cooperative sector Table of Tables Table 1.1 Common categorising criteria found in the literature used for the classification of agricultural cooperatives 26 Table 2.1 Early thinkers that inspired the cooperative movement 32 Table 2.2 Top 10 UK Agricultural Cooperatives Businesses by turnover 56 Table 2.3 Top 10 Spanish Agricultural Cooperatives by turnover 57 Table 3.1. Comparing the main differences between traditional and NGCs (based on Merret and Walzer, 2001; Cook and Plunkett, 2006)
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