Botswana Biomass Energy Strategy

BOTSWANA MINISTRY OF MINERALS, ENERGY AND WATER RESOURCES ENERGY AFFAIRS DIVISION

Main Report FINAL REPORT March 2009

Project Title: Biomass Energy Strategy

Funded by: GTZ

Country: Botswana

Consultant:

EECG Consultants (Pty) Ltd P.O. Box 402339 Gaborone Botswana Contact Person: Dr Peter P. Zhou Tel: +267-3910127 Fax: +267-3910127 Mobile: +267-71371845 e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] FINAL REPORT

Date of Report: March 2009

Reporting Period: 31 March 2008 – 14 April 2009

Prepared By:

Dr. Peter P. Zhou: Lead Consultant (Energy, Environment and Climate Change Specialist) Mr. Bothwell Batidzirai: Consultant (Biomass Energy and LEAP Modelling Specialist) Mr. Tichakunda Simbini: Consultant (Biofuels and Cost-Benefit Analysis Specialist) Mr. Mothusi Odireng: Working Group member (Renewable Energy & Stakeholder Consultations Specialist) Ms. Nozipho Wright: Working Group member (Energy and Gender Specialist) Mr. Thomas Tadzimirwa (GIS Specialist)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The consultants and working group members would like to acknowledge the valuable assistance offered by many during the development of the Botswana Biomass Energy Strategy. Many contributed but it will not be possible to mention all by name. We would, however, like to extend our special thanks to the following:

1. GTZ, for having the confidence in us to undertake the project and for the many useful comments and advice. We are particularly thankful to Anne Rehner (project manager), Holger Liptow, Christoph Messinger and David Hancock (who braved an early morning flight to be at one of the BEST workshops).

2. The Acting Director of Energy Affairs, Mr. Molosiwa, and his colleagues for tirelessly supporting the project in many ways - providing transport, organising steering group and stakeholder meetings, actively participating in the community surveys and distributing reports. Also of special mention are Mr. B Mabowe and Ms. Gina Wright, the Lead Agent’s representatives.

3. The Members of the Steering Committee: the Acting Deputy Director of EAD and his colleagues (Mr. C. Matshameko, Mr. G. Kumar and others), Mr. A Tema of the Department of Forestry and Range Resources and Dr Andrew Mears of Rural Electrification-Botswana, who patiently guided the process and provided valuable technical assistance. We hope that together with them we can be proud of the final product.

4. The many stakeholders from government, traditional authorities, the private sector, NGOs, research institutions and technology organisations for providing information and participating in workshops. All have been listed in an Annex. Of special mention are the efforts made by Kgosi Thabo Masunga of Masunga, Kgosi George Domy Thwane of Kgatleng and Kgosi Marumola of Pitsane for travelling long distances to attend workshops and represent community wisdom in how to make the strategy relevant. Also the many other chiefs and traditional and district authorities who hosted us during community surveys and accommodated meetings and interviews in Ditlhakane, Artesia, Kachikau, Masunga, Pitsane, Komana, Toteng, Sehitwa, Tsootsha and Tsabong.

5. Biogas Renewable Energy, BSE Warehouse and others who shared their technical information, which was used in the cost-benefit analysis.

6. All those met at the regional BEST workshop in Johannesburg in June 2008 from GTZ and other countries participating in the BEST initiative, for sharing their valuable experiences.

7. Matthew Wright, for his tremendous efforts in editing the report in various drafts.

8. Matthew Owen, for providing advice on restructuring and finalisation of the report

9. Last but by no means the least, our beloved ones who stood by us during the busy schedules.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Rationale for a Botswana Biomass Energy Strategy ...... 1 1.2 Strategy Background ...... 2 1.3 Strategy Objectives ...... 3 1.4 Methodology ...... 3 1.4.1 Approach ...... 3 1.4.2 Consultation ...... 3 1.4.3 Timetable ...... 4 1.5 Report Outline ...... 4 2. BOTSWANA COUNTRY CONTEXT ...... 6 2.1 Physical Features and Climate ...... 6 2.2 Population and Socio-economics ...... 7 2.2.1 Population ...... 7 2.2.2 Economic Performance ...... 9 2.2.3 Poverty Trend ...... 10 2.3 Energy Sector ...... 11 2.3.1 Overview ...... 11 2.3.2 Energy Supply ...... 11 2.3.3 Energy Demand ...... 13 2.3.4 Fuel Cost Comparison ...... 13 2.4 Institutional, Policy and Legal Framework ...... 15 2.4.1 Biomass Energy Institutions ...... 15 2.4.2 Visions and Plans...... 16 2.4.3 Policies ...... 18 2.4.4 Strategies ...... 20 2.4.5 Legislation ...... 21 2.4.6 Summary ...... 22 2.5 Literature Review ...... 23 2.5.1 Supply-side Information ...... 23 2.5.2 Demand-Side Information ...... 25 2.6 Summary of Biomass Energy Challenges ...... 30 3. BIOMASS ENERGY DEMAND...... 32 3.1 Consumption patterns ...... 32 3.1.1 Household Consumption ...... 32 3.1.2 Urban and Rural Institutions ...... 34 3.2 Energy Supply Chains ...... 35 3.2.1 Supply options ...... 35 3.2.2 Supply sources...... 35 3.2.3 Commercial Fuelwood Trade ...... 36 3.3 Perceptions of Fuelwood Use ...... 38 3.4 Energy Burden of Fuelwood Users ...... 38 3.5 Fuel Preferences ...... 39 3.6 Fuel Switching ...... 40 3.6.1 Urban households ...... 40 3.6.2 Urban Government Institutions ...... 41 3.6.3 Rural Households and Other Sectors ...... 41 3.7 Cooking –Food types, Habits and Cooking Devices ...... 42 3.7.1 Food types and Habits...... 42 3.7.2 Fuel-efficient Wood Stoves ...... 43 3.8 Kitchens Designs ...... 44 3.9 Findings of Community (Kgotla) Meetings ...... 47 3.9.1 Fuelwood availability and collection patterns ...... 47 3.9.2 Fuel Preferences, End uses and Cooking devices...... 48

3.9.3 Community-proposed fuelwood Interventions ...... 50 3.10 LPG and Kerosene Use ...... 50 3.10.1 Survey Size and Geographical Coverage ...... 50 3.10.2 Income and Household Size ...... 50 3.10.3 Reasons for Use ...... 51 3.10.4 Frequency and Quantity of Purchase...... 51 3.10.5 Comparison with the Past...... 52 3.11 Gender Perspectives ...... 52 3.12 Woody Biomass Demand Modelling ...... 53 4.WOODY BIOMASS SUPPLY ...... 59 4.1 Natural Woodlands ...... 59 4.2 Planted Trees ...... 61 4.3 Woody Biomass Supply Baseline Modelling ...... 61 5. WOODY BIOMASS SUPPLY-DEMAND BALANCE ...... 68 5.1 Introduction ...... 68 5.2 Overall Energy Demand Analysis ...... 73 5.3 Baseline Sensitivity Analysis ...... 74 5.4 Evaluating Accessibility of Fuelwood and Sustainability Indicators ...... 76 6. NON-WOODY BIOMASS SUPPLY ...... 78 6.1 Residues ...... 78 6.1.1 Municipal solid waste ...... 78 6.1.2 Livestock manure ...... 81 6.1.3 Chicken manure and abattoir waste ...... 82 6.2 Wet Biomass ...... 83 6.2.1 Municipal waste water ...... 83 6.2.2 Livestock Abattoir Waste ...... 84 6.3 Energy Crops ...... 87 6.4 Summary of Non-Woody Biomass Energy Resources ...... 88 7. POTENTIAL INTERVENTIONS ...... 89 7.1 Technology Framework ...... 89 7.2 Biomass Feedstock and Products ...... 91 7.3 Technology Choices ...... 93 8. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF POTENTIAL INTERVENTIONS ...... 94 8.1 Introduction ...... 94 8.2 Poultry Manure ...... 95 8.3 Livestock Manure ...... 98 8.4 Municipal Solid Waste ...... 101 8.5 Municipal Liquid Waste ...... 103 8.6 Wood Stoves ...... 105 8.7 Gasification ...... 106 8.8 Biofuels ...... 108 8.8.1 Biodiesels ...... 108 8.8.2 Bio-ethanol ...... 109 8.9 Summary Cost Benefit Analysis ...... 110 9. ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL AND RISK ASSESSMENT FOR POTENTIAL INTERVENTIONS ...... 112 9.1 Environmental Assessment ...... 112 9.1.1 Woody Biomass Technologies ...... 112 9.1.2 Wet Biomass and Residues Technologies...... 112 9.1.3 Energy Crops Technologies...... 112 9.2 Social Impact Assessment ...... 113 9.2.1 Woody Biomass Technologies ...... 113

9.2.2 Wet Biomass/Residues Technologies ...... 114 9.2.3 Energy Crops ...... 114 9.3 Risk Analysis ...... 115 9.3.1 Woody Biomass Technologies ...... 115 9.3.2 Wet Biomass ...... 116 9.3.3 Residues (Landfill gas/MSW) ...... 116 9.3.4 Energy Crops Technologies...... 116 10. PROPOSED INTERVENTIONS ...... 118 10.1 Technologies Identification ...... 118 10.2 Intervention Deployment Path ...... 122 10.3 Time frames for deployment of Interventions ...... 123 10.4 District Potential for Biomass Energy Development ...... 124 10.5 Expected Results and Impacts on Energy Mix ...... 127 11. BIOMASS ENERGY STRATEGY ...... 130 11.1 BEST Vision and Strategic Goals ...... 130 11.2 Identification of Issues, Barriers and Potential Interventions ...... 131 11.3 Policy and Legal Implications ...... 140 11.4 Financial Requirements ...... 144 11.5 Recommended Partnership Framework...... 145 11.5.1 Institutional Responsibility for Policy and Legal Framework ...... 147 11.5.2 Institutional Responsibility for Financing BEST ...... 148 11.5.3 Institutional framework for Implementation ...... 150 11.6 Action Plan for BEST ...... 151 11.7 Communication Strategy ...... 153 11.8 Monitoring and Evaluation...... 154 12. ANNEXES ...... 157 ANNEX A : ABRIDGED BEST TERMS OF REFERENCE ...... 157 ANNEX B : WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS ...... 159 ANNEX C : REFERENCES ...... 161 ANNEX D : LEAP ASSUMPTIONS ...... 163 ANNEX E : KEY WOODY BIOMASS ASSUMPTIONS ...... 164 ANNEX F : ASSUMPTIONS IN COST-BENEFIT ANALYSES...... 167

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AFREPREN African Energy Policy Research Network BDC Botswana Development Corporation BEDIA Botswana Export Development and Investment Authority BEMP Botswana Energy Master Plan BEST Biomass Energy Strategy BMC Botswana Meat Commission BoBS Botswana Bureau of Standards BOTEC Botswana Technology Centre BPC Botswana Power Corporation BRET Botswana Renewable Energy Technology project BSAP Botswana Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan CBNRM Community-Based Natural Resource Management CBO Community Based Organisation CDM Clean Development Mechanism (Kyoto Protocol) CEDA Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency CJSS Community Junior Secondary School COD Chemical Oxygen Demand CSO Central Statistics Office DAHP Department of Animal Health Production DC District Committee DCP Department of Crop Production DEA Department of Environmental Affairs DFRR Department of Forestry and Range Resources DOL Department of Lands DWA Department of Water Affairs DWMPC Department of Waste Management and Pollution Control EAD Energy Affairs Division EC European Commission EDRC Energy and Development Research Centre (now ERC, Energy Research Centre) EDG Energy and Development Group EECG Energy, Environment, Computer and Geophysical Applications Ltd. EHF Environmental Heritage Foundation EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ESCO Energy Service Company ESMAP Energy Sector Management Project EU European Union EUEI PDF European Union Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility FAB Forestry Association of Botswana FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation (of the United Nations) FIMP Fuelwood Inventory and Monitoring Programme GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GHG Greenhouse Gas GIS Geographic Information System GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation HIES Household Income and Expenditure Survey IEA International Energy Agency IPCC Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change IRP Integrated Resource Planning IUCN World Conservation Union/International Union for the Conservation of Nature IVP Indigenous Vegetation project KCS Kalahari Conservation Society LEA Local Enterprise Authority LEAP Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning

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LPG Liquified Petroleum Gas M&E Monitoring & Evaluation MEWT Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism MFDP Ministry of Finance and Development Planning MLG Ministry of Local Government MLH Ministry of Lands and Housing MLW Municipal Liquid Waste MMEWR Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources MOA Ministry of Agriculture MSW Municipal Solid Waste MWTC Ministry of Works, Transport and Telecommunications NAMPAADD National Master Plan of Arable Agriculture and Dairy Development NCCC National Committee on Climate Change (Botswana) NCS National Conservation Strategy NDB National Development Bank NDP National Development Plan NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NRP Natural Resources and People O&M Operation and Maintenance OKRC Okavango Research Centre PDL Poverty Datum Line PL Penetration Level ProBEC (GTZ) Programme for Basic Energy Conservation PV Photovoltaic R&D Research and Development RDC Rural Development Council RE-Botswana Rural Electrification Botswana RG Reference Group RIIC Rural Industries Innovation Centre RIPCO (B) Rural Innovations Promotions Company (Botswana) RSA Republic of South Africa SACU Southern African Customs Union SADC Southern African Development Community SMME Small Medium and Micro Enterprises ST Someralang Tikologo TA Tribal Authority UB University of Botswana UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation VDC Village Development Committees WAD Women’s Affairs Department WMA Wildlife Management Area WRI World Resources Institute

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT kJ kilojoule (1 x 103 joules) MJ MegaJoule (1 x 106 joules) GJ Gigajoule (1 x 109 joules) TJ Terajoule (1 x 1012 joules) kWh kilowatt hour MW Megawatt (1 x 106 Watts) MWh Mega Watt hour

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale for a Botswana Biomass Energy Strategy Biomass energy is defined for the purposes of this Strategy as:

1. Woody biomass: Taken to mean fuelwood, given that charcoal is an insignificant energy source in Botswana.

2. Wet biomass: Municipal sludge and animal waste.

3. Energy crops: Tree and agricultural crops producing biofuels (biodiesel, ethanol and derivatives such as ethanol gel fuel).

4. Residues: Agricultural, forestry and urban wastes, including primary residues (e.g. fallen trees, caged poultry waste), secondary residues (e.g. sawmill waste) and tertiary residues (e.g. municipal solid waste).

Woody biomass energy contributes significantly to Botswana’s energy balance and is estimated to account for 30% of the country’s primary energy supply and 38% of total final energy consumption. Over 90% of this energy is consumed by households, of which 75% is accounted for by rural households. In turn, 90% of household biomass energy consumption is in the form of fuelwood. Fuelwood is the most significant woody biomass energy used in Botswana, for household consumption, and especially for households in rural areas.

Botswana’s level of dependency on biomass energy is significantly lower than most other African countries, where biomass often accounts for 80-90% of primary energy consumption. Nevertheless, for a relatively wealthy and fast- growing regional economy, the proportion is still considered high and results from limited availability and affordability of alternatives (e.g. coal and liquefied petroleum gas, LPG). There is also a virtual absence of “modern” derivatives of biomass (e.g. from biomethanation or gasification).

While this study will show that current levels of woody biomass consumption are within sustainable limits at national level, there are serious and growing shortages in the more densely populated parts of the country, where fuelwood harvesting (especially for commercial purposes) is in excess of sustainable yields. This is resulting in depletion of standing stocks and an increasing financial and labour burden for fuelwood users. The widespread use of fuelwood by poor households, both rural and urban, together with a poorly regulated harvesting regime, is expected to result in growing depletion of woodlands and to adversely affect agricultural productivity [Prasad, 2006].

Localised and selective decline of fuelwood species is already occurring in some parts of the country, especially in the east where 80% of population is concentrated. Preferred species of fuelwood have been depleted close to settlements and harvesters now travel up to 100 km to source marketable fuelwood [EAD, 2006]. Households experiencing fuelwood poverty are forced to turn to lower-quality fuel options such as dung, shrubs and hedges. The alternative is to switch to costlier fossil fuels such as paraffin or LPG, for which price and accessibility are barriers. As well as exposing the population to inadequate and unaffordable energy services, the use of fuelwood by poor households in inefficient end-use devices (mainly open fire) exposes family members to health and safety hazards from indoor air pollution and the burden of collecting fuelwood from far afield.

The widespread use of biomass energy in the domestic sector nevertheless suggests that biomass, even in its traditional form, plays an important role in Botswana’s socio-economy [EAD, 2006]. The dilemma is that in Botswana, as in many other African countries, biomass energy seldom receives significant attention in policy and planning debates, unlike energy sources seen as the drivers of economic growth such as electricity and petroleum. The institutional framework responsible for biomass energy management is fragmented and this fails to engender cohesive programme development. Many communities are not exercising good stewardship towards natural

1 woodlands. The legislation and policies that should support community participation in sustainable woodland management - such as forestry policy and fuelwood policy - are also inadequate1 [EAD, 2006].

In spite of the availability of more modern sources of energy within Botswana, biomass will remain an important fuel for most households (and some institutions and industries) for the foreseeable future. Planning for adequate and affordable energy services that will cater for the country’s socio-economy therefore demands a timely intervention that will ensure supply and use of biomass energy on a sustainable basis. This is the main rationale for developing a Biomass Energy Strategy (BEST) for Botswana. Opportunities also exist to modernise biomass to provide cleaner energy alternatives.

1.2 Strategy Background

The initiative to develop a BEST for Botswana was launched by GTZ and the Partnership Dialogue Facility of the EU Energy Initiative (EUEI PDF) as part of a wider effort underway in several African countries. Support was provided for the process in the form of technical assistance, provision of methods and tools, organisation and moderation of regional workshops, facilitation of national dialogue with relevant stakeholders and support for local facilitators and consultants.

The strategies are expected to focus on the specific problems encountered in each participating country, taking the needs of end-users of biomass energy as the starting point. In most countries, the focus of BEST development has been thermal applications of biomass, primarily cooking, space heating and water heating, in homes, institutions and industry. In Botswana, however, the BEST Terms of Reference, which were developed jointly by GTZ and the Energy Affairs Division (EAD) in the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources (MMEWR), went beyond this definition to include also the conversion of biomass to electricity, to methane (to compete with coal and LPG), to biodiesel and ethanol (for automotive use) and to ethanol-based gel fuels (as substitutes for methylated spirit and LPG). [Refer to the abridged Terms of Reference in Annex A.]

The latter are examples of the desirable modernisation of biomass that incorporate processes such as biomethanation, gasification and distillation to produce derivatives that can potentially compete on an economic basis with electricity and fossil fuels. These derivatives, however, rarely offer the potential to substitute for fuelwood because of their cost, availability, combustion characteristics or a combination of these factors. The Botswana BEST report therefore addresses woody biomass as a distinct sub-sector and groups wet biomass, energy crops and residues together as a separate sub-sector. Woody biomass can be seen as traditional fuel, largely (though not exclusively) consumed in the domestic sector and primarily relating to fuelwood. Meanwhile the other forms of biomass offer the potential for fuel-switching by (mainly) industry and represent opportunities for modernisation of the sector. The two are somewhat distinct and it is important to be clear on which of the interventions outlined in this report are aimed at which sector – the traditional woodfuels sector vs. industry, transport and commerce.

The Strategy was expected to develop a coordinated framework of short-, medium- and long-term interventions for sustainable management of biomass energy resources and provision of better energy services to citizens. The development of the strategy considered both energy and forestry activities, in fulfilment of the nation’s goal of promoting sustainable fuelwood management practices, appropriate combustion equipment, community management of natural resources and switching to alternative energy sources (Draft National Energy Policy, 2008).

1 Some of these policies and Acts are under review, as this report will outline.

1.3 Strategy Objectives Given the challenges facing the biomass energy sector, the main objective was to develop a national BEST that will ensure biomass energy is produced, supplied and used in a socially, economically and environmentally sustainable manner. Specific attention was to be given to gender issues, improving the welfare of the poor and contributing to the socio-economic development of Batswana in general.

The specific objectives in developing the Strategy were to:

• assess the importance of biomass to socio-economic development and the environment; • assess how best to integrate traditional biomass energy into modern energy resources; • carry out situation analyses of biomass supply and usage, highlighting bottlenecks and constraints; • propose and analyse options and alternatives for sustainable biomass supply and utilisation; • undertake a cost-benefit analysis of biomass energy options/alternatives; • propose actions to meet sustainability targets and implementation aspects (ensuring stakeholder involvement in achieving sustainable biomass production and use); • propose how to mobilise financial resources for the proposed BEST options; and • present a monitoring and evaluation framework for set targets in the proposed BEST interventions.

1.4 Methodology 1.4.1 Approach The consultants contracted to develop the Strategy2 began by assessing the availability of biomass resources in Botswana and projected future levels of demand, focusing mainly on thermal applications. This allowed issues of concern, barriers and constraints to be identified and helped to frame the Vision and Strategic Goals of the Strategy.

Interventions were then proposed that might address the identified issues, barriers and constraints. These proposed interventions where screened and prioritised through cost-benefit analysis, environmental and social impact assessments, and risk analysis, in order to determine which were sufficiently viable to include as part of the final Strategy. For those to be included, a supporting programme of R&D, capacity building, data collection, management systems, demonstration initiatives and awareness-raising was developed.

The final Strategy therefore builds upon a process of data analysis, problem identification, solutions development and feasibility assessment, resulting in a set of proposed interventions that not only respond to actual identified problems, but also represent viable, sustainable and cost-effective implementation opportunities.

1.4.2 Consultation The strategy development process was led and coordinated by the EAD, in close cooperation with other key government institutions, among them the Department of Forestry and Range Resources (DFRR). A wide range of other stakeholders and decision-makers were involved in order to enhance awareness of the importance and potential of biomass energy within the country, and to bring as many ideas as possible into the process.

A Steering Committee was formed to provide feedback and give guidance to the BEST consultants. The committee comprised representatives of EAD, DFRR, Rural Electrification (RE)-Botswana and the Bioenergy Association of Botswana, and was convened seven times during the course of Strategy development and re-drafting.

A stakeholder workshop was organised in May 2008 to solicit inputs at the inception stage, and another in August 2008 to deliberate at the interim stage. The workshops were attended by 24 and 30 participants respectively, as per the lists in Annex B. Members of EAD and the consultancy team also benefited from participation in a Regional

2 From the Gaborone-based company Energy, Environment, Computer & Geophysical Applications (EECG).

BEST workshop organised by GTZ in Johannesburg in June 2008, where lessons from other BEST countries were shared.

The BEST team carried out extensive literature review of official plans, policies, strategies, legislation relevant to the biomass energy sector; and of past and ongoing studies and other country experiences in biomass energy. A bibliography is in Annex C.

Community meetings were held at kgotla (village) level in 11 villages in 9 of the 10 Districts to verify supply and demand data and obtain views on concerns, perceptions, experiences, bottlenecks and constraints related to energy needs.

1.4.3 Timetable The BEST development process got underway in March 2008 and outputs were delivered according to the following timetable:

April 2008: Inception report

August 2008: Interim report , following 1st stakeholder workshop

November 2008: Strategy report, 1st draft, following 2nd stakeholder workshop

15th December 2008: Strategy report, 2nd draft, further to feedback from GTZ and Steering Committee

The projected timetable for completion of the process is now as follows:

23rd Feb 2009: Strategy report, 3rd draft, further to additional feedback from GTZ and Steering Committee, and input from regional BEST advisory consultant.

30th March 2009: Final report.

1.5 Report Outline

The BEST report is divided into eleven chapters as follows:

Chapter 1 presents the national biomass environment, background to the BEST programme and its objectives.

Chapter 2 presents the Botswana’s physical, climatic, population, socio-economic context, the policy and legal frameworks as it affects the biomass sector including an overview of the energy sector and the biomass sub-sector.

Chapter 3 presents the biomass energy demand indicating consumption patterns, supply chains, perceptions, burden of fuelwood collection, fuel preferences, fuel switching, kitchen designs and cooking habits and devices; gender perspectives and woody biomass baseline modelling.

Chapter 4 presents woody biomass supply and baseline analysis

Chapter 5 provides woody biomass energy supply and demand balance

Chapter 6 presents other biomass types that include residues, wet biomass and energy crops and their potential resource base in Botswana.

Chapter 7 discusses potential biomass feedstocks products and available conversion options.

Chapter 8 contains a cost-benefit analysis of possible intervention options, based on the estimated biomass resource potential in Botswana

Chapter 9 presents environmental, social and risk analysis of the potential intervention options.

Chapter 10 presents the proposed interventions and proposed deployment paths

Chapter 11 presents Botswana’s Biomass Energy Strategy itself, encompassing the BEST Vision, strategic goals, critical issues being addressed, selected interventions; policy and legal implications, a financial plan, recommended partnerships, action plan and Monitoring and Evaluation framework.

2. BOTSWANA COUNTRY CONTEXT

2.1 Physical Features and Climate

Botswana is a landlocked country with mean altitude above sea level of 1,000 m and an area of 582,000 km2. Much of the country is flat, with gentle undulations and occasional rocky outcrops. Features that punctuate the terrain are the Okavango Delta in the north-west and the Makgadikgadi Pans in the Central District, the latter consisting mainly of calcrete and salty soils. In the east, along the north-south railway line, more favourable climate and soils support agricultural activity and this is where 80% of the population is concentrated. The rest of the country (66%) contains sand layers that support a vegetation of shrub and grasses with almost complete absence of surface water. Refer to Figure 1 for a map of population and rainfall.

Figure 1: Map of Botswana

Mean annual rainfall ranges from 250 to 650 mm. Rainfall is lowest in the south-west, gradually increasing towards the north and north-east around Maun and Kasane; vegetation intensifies into some form of forest in the north- east. The temperature range is wide and varies from –5°C to 43°C, with the lowest temperatures occurring in the south-west part of the country where early morning frost occurs between June and August.

The bulk of the country has soils classified as desert to semi-desert, supporting Kalahari bush savannah and grass savannah.

2.2 Population and Socio-economics 2.2.1 Population According to the last census (2001), Botswana’s population was 1.68 million spread over ten districts. The population was estimated to be growing at 1.2% per annum (down from 2.6% p.a. in 1997) so the population in 2008 was estimated to be 1.78 million.

55% of the population reside in urban areas and the remaining 45% in rural areas. The urban population is estimated to have increased from 41.9% in 1990 to 57.4% in 2005 and is projected to reach 64.6% in 2015 (draft National Development Plan 10). Significant increases in urbanisation are attributed not only to migration from rural areas and in situ growth, but also to reclassification of small settlements from rural to “urban villages” when their population reaches 5,0003. The lifestyle, and therefore the energy choices and demand, in these urban villages, lies somewhere between that of true urban areas (towns and cities) and the rural setting.

Table 1 shows the population of Botswana by district for the last census in 2001 and that projected for 2008 based on growth rates adopted in 2001 (CSO, 2001). From these data, it is evident that there are more people living in urban villages (32% of total population) than towns and cities (22%). These shares are maintained in the projected population of 2008. However, some settlements within this classification (e.g. Mogoditshane, Tlokweng and Gabane) are effectively suburbs of larger urban centres.

3 “Urban villages” are defined as settlements with a population of at least 5,000, where less than 25% of the population relies on agriculture.

Table 1: Population by district, 2001 and projected for 2008 2001 2008

District Urban Urban Rural Total Urban Urban Rural Total popn. Village popn. Popn. popn. Village popn. Popn. popn. popn. Central 61,879 200,668 300,713 563,260 65678 212985 330445 609108 South East 186007 47,005 13,618 186007 197425 49890 14454 261769 Kweneng 0 127,523 102,812 230,335 0 135351 109123 244474 Southern 44868 57,550 114,102 186,831 47622 61083 121108 229813 North East 83,023 0 49,399 132,422 88119 0 52431 140550

Ngamiland 0 52531 72,181 122,024 0 55756 76612 132368

Kgatleng 0 39,349 34,159 73,507 0 41764 36255 78019 Kgalagadi 0 6,591 35,458 42,049 0 6996 37635 44631 Ghanzi 0 9,934 22,547 32,481 0 10544 23931 34475 Chobe 0 7,638 10,620 18,258 0 8107 11272 19379 Other 0 0 3,377 3,377 0 0 3584 3584 Total 375,777 546,101 758,986 1,680,863 398,844 582,476 816,850 1,798,170 Source: CSO, 2001; projected to 2008

On a district basis, the Central District has the largest share of the population (34%) followed by the South East (15%), Kweneng (14%) and Southern (13%) of the projected 2008 population. The rest of the districts each have less than 10% of the total population (see Figure 2). From the shares in 2001, the shares of the Southern District increased by 2% from 11% to 13% share, with a corresponding drop in shares of 1% in Kweneng and Ghantsi District.

Figure 2: Share (%) of Population by district (2008)-projected from 2001 Census data

Figure 3 shows the urban-urban village rural split in each district. The South-East District is predominantly urban and North East Districts also has a larger urban population than urban village and rural populations. Kweneng and Central also have significant urban village populations; otherwise in the other districts the rural population is predominant.

Figure 3: District population by urban-urban village and rural-2008 projected from 2001 census data

2.2.2 Economic Performance Botswana has been enjoying a fast-growing economy with an average real per capita GDP growth rate of 8.7% p.a. between 1996 and 2001 and 4.6% between 2001 and 2006. By global standards these have been impressive rates, although the recent rate falls short of the Vision 2016 target of 8% p.a. that was to be achieved between 1996 and

2016. Table 2 presents the GDP grow rate targets set for Vision 2016 versus those actually achieved, and shows that growth rates fell short of the targets between 2001 and 2006 but were higher than the targets before then.

Table 2: Growth targets for Vision 2016 GDP Actual Targeted 1996-2001 2001-06 2006-16 GDP: Vision target 8.0% 8.0% 7.5% GDP: actual 8.7% 4.8% GDP/capita: Vision target 6.0% 6.0% 6.6% GDP/capita: actual 6.6% 3.7% Source: NDP10 drafts

The economy is largely driven by the mining sector, particularly diamond mining, which contributed 42.2% to GDP in 2006/07 [Bank of Botswana Financial Statistics, Sep 2008]. National development projections are based mainly on the expected performance of the diamond industry versus the non-mining sector. The current forecast is that diamond revenue will fall by 65% by the end of NDP11 in 2022 and will decline to zero by 2028, suggesting that diversification of the economy will be required during the next 20 years if GDP growth is to be sustained at past levels.

Agriculture is important to the socio-economy of Batswana but its contribution to GDP fell from 40% at independence in 1966 to only 1.8% in 2006/07. Botswana has a large cattle population, which provides feedstock for the meat processing industry, but the livestock sector has stagnated during the period of National Development Plan (NDP) 9 (2002/3 to 2008/9) due to disease outbreaks and drought. There are also concerns about over-grazing and associated soil degradation from the large numbers of cattle.

Arable production is characterised by low inputs, low outputs and diminishing returns which cannot support subsistence farming in most areas. Cereal productivity has levelled off among small-scale farmers at 300 kg/ha while commercial farming in Pandamatenga and other arable areas in the Southern Region is only around 2.5 t/ha. As far as the biomass energy sector is concerned, this suggests that very little residue is being generated from arable agriculture.

2.2.3 Poverty Trend The percentage of households with incomes below the Poverty Datum Line (PDL) has been declining since the 1983/84 household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES). Similarly, the percentage of individuals with incomes below the PDL has continued to fall (Table 3).

Table 3: Successive poverty estimates (1985-86 to 2002-03) Year of survey % of households % of individuals below PDL below PDL 1985/86 49% 59% 1993/94 38% 47% 2002/03 22% 30% Source: HIES 1985/86; 1993/94; 2002/03

Despite this significant progress in addressing poverty, the reduction of income poverty lags behind the Vision 2016 targets, which require that the proportion of people in income poverty be halved (to 23%) by 2006 and to zero by 2016.

The Gini coefficient shows that income inequality increased in rural areas and urban villages between 1993/94 and 2002/03. There was, however, an encouraging reduction in income inequality in urban areas, as Table 4 shows.

Table 4: Gini coefficient for income distribution in Botswana

Location Disposable Income 1993/4 2002/03 Cities/towns 0.539 0.503 Urban villages 0.451 0.523 Rural 0.414 0.515 National 0.537 0.573 Source: HIES 2002/03

Botswana’s Human Development Index fell from 0.68 in 1990 to 0.57 in 2004. This was primarily because of declining life expectancy at birth due to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The country has one of the world’s highest rates of HIV/AIDS prevalence at around 37% of the adult population.

In summary, while there has been significant success in reducing income poverty in Botswana, income inequality is increasing in rural areas and urban villages, and life expectancy has been declining. The government must continue to plan for the poor, including for their energy needs, if higher incomes and greater income equality are to be achieved by all Batswana.

2.3 Energy Sector 2.3.1 Overview The latest published energy balance for Botswana is for 2005, but neither the 2004 nor 2005 energy balances included biomass energy due to lack of reliable data. The last energy balance that covers biomass energy is therefore for 2003.

Botswana’s total primary energy supply in 2003 was 76,342.2 TJ (54,534 TJ being commercial) against final consumption of 64,675 TJ (42,867 TJ commercial)4. The more limited 2005 statistics show that primary supply of commercial energy had increased to 59,915 TJ while commercial consumption was stagnant at 42,063 TJ. There was little change in the overall energy mix (compared to 2003), apart from slight relative declines in the consumption of coal and increases in LPG, electricity and paraffin.

2.3.2 Energy Supply In 2003 (the latest year for which biomass data were included in the statistics), petroleum products5 contributed the largest share of primary energy supply (33%), followed by wood (30%) and coal (29%). Electricity contributed 5% and LPG 1%. Renewable energy sources6 were hardly recorded and solar, which is highly promoted in the country, at that time contributed only 0.03%.

Net energy supply was also dominated by petroleum products (38%), followed by wood (35%) and coal (14%). Electricity contributed 11% (from both local generation and imports) and LPG 2% [EAD, 2006] (refer to Figure 4).

4 Energy consumption is less than primary supply due to system losses in production and distribution. 5 Petrol, aviation gas, Jet-A1, paraffin, diesel, fuel oil and lubricants. 6 Taken to mean solar and wind.

Figure 4: Net Energy Supply for Botswana (2003 data)

Electricity self–sufficiency remains very low, with the Morupule Power coal-fired station contributing only 20% (120 MW) of total national demand (500 MW). The balance of 380 MW is imported, mainly from South Africa. The region as a whole is experiencing a power supply deficit, which most national power utilities, including the Botswana Power Corporation (BPC), are grappling with.

Currently all petroleum products consumed in Botswana are imported through South Africa. Constraints are foreseen in sustainable supply arising from limited storage, strategic reserves and high oil prices, which in 2008 reached record levels.

Botswana has abundant coal reserves estimated at 212 billion t., of which 3.3 billion t. are proven. The coal is semi- bituminous with a relatively high percentage of ash (18.7%) and sulphur (0.92%). There is only one operating mine, the Morupule Colliery, with annual production of about 1 mill. t. The challenge is to make coal clean and available across the whole country. In order to address its low quality, a 40,000 t/mth coal washing plant was commissioned in March 2008. The government is addressing the availability challenge through the establishment of coal depots. The government puts up the infrastructure for these coal depots and identifies private sector entities to operate them. So far two depots are operational (in Gaborone and Francistown) supplying unwashed coal but uptake for domestic use is still minimal. Introduction of washed coal should improve the uptake level although the price of coal is likely to also go up.

There is considerable uncertainty with regard to the amount of wood resources that can be used for energy, as no nationwide assessments have been carried out in recent years. A few site-specific surveys can be extrapolated to estimate national fuelwood resources and this study attempts such extrapolation using the “LEAP” model in Chapter 4.

Botswana has abundant solar energy resources, receiving over 3,200 hours of sunshine per year with an average insolation on a horizontal surface of 21 MJ/sq.m. This rate of insolation is one of the highest in the world. Solar energy is recognised as a very promising renewable energy source in Botswana but the costs of installation per kW are still high compared to the country’s relatively cheap grid electricity (the domestic tariff is 4 US cents per kWh). More competitive opportunities exist, however, for use of direct solar energy for heating water.

There are no reliable data for biomass resources that can be used to generate biogas. This information gap has been filled as part of this BEST study (refer to Chapter 6).

2.3.3 Energy Demand According to the 2003 energy balance, the household sector consumes most of the country’s energy (38%), followed by industry (27%) and transport (25%). Government consumes 8% and agriculture only 1% (Figure 5). The household sector meets 90% of its energy needs from fuelwood, 75% of which is consumed by rural residents. Meanwhile the transport sector uses 63% of all liquid fuels, of which 85% goes to road transport.

Figure 5: Proportion (%) of Final Energy Consumption by Sector 2003 data

In the industrial sector, mining consumes the bulk of the energy supplied (66%). Other industrial energy consumers are manufacturing (9%) and meat and food processing (11%). Coal supplies 50% of energy consumed in industry followed by liquid fuels (47%) and electricity (28%).

Fuelwood currently supplies nearly 100% of biomass energy in Botswana. In 2003, 1.363 million t. of fuelwood were consumed, of which the household sector consumed 95% (74% of this by rural households-[1.04million t.] and 26% by urban households- [0.373 million t.]). Fuelwood is the most widely used energy source particularly for poor households, since many of the households gather it for free or buy it from local sellers [Prasad, 2006]. Among fuelwood users, average consumption by urban household (including urban areas and urban villages) is 186 kg of fuelwood/mth. Compared with 402 kg./mth in rural households. Consumption by the average urban household is lower (100-140 kg/mth) than those in urban villages (200-240 kg/mth).

There has been an overall decline in the quantity of fuelwood consumed in rural areas and a significant shift towards the use of LPG [EECG/RIIC, 2001; EDRC/EDG/FAB, 2001; CSO, 2001; EECG, 2004]. The level of use of fuelwood varies seasonally and 85% of the households indicate that they use more fuelwood in winter than in summer, due to need for space heating [ProBEC, 2006].

Studies conducted in 2000 showed that households use multiple fuels, even for one end-use, depending on the availability of both the fuel and financial resources. Most of the lowest-income urban households are still largely dependent on fuelwood as their principal source of energy. There is promising potential to boost the use of LPG in rural villages as a cooking fuel, judging by the increase in households using LPG from 4% in 1996 to 17% in 2001 and 40% in 2004.

According to BPC, by July 2008 the level of household electricity connectivity was 40.8% in rural areas and 71.8% in urban areas, up from 4% for rural areas and 50% for urban areas in 1996 [EAD, 2006; BPC database, March 2008]. Electricity is used for cooking by fewer than 10% of urban households and fewer than 1% of rural households. This shows that connectivity does not automatically lead to a switch to electricity for cooking as there is general perception among Batswana that cooking with electricity is more expensive that LPG for instance.

2.3.4 Fuel Cost Comparison Table 5 presents the prices of Botswana’s main energy sources in 2007 (EECG, 2007). Only coal was cheaper than fuelwood per unit of energy and paraffin; LPG and electricity were at least eight times the price. Biofuels (in the form of bio-gel and bio-oil) were found to be over 60 times more expensive than fuelwood.

Table 5: Unit costs of energy sources/fuels Energy source Unit Unit cost Lower Calorific Cost per unit of (Pula7) Value (MJ/unit) energy (Pula/MJ) Coal kg 0.2 27 8 Fuelwood Kg ( based on pack8) 1.7 17 10 Electricity kWh 0.3 3.6 83 Paraffin litres 4.8 44.3 135 LPG kg 10.3 46.1 224 Gel fuel litres 10 16.1 621 Bio oil litres 27 20 1,350 Source: EECG, 2007

Comparing cooking with the different fuels and devices, Table 6 and Fig 6 shows that cooking with electricity, LPG, paraffin and coal using common appliances is cheaper by half than cooking with fuelwood on an open fire. This however applies only to those who buy their wood, whereas the majority of fuelwood users collect their own fuel, including some of those in urban areas.

Table 6: Comparative Costs of Various Energy Source/Fuel for Cooking a Meal Fuel Appliance Unit Fuel price Energy Appliance Cost to Comparison per unit content efficiency9 cook a with fuelwood (P) from (MJ/unit) meal (3-stones) field with 5.4 surveys MJ (P) Electricity hot plate kWh 0.30 3.6 65% 0.697 0.3 oven kWh 0.30 3.6 65% 0.697 0.3 microwave kWh 0.30 3.6 60% 0.756 0.3 Paraffin wick litre 2.25 37 27.5% 1.203 0.5 primus litre 2.25 37 42.5% 0.778 0.3 LPG ring kg 5.20 49 50% 1.155 0.5 Fuelwood 3-stone kg 1.03 17 14% 2.354 1.0 Efficient cook stove kg 1.03 17 25% 1.318 0.6 Coal Efficient coal stove kg 0.22 27 25% 0.177 0.1 brazier/mbawula kg 0.22 27 8% 0.554 0.2 Gel Safety stove kg 10.00 16 45.2% 7.522 3.2 Cook Save kg 10.00 16 57.9% 5.872 2.5 Genius kg 10.00 15.3 63.2% 5.626 2.4 Source: Based on BEMP (2004) and EECG (2007). Note: (i) The figure of 5.4 MJ to cook a meal come from a University of Cape Town study, but any figure could be assumed as the intention is only to derive a comparative cooking cost.

7 Pula (P) is the national currency. In January 2009 there were P7.75 per US$ and P10.4 per euro. The prices presented have been determined in previous surveys. 8 A pack costs P17.50 and is about 10kg 9 Share of the input energy that is converted into useful energy delivering the service e.g. cooking

(ii) Gel stove efficiencies are laboratory-based and may be higher than actual kitchen settings.

Figure 6: Relative cost of cooking with different fuels

Note: Firewood on open fire taken as baseline against which other fuels are compared

2.4 Institutional, Policy and Legal Framework

Given that the development of BEST should take account of the existing institutional structures and policy environment governing biomass energy, it is important to consider those structures and the policy, strategic and legal provisions that exist in Botswana pertaining to the sector.

2.4.1 Biomass Energy Institutions The government, through the EAD, has responsibility for energy planning and regulation and the setting of fuel prices and electricity tariffs. It also facilitates, monitors and regulates producers and consumers of energy. EAD promotes accessibility, affordability and awareness (via extension services) of available energy sources, energy issues and programmes. EAD has a Biomass Section that addresses such issues as they relate to biomass energy.

It has, however, been observed that biomass activities are fragmented between government institutions and NGOs [ProBEC, 2006]. During the previous Energy Master Plan (1996) most of the responsibility for managing biomass energy was allocated to the Ministry of Agriculture and progress was limited since biomass energy was not its core interest. The new Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism (MEWT) is expected to take a stronger co- ordinating role in biomass resource management, with EAD maintaining a leading role in energy policy formulation and implementation.

Coordination between MEWT and MMEWR/EAD on biomass energy planning and management is necessary to promote sustainability of biomass as an energy source for households [EAD, 2006].

Other institutions with an interest in biomass energy include:

Botswana Technology Centre (BOTEC), which is involved in technology development, research and information dissemination in renewable energy technologies; Rural Industries Innovation Centre (RIIC), which is involved in the testing, development and dissemination of appropriate technology including biomass combustion technologies; and the Department of Forestry and Range Resources (DFRR) under MEWT, which is charged with conserving and

managing the country’s forests, range resources and other flora natural resources and associated ecosystems.

Current capacity within EAD for integrated energy planning is limited and needs to be strengthened. This particularly applies to the areas of economic analysis, externality assessment and Integrated Resource Planning framework development and assessment [EAD, 2006].

Data on fuelwood are scanty and outdated, impacting negatively on policy planning. Data for BEST were collected through socio-economic surveys for energy demand and use of satellite imagery for woody biomass supply. In this regard there are opportunities for R&D to inform policy and programme development through strategic partnerships with research institutions, and for EAD to manage data collection and storage and to appropriately synthesise such data.

2.4.2 Visions and Plans Vision 2016 Botswana’s Vision 2016 is the cornerstone of development and, since its formulation in 1997, has guided all sectors of national socio-economic planning. In relation to natural resources, the Vision stipulates that Botswana will have attained a prolonged use of its natural resources, particularly non-renewable resources such as minerals. Vision 2016 recognises energy as a pre-requisite for successful industrialisation and that Botswana should develop cost-effective sources of energy and cooperate regionally in energy delivery, particularly for electricity, as a way of reducing costs of utilities by benefiting from economies of scale. There is a special focus on developing the solar energy potential as a source of electricity in schools and homes in remote areas.

Vision 2016 has no explicit targets for biomass energy, stipulating only that communities should be in the forefront in the use and exploitation of natural resources and wildlife management.

Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources Vision The Vision of the MMEWR (under which energy falls) is to be “…fully committed to complete customer satisfaction in the provision of products and services in accordance with best international practice”. The EAD (according to its Mission Statement) aims “…to formulate and coordinate national energy policy and programmes and facilitate availability of effective, reliable and affordable energy services to customers in an environmentally sustainable manner...”. This gives the Ministry a responsibility to address issues of fuelwood scarcity and affordable alternatives.

NDP 9 NDP 9 (2002/3 to 2008/9) is based on Vision 2016 and emphasises sustainable development through competitiveness in global markets. In NDP9, the government aims to provide energy at prices that reflect the true costs of supply. Emphasis is placed on avoiding risks of supply disruptions. NDP9 recognizes the importance of gender and social equity in energy provision.

It is acknowledged that over 90% of the rural population depends on fuelwood. To address this problem, a community fuelwood management project to empower communities on how to utilise their wood resources sustainably was conceptualised and was to be implemented during the Plan period, but pilot projects that had been designed were not in fact implemented.

The following were also planned during NDP 9:

Complete the Forestry Policy and review Legislation;10 Continue with implementation of Chobe management plans11 as a starting point for developing forest coverage in the country;

10 The Forestry Policy, Act and Guidelines are under preparation. 11 The Chobe District has been associated with timber logging and is also an environmentally sensitive area being close to wild life resort areas.

Carry out forest inventories to facilitate implementation of community-based woodland management programmes; and Establish community-based woodland management areas. The NDP 9 energy policy for the fuelwood sub-sector was to:

Ensure sustainable use of fuelwood; and Inventorise and monitor woody biomass resources12 through the following means:

establish a biomass database monitor and control fuelwood use by government institutions. introduce efficient fuelwood stoves13 promote community-based natural resource management.

In spite of the stated intentions, most of these activities (except where noted) were not achieved in the NDP 9 period.

Botswana Energy Master Plan The Botswana Energy Master Plan (BEMP, 2004) highlights the linkages between energy and the achievement of the socio-economic and environmental goals set out in Vision 2016 and NDP 9. BEMP identifies issues for integrated energy planning, the demand sectors, supply sectors (electricity, oil and gas, biomass, coal and new and renewable sources of energy), energy efficiency, cross-cutting issues, governance and regulation in the energy sector. The Master Plan highlights priorities, measures and policy goals for each of these issues.

In relation to the biomass demand-side, BEMP focuses on addressing energy poverty at household level, particularly for low-income households, with the objective of facilitating a move to cleaner and modern sources of energy. Opportunities are also identified for government institutions to move away from using fuelwood, since they can afford alternative fuels through their government-allocated budgets.

At the time of drafting BEMP, 200414, fuelwood was the most popular fuel in households and in government institutions. However, institutions such as the Botswana Defence Force, prisons and some government schools have since been encouraged to stop using fuelwood. In spite of these efforts, a sizeable number of institutions in the rest of the country are still using fuelwood as a source of energy. Such institutions resort to using fuelwood when alternative fuels they are supposed to use are not available.

On the biomass supply-side, BEMP focuses on sustainable use and harvesting of biomass energy resources and the need to engage with key stakeholders in developing policies and legislation that can support community-based fuelwood management.

BEMP cites land clearing for agriculture, harvesting for construction and infrastructure development as the major causes of deforestation in Botswana, while fuelwood harvesting is said to make a minimal contribution. This implies that the fuelwood economisation and substitution debate is more about raising people’s standards of living and health than it is about environmental protection. This is in contrast with most other countries in Africa, where the use of woodfuels is often associated (correctly or not) with environmental degradation.

On the institutional side, BEMP identifies a need for proper co-ordination of stakeholders in the various government departments such as the Ministries of Lands and Housing, Agriculture, and Environment, Wildlife and

12 This will only be achieved in NDP10 as no new national assessment surveys have been conducted. 13 Efforts are being made under ProBEC and RE- Botswana to introduce efficient wood stoves 14 The previous BEMP was developed in 1996 and recommendations were made in BEMP 2004 to revise the Plan every five years.

Tourism to avoid management of the biomass energy sector being fragmented. BEMP also recommends the enactment of legislation and policies that allow for development of new technologies that can be adapted for biomass production for fuel and support community participation in woodland management.

2.4.3 Policies Draft National Energy Policy The Draft National Energy Policy (EAD, 2006; 2008) defines national development principles and objectives that energy should address through a selection of key energy goals, measures and strategies. The Policy was partly derived from BEMP and further stakeholder consultations.

In relation to biomass, the policy aims to:

lessen deforestation caused by fuelwood collection; and ensure access to adequate and affordable energy services for all households and community services.

There are also aspects of promoting fuel switching from fuelwood to coal and LPG for government institutions. Specifically, the policy is intended to “promote sustainable fuelwood management practices, appropriate combustion equipment, community management of natural resources and switching to alternative energy sources”.

The policy recognises the role that women play in the selection and procurement of energy (especially fuelwood) and health problems, such as indoor pollution, arising from the use of traditional biomass fuels in poorly-ventilated environments. To that end, the policy seeks to integrate gender issues into all facets of energy service provision process and to empower fuelwood collectors on sustainable use of the resource for subsistence and other purposes.

Forestry Policy (draft) The Forestry Policy is under revision but will support: (1) the development of sustainable forest management options based on sound ecological principles; (2) domestication and commercialisation of forest products such as fruits and medicines; and, (3) restoration of degraded land using afforestation and plantations to make the land reusable. There will be synergies with developing mechanisms for sustainable biomass energy supply and use.

Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) Policy The goal of the CBNRM policy is to create a foundation for conservation-based development, in which the need to protect biodiversity and ecosystems is balanced with the need to improve rural livelihoods and reduce poverty. The policy proposes the provision of diversified livelihoods and economic options, opportunities and incentive by managing and sustainably exploiting the country’s natural resources by communities.

The specific objectives of the CBNRM Policy are to:

specify land tenure and natural resources user rights, which may be devolved to communities; establish a framework that provides for incentives to manage natural resources in a sustainable manner; create opportunities for community participation in natural resource management; promote conservation and CBNRM strategies that are based on sound scientific principles and practices; enhance the relationship between protected areas’ management and CBNRM; protect the intellectual property rights of communities with regards to natural resources and the management of such natural resources; encourage communities to participate meaningfully in the monitoring of CBNRM; facilitate capacity building within communities to engage in natural resource-based tourism; establish an institutional support framework for the implementation of CBNRM; and promote communication, education and public awareness on CBNRM.

Policy for Wastewater and Sanitation Management The policy seeks to promote the health and wellbeing of the country through the provision of appropriate and sustainable wastewater/sanitation management, thus ensuring waste water re-use and sustained supply of potable water. The policy establishes linkages between potable water supply and wastewater utilisation by recognising waste water as a resource that can be used for irrigation and even, after appropriate treatment, human consumption. Furthermore, the policy estimates that 300,000 m3 per day of treated wastewater will be produced in Botswana by 2020, providing an opportunity for its use in irrigation of commercial crops and contributing to the growth of the agricultural sector.

Though the policy does not address biomass directly, opportunities exist in the utilisation of wastewater in the commercial production of biomass and adopting the existing wastewater treatment facilities with the commercial production of biogas and possibly electricity generation; hence meeting the objective of cost-recovery as embedded in the policy.

Other policies of lower relevance for BEST are as follows:

National Policy for Rural Development (2002) The Rural Development Policy aims to improve the quality of life for those in Botswana’s rural areas through implementation of policies and strategies that maximise socio-economic well-being and enhance their ability to live dignified lives with food security. The broad objectives are to reduce poverty, provide opportunities for economic participation through income-generating activities and employment, and to enhance participation in sustainable development. On issues pertinent to biomass, the policy indirectly implies sustainable utilisation of natural resource and cost-effective regeneration of depleted renewable natural resources as part of the strategy for the attainment of the policy’s environmental objectives.

National Agricultural Policy The main objective is the diversification of the agricultural production base (e.g. into pulses, dairy, poultry, piggery, forestry, beekeeping, ostrich farming and veld products) as well as conservation of scarce agricultural and land resources for future generations. This objective is consistent with the broader agricultural strategy for developing the sector, while conserving natural resources.

Indigenous Livestock Species Policy (draft) The policy ensures the conservation of indigenous livestock species to achieve food security and to guarantee a future supply of animal products and biodiversity in Botswana.

Plant Genetic Resources Policy (draft) The Policy was formulated after the realisation that sundry varieties of crops are being replaced by modern cultivars that are often less diverse and the policy also supports institutions concerned with agro-diversity with the objective to conserve and maintain the diversity of plant genetic resources material through in situ and ex situ conservation.

Tourism Policy (draft) The policy promotes low-volume, high-value tourism in Botswana aimed at middle- to high-income patrons. It aims to ensure relatively fewer disturbances to the natural environment through restricted tourist traffic.

Industrial Development Policy (1997) The Industrial Development Policy is aimed at diversifying the economy from dependence on mining through the establishment of viable manufacturing exports and services industries. It is envisaged that this can be achieved through technological innovation and value-addition to local raw materials such as diamonds, salt, soda ash, hides and skins, and timber for export. In addition to ensuring that the economic fundamentals are in place, the policy seeks to facilitate creation of service and small-scale manufacturing industries to support the export sector. Priority will also be given for employment creation and SMMEs in rural areas by extending the cooperation of government with CBOs and NGOs.

Policy on Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises The main aims of the policy are to create an enabling environment within which SMMEs can flourish, provide an integrated approach to SMME development and reduce dependence on government. Policy-specific objectives are to empower citizens through economic diversification whilst also promoting the export sector. Further objectives are to encourage the development of a competitive and sustainable SMME community that generates sustained employment, promotes vertical integration between SMMEs and primary industries in agriculture, mining and tourism and improves the efficiency of SMME service delivery. The policy sets the foundation for the establishment of a viable commercial biomass industry.

2.4.4 Strategies

National Conservation Strategy (NCS, 1990) The NCS demonstrates Botswana's commitment to the sustainable use and conservation of the biodiversity. It seeks to increase the effectiveness with which natural resources are used and managed, and to integrate the efforts of ministries and non-governmental interest groups to maximise the conservation of natural resources.

Poverty Reduction Strategy The primary focus of the Poverty Reduction Strategy is to provide opportunities for the population to achieve livelihood sustainability. This is to be achieved through employment creation through geographically broad-based development by ensuring that all districts achieve economic growth based on effective utilisation of their resources. The policy identifies the need to review the Land Policy to ensure security of tenure. In addition, six programmes for sustained livelihoods are identified: small-scale horticulture development; employment through rain-fed crop production; increasing small stock production; strengthening the community-based natural resource management programme; creating employment opportunities in the tourism industry; and building capacity for small- and medium-scale citizen businesses. This strategy, coupled with the Rural Development Policy, supports the sustainable utilisation of natural resources for social development and poverty reduction. Biomass could indirectly play a pivotal role in the attainment of these national goals.

Strategy for Waste Management The strategy outlines Botswana’s vision for waste management through cost-effective methods that protect human health and the environment based on principles of prevention, polluter accountability and socio- cooperation. The hierarchy of waste management in the strategy is based on prevention, re-use/recycling, treatment and disposal. The document affirms the government’s commitment to encouraging the development of markets for recycled materials and to promoting the re-use of waste through research and development of recycling technologies customised for Botswana, market development of recycled products by enforcing use of recycled products within the government system, optimising the collection and sorting systems, and reducing the external costs of re-use and recycling. In addition, it outlines strategies for specific types of waste such as household waste, paper, agricultural waste, scrap metal, food industry waste and sewerage sludge. Some of the waste can contribute to the residue component of the biomass resource base.

Other strategies of lower relevance for BEST include the following:

Botswana Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP) The goal of BSAP is to contribute to the long-term health of Botswana’s ecosystems and to encourage sustainable and wise use of resources through the framework for specific activities designed to improve the way biodiversity is perceived, utilised and conserved.

The goal is supported by the following 11 objectives:

better understanding of biodiversity and ecological processes; long-term conservation and management of biological diversity and genetic resources; efficient and sustainable utilisation of all components of biodiversity through appropriate land and resource use practices and management;

an institutional environment, including human capacity, conducive to effective biodiversity conservation, sustainable use and management; coping with changes to environmental threats to biodiversity; appropriate valuation/appreciation of biological diversity, and raised public awareness on the role of biodiversity in sustainable development and public participation in biodiversity related activities and decision making; fair access to biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of biological resources; safe industrial and technological development and other services based on national biodiversity resources for future prosperity; improved availability and access to biodiversity data and information, and promotion of information exchange; recognition of national and regional roles with regard to biodiversity; and implementation of the biodiversity strategy and action plan.

Revised National Food Strategy The vision of this strategy is the realisation of stable and sustainable access of all to basic, adequate and safe food in order to live healthy and productive lives. To achieve this, the strategy seeks to improve national socio- economic security, provide household economic access to food by attainment of broad income security, and ensure food availability through imports and national production and guaranteeing food security and nutritional security. The strategy aims to ensure food availability through a combination of production, imports and reserves.

The strategy’s emphasis is on food security rather than self-sufficiency, so additional food required is imported to meet demand rather than depending only on domestically produced food. The strategy also suggests an opportunity to use land for other purposes (e.g. biofuels) as long as food can be secured from other sources elsewhere. The recent emergence of global food shortages raises questions about the security of international food supply.

2.4.5 Legislation

Botswana has laws covering land use and land use rights, abiotic and biotic resources, and the use and management of natural resources areas. The legislation is strongest when it comes to land use, control and rights, and it is also quite clear in terms of protecting certain resources. Much legislation is outdated, however, so the government is in the process of revising and consolidating several laws that relate (directly or indirectly) to the energy sector.

The main pieces of legislation relevant to the biomass energy sector are:

Forest Act (1976): the Act provides for the declaration of forest reserves, protected trees and the control of forest products.

Agricultural Resources (Conservation) Act (1973): provides for the conservation of agricultural resources (animals, birds, plants, waters, soils, vegetation and vegetation products, fish and insects)

Herbage Preservation (Prevention of Fires) Act (1978): makes it compulsory for all persons to acquire permission from the Herbage Preservation Committee before setting fire to any vegetation when not the land owner or lawful occupier.

The Forest, Agricultural Resources and Herbage Preservation Acts are now being amalgamated into one Forestry Act.

Tribal Land (Amendment) Act (1993): allows for determination of land use zones. Land grants must not conflict with the zoned land use. The Act gives power to Land Boards to determine management plans for use and development of the zones.

Tribal Land Act (1970): in areas of tribal land, the Act controls land use rights and makes provision for the imposition of restrictions.

Both Tribal Acts impinge on land tenure/ownership for the purpose of exercising rights over management of land resources such as biomass.

Waste Management Act (1999): regulates management of controlled and hazardous waste. The Act makes provisions for waste management plans, identification of waste management sites and control of groundwater pollution.

Atmospheric Pollution (Prevention) Act (1971): provides for the prevention of pollution of the atmosphere by the carrying on of industrial processes and for matters incidental thereto.

The Atmospheric, Wastewater and Waste Management Acts are being amalgamated into one Act.

Water Act (1968): the Act defines ownership, rights and use of public water. It also prohibits the pollution, fouling or poisoning of, interference with, or flow alteration of public water.

Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act (1992): enables the declaration of certain area as national parks, game reserves and Wildlife Management Areas (WMA) in which wildlife conservation and use is the primary land use. The WMA Regulations could be a useful tool for managing wetlands in WMAs.

Environmental Impact Assessment Act (2005): This is the overarching legislation governing the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process in Botswana. Its main object is to make provisions for EIA to be used as a tool for assessing the potential effects of planned developmental activities; to determine and to provide mitigation measures for effects of such activities as may have a significant adverse impact on the environment; to put in place a monitoring process and evaluation of the environmental impacts of implemented activities; and to provide for matters incidental to the foregoing.

2.4.6 Summary Although Vision 2016 alludes to the sustainable utilisation of natural resources, it highlights minerals and electricity as examples of pillars of development and is silent on the potential that biomass can play in the attainment of national development objectives.

Various government Plans elaborate important elements related to biomass energy that need to be addressed, but implementation of Plan goals has been lacking and they are rarely accomplished. BEMP acknowledges the role of woody biomass energy in the national energy mix, but focuses on fuel switching amongst low income households, rather than means to achieve more efficient and modern utilisation of biomass.

At policy level, the key policies for both energy and forestry are still in draft form. The National Energy Policy has been in draft form since 2004. It also does not specify targets that need to be achieved and hence fails to guide BEST on its expected achievements. The Forestry Policy is also under revision and will need to be coordinated with the existing CBNRM Policy. The Wastewater and Sanitation Policy emphasises the use of treated wastewater for irrigation, but is silent on exploitation of this resource for energy. Other policies seek to empower communities and put them at the forefront of sustainable management and utilisation of natural resources, but means of implementation are not well articulated to achieve results.

Government strategies encompass aspects of biodiversity protection, social enhancement and management of wastes. Land issues need to be addressed in the context of the Poverty Reduction Strategy.

With respect to Acts, the Forestry Act (which is important in relation to woody biomass) is under revision and will be amalgamated to cater for forestry, agricultural resources and their protection particularly from veld fires. Tribal Acts are important in that they attempt to address the land tenure/ownership aspect that affects where woody biomass can be harvested or biofuel crops can be grown.

Though the current regime of Vision, Plans, policies, strategies, and legal framework, are not explicit on the sustainable utilisation of biomass for energy and adoption of modern forms of biomass energy, they form a good foundation on which BEST can be built upon. Chapter 11 proposes enhancements that are required to emphasise the importance of biomass to the national economy and means of exploiting it in a sustainable manner.

2.5 Literature Review A selection of key studies and surveys on the biomass supply and demand situation in Botswana are outlined below. These provided much of the data used in the following chapters.

2.5.1 Supply-side Information Data on above-ground woody biomass in Botswana are unreliable and scanty. Although secondary data are available, there are no regular nation-wide surveys that can provide reliable information. This makes biomass energy planning rather difficult.

There have, however, been site-specific studies in different parts of the country which are important indicators of woody biomass supply under particular conditions and were used as the basis for estimating woody biomass resources nationally. EAD has also commissioned a number of studies that provide data on the supply-side. The major ones from which information can be extracted for BEST development are discussed below.

Woody biomass assessment around Mochudi and Bobonong (NRP, 2000) and Expansion of the fuelwood/woody biomass inventory and monitoring programme (FIMP) Eastern Botswana (NRP, 2003): MMEWR commissioned two fuelwood/woody biomass assessment studies with the aim of creating an inventory of woody biomass and designing and testing inventory techniques. The first examined the woody biomass inventory in the areas of Mochudi and Bobonong and led to the development of a prototype Fuelwood Inventory and Monitoring Programme (FIMP I). In 2001-2002, a second study (FIMP II) used satellite imagery to extend the coverage of woody biomass assessment to include eastern Botswana (i.e. Borolong, Jwaneng, Orapa, Limpopo Lephephe, Mmashoro and Maitengwe). Both studies were intended to provide a benchmark assessment of woody biomass in Botswana against which future changes in the resource could be compared. Some important findings from this study are as follows:

The use of satellite imagery and the vegetation classification process provides a good estimate of the woody biomass base, although this does not translate directly into fuelwood availability. Even where there are good woodland stocks, villagers still travel long distances to collect fuelwood as they search for certain preferred species. Deadwood is insufficient in many areas, and there is evidence of cutting live trees for fuel in some areas without clear indication whether that is for own use or fuelwood trading. Fuelwood is undoubtedly becoming scarcer around key urban centres studied under FIMP, thereby imposing tremendous hardship on the poorest, which are least able to cope with such shortages. Regeneration of woody biomass is often hampered by over- grazing by goats and cattle. Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) woodlands in the studied areas have high resilience, as heavy harvesting does not necessarily cause environmental degradation. However, this conclusion cannot be extrapolated to the rest of the country without further investigations. In both Mochudi and Bobonong, local people were generally utilising the fuelwood resource in a sustainable manner. Clearance of live trees appeared to be unrelated to the supply of fuelwood, but rather to the need for poles; even then there appears to be a minimum density of trees beyond which people will not clear. On the basis of experiences in Bobonong and Mochudi, the capacity for community-based fuelwood monitoring systems to be established and maintained is extremely limited. Traditional structures such as VDCs and District Councils are clearly overstretched in their duties with such a fuelwood monitoring system regarded as placing an unnecessary and largely unworkable, extra burden upon them.

Investigation of Fuelwood Management Practices in Botswana (2002): This project was commissioned by EAD with the objectives of assessing the applicability of CBNRM in fuelwood management in Botswana, learning from the experiences of past CBNRM activities in the country; identifying sites and design pilot CBNRM projects with the respective communities; and drawing recommendations on strategies Botswana can adopt to achieve sustainable fuelwood management. Some important insights derived are that:

CBNRM will work as a fuelwood management tool but, in the case of fuelwood supply, products with short maturity periods such as vegetables and flowers should be incorporated. The success of CBNRM for fuelwood management will also depend on the skills available for project planning, management, product packaging and marketing. Further, communities need to be empowered to decide on their choice of projects. Facilitation from government, NGOs and the private sector should be through provision of technical support and resources. CBNRM projects will be easily coordinated and meaningful when policies for both forestry and CBNRM are in place; government is urged to speed the process of finalising both policies15. Woodlots were intended for demonstration purposes and their success depends on the supply of water, choice of species, level of community management and extension services, among other factors. It was also confirmed that woodlots planted with eucalyptus are not suitable for fuelwood as communities prefer specific indigenous species.

Makomoto Study (2008): The Department of Forestry and Range Resources undertook a vegetation resources assessment at Makomoto-Sese area in response to concerns over possible unsustainable utilisation of forest and range resources for commercial fuel production in the area. The objective was to carry out a detailed forest inventory of the standing biomass and diameter distributions for both live and dead trees that could potentially be utilised for fuelwood production and other purposes (such as provision of construction materials, fencing materials etc). An important findings was that there was no extensive harvesting of Colophospermum mopane (except for a few localised areas) concluding that there was no extensive damage to the woodland around Makomoto as the communities seemed to practice selective harvesting. Where communities practice such resource management, chiefs and their communities apply their indigenous knowledge to select what species and when and where to cut them for various end uses.

Feasibility study for the production and use of biofuels in Botswana (2007). This study was commissioned by MMEWR through EAD and sought to assess the potential of producing biofuels in Botswana; in particular, ethanol, biodiesel and bio-gel. This involved market assessment, assessment of feedstock production potential, identifying appropriate technologies and a cost-benefit analysis of biofuels production. In addition, it examined the environmental, policy, legal, institutional, job creation and capacity-building implications if Botswana was to implement biofuel production and use. Of the various energy crops evaluated, only jatropha and sweet sorghum were found to have the potential to grow. Jatropha was identified as the most promising energy crop for biodiesel production. The Central District was found to have the best potential for jatropha production. Sweet sorghum would grow with normal rainfall and for better ethanol yields supplemented by irrigation where feasible, such as in Chobe District.

The Indigenous Vegetation Project (IVP; 2004-2007): This was a 4-year regional initiative funded jointly by GEF and the Government of Botswana. It was a demonstration project for biodiversity conservation and dry-land ecosystem restoration in arid and semi-arid zones of Africa, and also covered Kenya and Mali. The project combined community-based indigenous knowledge, the findings of scientific research and past practical experience to rehabilitate degraded ecosystems and conserve biodiversity by developing sustainable natural resource management systems. Specific results delivered by the project were: (i) appropriate indigenous management systems for sustainable use of biodiversity; (ii) arid zone database and Geographic Information System (GIS), (iii) rehabilitated indigenous vegetation; (iv) improved livestock production, marketing and alternative livelihoods; and (v) technology transfer, training and regional comparative learning.

15 The CBNRM Policy is in place but the Forestry Policy is under revision

Summary The most useful of the above studies are FIMP I (2000), FIMP II (2003), the Makomoto Forest Inventory Report of 2008; ERL, 1985; and Kgathi, 1994. These studies provide data on standing stocks, annual increments and, to a lesser extent, removal and regeneration rates. These data were used in BEST to develop the woody biomass baseline.

Although woody biomass resource studies have not covered most of the country, the FIMP outputs represent a significant advancement in the understanding of woody biomass resources using satellite remote sensing techniques. The accuracy of FIMP results is about 67%, which is acceptable by international classification standards [NRP, 2003] since there is also currently no satellite sensor that is suitable for the direct assessment of fuelwood. Estimation of fuelwood within the stocks was based on known percentages expressed as fraction of standing stock.

The coverage of FIMP I and FIMP II studies was mapped using Arc View 9.2 to show the extent of data availability for the country. The data show the land use distribution in each sub-district, including areas restricted for fuelwood harvesting (e.g. national parks and forest reserves), as well as areas under cultivation. Using these data, woody biomass resources were estimated in terms of standing stocks, as well as potentially accessible fuelwood at district level. This gives an indication of wood biomass supply in the different parts of Botswana. The standing stocks were then discounted for estimated wood used for poles and construction to provide the woody biomass balance as well as estimates of fuelwood availability. Extrapolation of estimation of standing stocks and hence fuelwood supplies were based on the vegetation map of Botswana by considering similar vegetation types similar to those where FIMP data were evaluated. The GIS map constructed from these data is presented in Chapter 3.

Other Supply Activities In addition to the studies outlined above, there have been various projects and activities conducted by government and NGOs in the forestry sector from which lessons can be derived for BEST. These include:

Government: Development of the Botswana National Action Plan to Combat Desertification; National Tree Planting Days; Assessment of community woodlots in Botswana; Construction of the National Tree Seed Centre by Botswana College of Agriculture; Upgrading of the Forestry and Range Ecology Programme to diploma level at Botswana College of Agriculture; On-going social forestry and backyard nurseries; Initiation of an inventory of major species, regeneration, dead wood yields in Chobe and Ngamiland and to be continued in NDP10 for the whole country; Indigenous and exotic species trials; and Intensification of indigenous tree planting in schools.

NGOs: Several tree planting initiatives Community-based woodland management projects at Lehututu and Serowe areas that was facilitated by FAB; Capacity-building in community-based veld resources management project; Indigenous tree seed collection; and

2.5.2 Demand-Side Information The main sources of information on biomass consumption used in this report are clusters of energy studies conducted between 2000/01 and 2007/2008 by and for the EAD and other organisations such as the World Bank, ProBEC and RE-Botswana. Older studies have only been included to supplement information where more recent data were not available (e.g. AFREPREN research projects conducted in the 1990s). Results were also corroborated by results of population census and Household Income and Expenditure surveys conducted by the Central Statistical Office (2001; 2003).

The Urban Fuelwood & Rural Energy Needs and Requirements Study (2000/01)was financed by the Government of Botswana to determine fuelwood consumption patterns in selected urban areas, investigate the influence of socio- economic development on fuelwood use and design long-term strategies to reduce fuelwood consumption. The study was conducted by a consortium comprising the Energy & Development Research Centre (EDRC), the University of Cape Town, the Energy & Development Group (EDG); and the Forestry Association of Botswana (FAB).

A second study on Rural Energy Needs and Requirements was also financed by the government and covered selected rural settlements in each of the country’s ten districts. The sectors targeted included rural households, institutions, commercial enterprises and agricultural businesses. This study was conducted by EECG and the Rural Industries Innovation Centre (RIIC).

These two studies provide comprehensive information on energy fuel mixes in both urban and rural are