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Chloride Ingress in Concrete: Elgalhud, Abdurrahman; Dhir, Ravindra; Ghataora, Gurmel

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Chloride Ingress in Concrete: Elgalhud, Abdurrahman; Dhir, Ravindra; Ghataora, Gurmel University of Birmingham Chloride ingress in concrete: Elgalhud, Abdurrahman; Dhir, Ravindra; Ghataora, Gurmel DOI: 10.1680/jmacr.17.00177 License: Other (please specify with Rights Statement) Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Citation for published version (Harvard): Elgalhud, A, Dhir, R & Ghataora, G 2017, 'Chloride ingress in concrete: limestone addition effects', Magazine of Concrete Research. https://doi.org/10.1680/jmacr.17.00177 Link to publication on Research at Birmingham portal Publisher Rights Statement: Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Published article can be found at 10.1680/jmacr.17.00177 and http://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/abs/10.1680/jmacr.17.00177 General rights Unless a licence is specified above, all rights (including copyright and moral rights) in this document are retained by the authors and/or the copyright holders. The express permission of the copyright holder must be obtained for any use of this material other than for purposes permitted by law. •Users may freely distribute the URL that is used to identify this publication. •Users may download and/or print one copy of the publication from the University of Birmingham research portal for the purpose of private study or non-commercial research. •User may use extracts from the document in line with the concept of ‘fair dealing’ under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (?) •Users may not further distribute the material nor use it for the purposes of commercial gain. Where a licence is displayed above, please note the terms and conditions of the licence govern your use of this document. When citing, please reference the published version. Take down policy While the University of Birmingham exercises care and attention in making items available there are rare occasions when an item has been uploaded in error or has been deemed to be commercially or otherwise sensitive. If you believe that this is the case for this document, please contact [email protected] providing details and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate. Download date: 30. Sep. 2021 Magazine of Concrete Research Magazine of Concrete Research http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jmacr.17.00177 Paper 1700177 Chloride ingress in concrete: limestone Received 11/04/2017; revised 06/07/2017; accepted 07/07/2017 addition effects Keywords: cement/cementitious materials/durability-related properties/sustainability Elgalhud, Dhir and Ghataora ICE Publishing: All rights reserved Chloride ingress in concrete: limestone addition effects Abdurrahman A. Elgalhud Gurmel Ghataora Doctoral researcher, School of Civil Engineering, University of Birmingham, Senior lecturer, School of Civil Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK; assistant lecturer, University of Tripoli, Tripoli, Libya Birmingham, UK Ravindra K. Dhir Professor, School of Civil Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK (corresponding author: [email protected]) This paper presents analysis and evaluation of experimental results of chloride ingress and chloride-induced corrosion resistance of concrete made with Portland limestone cement (PLC). The results were mined from 169 globally published studies from 32 countries since 1989, yielding a matrix of 20 500 data points. This review showed that chloride ingress in concrete increases with increasing limestone (LS) content, within the range permitted in BS EN 197-1:2011. However, this effect is less for PLC concrete mixes designed for strength equal to corresponding Portland cement (PC) concrete mixes than those designed on an equal water/cement (w/c) basis. The results also showed that Eurocode 2 specifications for chloride exposure, in terms of characteristic cube strength of concrete or w/c ratio, may need to be reviewed for the use of LS with PC. This study also investigated other influencing factors such as cement content, LS fineness, the method of producing PLC, aggregate volume content and particle size, combined chloride and sulfate environment, curing and exposure temperature. A comparison was made for the performance of PLC concrete in terms of pore structure and related properties, strength, carbonation and chloride ingress. Procedures to improve the resistance of PLC to chloride ingress in concrete are proposed. Introduction PC, while the production of PLC requires nearly 10% less The use of limestone (LS) as a building material dates back to primary raw resources (TCC, 2010). Moreover, among all the ancient times, when calcined LS or gypsum was used to make cement addition materials (e.g. ground granulated blast-furnace mortar (Mayfield, 1990). LS has been used as a main raw slag (GGBS), fly ash (FA), silica fume (SF) and metakaolin material in the production of Portland cement (PC) clinker (MK)), LS is the most widely available natural material as cal- since 1824 and, over the last few decades, has also been used cium carbonate (Thenepalli et al., 2015), and it is also typically in ground form as a filler aggregate as well as an addition to available in large amounts near PC manufacturing plants. PC to obtain cement combinations and Portland limestone cements (PLCs) and Portland composite cements as per BS Consequently, a thorough understanding of the behaviour of EN 197-1:2000 (BSI, 2000). LS used in combination with PC for concrete production is important, not only in terms of the general performance of The earliest attempt at the use of LS addition with PC was in PLC as per BS EN 197-1:2011 (BSI, 2011), but also in terms 1965 in Germany. In 1979, French cement standards permitted of the durability of concrete made with PLC. Resistance to its use as an addition. This was followed by its recognition in chloride ingress is crucial for the durability of reinforced con- various other standards, such as the Canadian standard in crete subjected to marine environments or de-icing salts. If 1983 (at 5% addition), the British standard in 1992 (up to 20% chloride penetrates concrete, it can cause severe corrosion of addition) and European standard EN 197-1 in 2000 as PLCs the reinforcement. This threatens safety, reduces performance CEM II/A-L and CEM II/B-L with LS contents of 6–20% and and distorts the appearance of the concrete. Although PLC 21–35%, respectively, as well as potential for its use in com- has been commonly studied with respect to the durability of bination with other cementitious materials. The highest per- concrete, the information available is disjointed and often missible LS addition tends to vary according to national and unhelpful in further understanding and developing the usage international standards, ranging from 10% to 35% (Table 1). of PLC in concrete construction. The use of PLC has been increasing steadily worldwide, with A series of studies was undertaken by the authors to examine sustainable construction focus enforcing reductions in energy the effect of LS use in combination with PC on the durability consumption and carbon dioxide emissions associated with PC of concrete. The first study in this series addressed the effect manufacture. It is generally accepted that 15% PC replacement of PLC on properties related to pore structure (Elgalhud et al., by LS can reduce the carbon dioxide footprint of concrete by 2016) and the second dealt with carbonation resistance approximately 12% (Schmidt et al., 2010). In addition, about (Elgalhud et al., 2017). This study deals with chloride ingress 1·4 t of primary raw materials are required to produce 1 t of and chloride-induced corrosion in concrete made with PLC. 1 Downloaded by [ University of Birmingham] on [28/09/17]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved. Magazine of Concrete Research Chloride ingress in concrete: limestone addition effects Elgalhud, Dhir and Ghataora Table 1. LS contents permitted in PLC in some national and international standards Country LS content: % Standard/source Standards adopting maximum LS addition level of 35% UK and Europe CEM II/A: 6 to 20 BS EN 197-1:2011 (BSI, 2011), EN 197-1:2011 (CEN, 2011) CEM II/B: 21 to 35 South Africa CEM II/A: 6 to 20 SANS 50197-1:2013 (SABS, 2013) CEM II/B: 21 to 35 (based on EN 197-1:2011 (CEN, 2011)) Singapore CEM II/A: 6 to 20 SS EN 197-1:2014 (SSC, 2014) CEM II/B: 21 to 35 Mexico 6 to 35 NMX-C-414-ONNCCE-2014 (MS, 2014) Standards adopting maximum LS addition level below 35% USA >5 to 15 ASTM C 595-M-2016 (ASTM, 2016) >5 to 15 Aashto M240-2016 (Aashto, 2016) Canada >5 to 15 CSA A3001-2013 (CSA, 2013) Australia 8 to 20 AS 3972-2010 (SA, 2010) New Zealand Up to 15 SNZ 3125:1991 (SNZ, 1991) (amended in 1996) China Up to 15 Hooton (2015) Iran 6 to 20 Ramezanianpour et al. (2009) Former USSR Up to 10 Tennis et al. (2011) Argentina ≤20 Tennis et al. (2011) Brazil 6 to 10 Tennis et al. (2011) Costa Rica ≤10 Tennis et al. (2011) Peru ≤15 Tennis et al. (2011) Aim and objectives prisms) under controlled conditions (e.g. specified The aim of this study was to analyse, evaluate and synthesise, temperature and duration). in a systematic manner, globally published experimental data & In situ measurements comprise studies undertaken on on chloride ingress and chloride-induced corrosion in concrete concrete structures (new or old), where the concrete has made with PC and LS. For practical reasons, comparisons been subjected to site conditions and usually the tested with PC concrete were used to assess the potential effects of specimens are in the form of extracted cores. Only one LS addition on concrete performance. study dealt with in situ measurements (Hossack et al., 2014). Methodology & Modelling studies involve theoretical work to simulate Extensive sourcing of published experimental results on the experimental conditions. Modelling work relating to subject was undertaken using different databases and citation chloride ingress in PLC was undertaken in nine studies indices in order to ascertain the extent and quality of research (Aguayo et al., 2014; Attari et al., 2012, 2016; Climent that has been undertaken and to obtain the available published et al., 2002; Demis and Papadakis, 2011, 2012; Demis material.
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