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Twilight Policing © , Tessa G Twilight Policing © , Tessa G. Diphoorn All rights reserved All pictures by the author Cover design by Kunst met Saar, Sara Gustafsson, %e Netherlands Graphic design and cartography by Kaartbeeld, Margot Stoete, %e Netherlands Printed by WPS, Zutphen, %e Netherlands ISBN: Twilight Policing Private Security in Durban, South Africa Veiligheid in de Schemering Particuliere veiligheid in Durban, Zuid-Afrika (met een samenvatting in het Nederlands) Proefschri+ ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof.dr. G.J. van der Zwaan, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag oktober des ochtends te . uur door Tessa Géraldine Diphoorn geboren op september te Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Promotoren: Prof. dr. D.A.N.M. Kruijt Prof. dr. W. G. Pansters %is dissertation was made possible through funding by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs through a collaborative programme called the Academy of International Cooperation (Internationale Samenwerking in Dutch) and the Marie Curie Sustainable Peacebuilding (SPBuild) fellowship awarded within the Initial Training Network under the Marie Curie Actions of the Seventh Framework Programme (F). %e J.E. Jurriaanse Stichting also provided a financial contribution towards the printing costs. Contents Abbreviations and Acronyms Glossary List of Illustrations Maps Acknowledgements PART I - ENTERING THE TWILIGHT Prologue Twilight Policing: &e Performance of Sovereign Power Introduction South Africa: %e Research Location Aims of this Study %e Pluralisation of Policing Policing as a Performance of Sovereignty Sovereignties and the State State and Non-State Entanglements Twilight Policing %e Book “Sierra Foxtrot Golf”: Doing Ethnographic Fieldwork in Durban Introduction Durban: %e Research Location A Note on Writing Methods Access and Doing It %e companies On and off duty Clients and community organisations %e state police Other security issues %e “Emotionality of Participation” “You’s a wit stekkie”: Doing Research as a White Woman Dangers in the Field Ethics and Morality Concluding Remarks “Old school” Policing versus “the New South Africa”: Violence and Security in South Africa Introduction Apartheid Policing Racial segregation Self-governance and state proxies %e Private Supplement to the State %e National Key Point Act (NKPA) %e Security Officers Act (SOA) Armed response: “techies” and “one-man shows” %e “old boys’ network” %e Transition Era: Change and Uncertainty Transition-era violence Democratic policing %e boom of private security Contemporary South African Policing “A Country at War with Itself” “Shoot to kill” From “club to business” Concluding Remarks PART II - SETTING THE STAGE “&e Promising Horse”: &e Armed Response Sector Introduction %e Companies A standard “call-out” “%e big players make the rules” %e “infrastructure base” “Strongholds” and “way out there” “%e foreigners” and “the locals” Branding the policing style Discipline, Control, and Surveillance Employing the “good” ones Disciplinary codes and surveillance Hierarchy and ranking Race and Gender “A man’s world” Concluding Remarks “Wanna-be Policemen”: Being an Armed Response Officer Introduction “Just a Job” and “Criminals in Uniform” “Wanna-be Policemen” “A Doctor and a Dentist” “We can do much more” “We’re not graphing for the money” On the Road “Tools of the Trade” Occupational Hazards “Cannon fodder” and “thrill-seekers” “It’s part of the job” Bringing the work home Concluding Remarks “It All Comes Down to &em”: Daily Interactions with the “State” Introduction A “Toothless Bulldog”: State Regulation of the Industry “Partnership Policing” Local partnering “To talk and share” Meeting on the Streets: Informal and Ad Hoc Encounters Sharing information “Clients over crime” “Getting in on the action” “%ey’re a bunch of criminals” Moonlighting %e “old boys’ network” “Old boys’ feud” “%ey do our dirty work” Concluding Remarks “Getting Connected with the Community”: &e Beneficiaries of Armed Response Introduction Understanding the Demand “It makes me feel safer” “%e police won’t do that for me” “Take back your streets!” “Who’s in your bed while you’re at work?” Entering the “community” %e Local Security Networks Formal local security networks Informal local security networks Creating and Maintaining “Communities of Security” A Community? Borders and “gate-keepers” Concluding Remarks PART III - INSIDE THE TWILIGHT ZONE Performances of Twilight Policing: Public Authority, Coercion, and Moral Ordering Introduction Performances of Twilight Policing Performance : %e car chase Performance : Arresting suspects Performance : Disciplining Racialised Constructions of the Dangerous “Other” %e “Bravo Mike Syndrome” Racist policers? “Carrying the Indian torch” “It’s Never Good Enough”: Experiencing the Twilight Being the “Bravo Mike” Liminal persons Concluding Remarks Expanding the Twilight Interconnections between Public and Private Policing Violence and Exclusion Performing under the Panoptic Gaze(s) %e State as the Arbiter Bibliography Summary Samenvatting Author biography XI Abbreviations and Acronyms ANC African National Congress APLA Azanian People’s Liberation Army BAC Business Against Crime BEE Black Empowerment Equity CID City Improvement District CPF Community Policing Forum CSVR Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation ESCCF Extended Station Crime Combating Forum DMA Durban Metropolitan Area GBAV Global Burden of Armed Violence GOCOC Ground Operational Co-Ordinating Committee ICD Independent Complaints Directorate IFP Inkatha Freedom Party ISS Institute for Security Studies KZN KwaZulu-Natal MoU Memorandum of Understanding MK Umkhonto we Sizwe NCPS National Crime Prevention Strategy NP National Party NKP National Key Point NKPA National Key Point Act PAC Pan-Africanist Congress PSIRA Private Security Industry Regulatory Authority PTC Police Tracking Computers SADF South African Defence Force SAIDSA South African Intruder Detection Services Association SANDF South African National Defence Force SAP South African Police SAPS South African Police Services SAQA South African Qualification Authority SASA South Africa Security Association SASFED South African Security Federation XII SASSETA South Africa Safety and Security Sector Education and Training Authority SIA Security Industry Alliance SOA Security Officers Act SOB Security Officers Board SSA Statistics South Africa TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission TVBC Transkei, Venda, Bophuthatswana and Ciskei (independent homelands) UIP Urban Improvement Precint UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime VOCS Victims of Crime Survey XIII Glossary Bakkie Pick-up (vehicle). Black Label Brand of South African beer. Coolie Derogatory term for Indian South Africans. Docket Police case/document. Dom passes Afrikaans for “dumb pass”. Passbooks implemented under the Pass Laws of to control the movement of non-Whites. Eish An expression to show one’s surprise, confusion, anger, or other emotion (slang). Similar to “gosh” or “oh my God”. Graph Work (slang). Induna isiZulu for chief and/or traditional leader. Also refers to leader, advisor, or boss. Inyanga isiZulu for herbalist and/or traditional healer. Kaffir Derogatory word for Black South Africans; derived from Arabic term for “unbeliever”. Larnie Boss or rich person (slang). Location Synonym for township. Muthi Traditional medicine, but o+en used when referring to spells and witchcra+ more generally. Necklacing A form of lethal punishment, o+en described as lynching, whereby a rubber tire is filled with petrol, placed around a person’s chest or arms, and set on fire. Oak Male (slang). Ouman Old man (derived from Afrikaans). Rookie Young and/or inexperienced armed response officer. Skop, skiet en donder Afrikaans for “Kick, shoot, and thunder”. Refers to the mentality of the state police during apartheid. Stekkie Woman (slang). Swart gevaar Afrikaans for “black threat”. Township Area (residential) designated for non-Whites during apartheid. Also referred to as “locations”. Umantshingelani isiZulu for “marching the line”. Refers to security guards and is currently regarded as a derogatory term. XV List of Illustrations Maps : South Africa : Durban Figures : Trio Crime Rates in South Africa, - – - : Registered Private Security Providers in South Africa, - : Registered Security Businesses per Sector, - : %e Armed Reaction Sector in : Armed Reaction Details for Companies in Durban in : Monthly Salary Rates for Security Officers in South Africa : Residential Collective Clients of Armed Response Pictures : %ree armed response officers from BLUE Security : %ree armed response officers from Reaction Unit South Africa : Start of the parade : Signage of BLUE Security by a collective client XVI Maps ZIMBABWE M © 2013-Kaartbeeld O Z A LIMPOPO M B I BOTSWANA Q U E Pretoria SOUTH MPUMALANGA AFRICA Johannesburg SWAZI- NORTH WEST LAND NAMIBIA FREE STATE KWAZULU- NATAL Bloemfontein Pietermaritzburg NORTHERN CAPE LESOTHO Durban EASTERN WEST Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Bhisho WESTERN CAPE Cape Town 0 300 km Map : South Africa XVII BALLITO U m g V en VERULAM AL i LE Y O F UMDLOTI A T HO INANDA Inchanga US Cato Ridge AN D H PHOENIX ILLS UMHLANGA Camperdown Drummond KWAMASHU ROCKS HILLCREST KLOOF PINETOWN WESTVILLE MORNINGSIDE SYDENHAM MUSGRAVE Mlazi DURBAN CENTRAL UMBILO QUEENSBURGH BLUFF CHATSWORTH Mid Illlovo UMLAZI
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