Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339

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Ocean & Coastal Management

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Island beach management strategy in with different urbanization level e Take examples of Island and

* Fan Yu a, b, Feng Cai b, , Jianye Ren a, Jianhui Liu b a Faculty of Earth Resources, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, 430074, China b Island Research Center, State Oceanic Administration, Pingtan, 350400, China article info abstract

Article history: Because of a rise in tourism in Pingtan, beach resources are threatened by various pressures. This paper Received 23 January 2016 proposes beach management strategies for developing tourism on the island, using the experience of Received in revised form developed tourist islands. Pingtan and Xiamen were selected as case studies. This paper addresses beach 18 July 2016 management practices implemented on both islands, and the important factors affecting the effective- Accepted 18 July 2016 ness of beach management. The results show that the beach environment on both islands vary in types of use. In Xiamen, the coastal management scheme, beach nourishment, and coastal environment improvement programs played important roles in island beach management, according to our analysis of Keywords: Beach management beach management processes. Certainly some negative aspects occurred in urban and tourism devel- Island opment. Comparison of beach management through SWOT analysis between locations indicates that the China lack of a management scheme is the primary reason why beach management is so limited, and several environmental problems exist in Pingtan. Both islands implemented beach nourishment as their primary management activity for tourism development. This suggests that beach managers should learn from experiences, and put forward appropriate strategies in the future. For effective beach management, Pingtan also needs to establish interactive participation mechanisms, and enhance public awareness and local managers’ perspective of public involvement. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction decades, comprehensive studies have gradually become more prevalent, examining human use, beach management and eco- Rapid urbanization usually leads to greater demand for land and nomic value (Breton et al., 1996; James, 2000; Houston, 2008; space in coastal areas than in inland areas, because of the many Shivlani et al., 2003). Beach management research has attracted attractive attributes of the former (Cui et al., 2004). Around the more attention than coastal tourism, with studies focused on world, beaches dominate coastlines geographically, and much of amenity beach management (Frampton, 2010), users' perspective the coastal urban development occurs behind beaches (Huijbers (Marin et al., 2009; Roca et al., 2009; Lozoya et al., 2014), beach et al., 2013). quality evaluation and classification (McKenna et al., 2011; Botero Beaches display a variety of functions, including coastal defense et al., 2015), carrying capacity (Zacarias et al., 2011), and safety against storm surge and coastal tourism (Houston, 2008; Klein management (Hartmann, 2006). et al., 2004; Hanson et al., 2002), and act as important ecosys- China has a mainland coastline of 18,000 km and an island tems (Schlacher et al., 2008). Beach research has traditionally coastline of 14,000 km, with more than 5000 km of sandy coastline concentrated on beach geomorphology and related coastal engi- (Cai, 2013). These areas support more than 70% of the large cities neering (Ariza et al., 2008; Nel et al., 2014). Over the last two and half of the population, and produce 55% of national income (Lin et al., 2009). Because of rapid urbanization and sea level rise caused by global climate change, increasing human activities and storm surges have led to coast erosion occurring on about 70% of beaches * Corresponding author. Island Research Center, State Oceanic Administration, 1 (Cai et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2010). With the extension of coastal Tianmei Road, Pingtan, 350400, , China. E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Cai). tourism in China, the economic value of beaches has become http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.07.007 0964-5691/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. F. Yu et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339 329 important, bringing $136.8 billion and 35.3% of the GDP of marine libraries related to beach management, coastal management, and industries in 2014, ahead of other marine industries (SOA, 2015). beach nourishment in both islands; (2) examining available beach Thus, maintaining sustainable beach development and effective nourishment project reports, including localities, project types, beach management has become a common problem faced by sizes, and other design factors; (3) reviewing government reports, coastal cities. including statistics reports related to laws and regulations from Sandy coasts have great entertainment value in highly urban- 1994 to 2015, and environmental protection reports related to ized islands, where beach nourishment projects or artificial bea- environmental quality, beach management, coastal planning, ches have been constructed to meet public requirements (Luo et al., ecological restoration; (4) A Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and 2015). Beach management processes are entering a new stage, with Threat (SWOT) analysis to identify beach management processes in a proposed policy of marine ecological civilization. In contrast, the Pingtan and Xiamen. significant lag in management strategies has caused unplanned and disorderly exploitation of beach resource in islands with a low 4. Results degree of urbanization (Liu et al., 2013). As a well-known coastal tourist destination, Xiamen Island was 4.1. Beach management on a developing island ePingtan case study one of the earliest cities in China to implement beach nourishment and management schemes. Although the scale of the tourism in- 4.1.1. Limited beach management process dustry in Pingtan is relatively limited, it shows great development potential under the policies of ‘Comprehensive Pilot Zone’ and ‘Na- 4.1.1.1. Longfengtou beach nourishment project. Coastal erosion tional Free Trade Zone’ (Pingtan Government, 2015). Effective affected 57.3% of the sandy coastline in the Fujian province (Chen management and protection of key tourist resources, such as the et al., 2010), while hard engineering (e.g. seawalls) has been beach, is a critical task for ensuring the island is a recognized In- widely used for coastal defense. Sea defense results in a reduction fl ternational Tourism Island. This paper presents a review of the in the space available for beaches because of wave re ection from beach management situation in two islands, examining their seawalls, and exacerbation of the loss of sediment from beaches management schemes and physical practices. The study aim was to (Cooper and McKenna, 2008). guarantee beach quality in Pingtan, by borrowing beach manage- Longfengtou beach is an example of an area where half of the ment experiences and lessons from the analysis of beach man- bay was land reclaimed and a sea wall was constructed to manage agement processes in Xiamen. coastal erosion. Before seawall construction in the 1990s, Long- fengtou beach in Haitan Bay had developed coastal dunes and an 2. Study areas intact natural beach. After construction, the natural dynamic pro- cesses of the beach profile were destroyed. Because of continuing Pingtan Island, located in the northern Strait, is the fifth wave attack, sediments in front of the seawall were transported largest island in China. The establishment of the ‘Pingtan Compre- offshore, and the beach no longer existed. hensive Pilot Zone’ in 2009 rapidly pushed the urbanization process. The Longfengtou beach nourishment project was instigated The urbanization rate reached 42.6% in 2014, up from less than 20% from Guimoyu Island to the Longwangtou headland (Fig. 2). The fi before 2009 (Pingtan Statistical Bureau, 2015). In recent years, native beach type was dissipative, with existing ne sand ¼ Pingtan has attracted more and more tourists, who made more (Mz 0.2 mm). The project design parameters are shown in Fig. 2. than 1.8 million trips in 2014 (twice as many as in 2013) and After nourishment, this beach became the most popular tourist fi fi brought in revenues of $70.8 million. coast in Pingtan Island. Signi cant social and economic bene ts Pingtan Island is the main beach region in Fujian province. It has were achieved by holding various activities, such as beach cultural fi a sandy coastline, with bay beaches extending for 44 km, except for festivals, international kite sur ng competitions, and National on the west side near the Haitan Strait (Fig. 1). Because of the low Ocean Day. level of urbanization and economic development, there is a low proportion of tourism use (only 11.7%), and more than half of the 4.1.1.2. Local legislation. Historically, there has been no local legis- coastline remains in a natural state (Fig. 1, Table 1). Traditional lation in Pingtan because of its lower political status. With the rapid aquaculture dominates in coasts near populated areas. urbanization process, the local authority began to realize the sig- Xiamen Island is located in the west of the , outside nificance of local legislation in guiding future development. Thus, the estuary. It is one of the six special economic zones the first local law, “Regulation of Pingtan Comprehensive Pilot in China, and was named “Top Tourist City of China”, “International Zone”, was drafted and is currently being revised. Garden City”, and “UN Habitat Scroll of Honor Award” in 2004. After The Longfengtou beach nourishment project provided a key role rapid urban development through 1980e2008, the urbanization to the beach economy in local tourism development. Beach pro- rate reached 81.4% in 2014, with the city listed in the top 10 of tection became important to local managers. According to provi- second-tier cities. Tourism has an important place in the economic sion of law in the aspect of “ecological protection and construction”, development of Xiamen. In 2015, tourist numbers increased to coordinated planning and management schemes should be 60,358,500, which produced $12.82 billion of tourist income, an implemented in regards to coastal resources. Within the scope of increase of 15.27% over 2014 (Xiamen Tourism Bureau, 2016). the coastal area, which extends from the mean high water level to Fundamentally, coastal tourism in Xiamen has developed based 200 m landwards and seawards, respectively, construction, reno- on beach resources, mainly distributed in the east and southeast of vation, and the expansion of buildings are forbidden, except for key the island, stretching more than 20 km long from Shapowei to construction projects, disaster prevention and national and pro- Wutong (Fig. 1). It has become a golden coast, offering sightseeing, vincial mitigation projects. leisure and vacation services for tourists (Cao et al., 2009). However, as it is only a local regulation, it has limited use in improving beach management. More detailed information, such as 3. Methods use conflict resolutions, ecological restoration, and coastal erosion management, could not be found in this manuscript. Thus, it still Four methods were used in the study: (1) a literature search of needs the appropriate governing body to establish enforcement published literature, including journals, books online and from mechanisms in the future. 330 F. Yu et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339

Fig. 1. Distribution and use types of beach resources in two islands.

Table 1 The status of beach use in two islands.

Areas Use types Characteristics Sandy coastline The proportion of coastline with length specific use type

Xiamen Tourism As the hot destination with extensive facilities, a large number of tourists are 23.4 km 100% attracted every year. Pingtan Aquaculture Mostly at low tide zones, and less at backshore, and seafood drying at shoreface. 11.6 km 27.4% Industries and urban Port, dockyard, building, roads. 2.9 km 6.9% construction Tourism Urban beach: Longfengtou beach with some facilities. Village beach: disorderly and 5.0 km 11.7% unplanned tourism development. Undeveloped Far away from populated areas, there remains natural state. 23.0 km 54.1%

4.1.2. Current environmental situation of the beaches width of 60 m. The intact coastal ecosystem with forests and dunes 4.1.2.1. Good-quality beaches. In “Beach resources protection plan- is well conserved. ning in Fujian (2013)” published by the Fujian marine administra- tive department (SOA, 2013), the quality of the natural beach 4.1.2.2. Issues of rural/natural beaches. Because of the lack of a environment in Fujian was assessed and classified into four classes: relevant beach management scheme, the low public awareness of best, good, moderate, and worst. This standard examines four as- beach protection, and traditional aquaculture in coastal areas, some pects, including geomorphology, water quality, surrounding envi- beach environmental issues exist in Pingtan Island (Fig. 3, Table 2). ronment, and ecosystem. Eleven beaches in Pingtan were assessed, This shows that, in contrast to urban beaches, rural or natural bea- and the results found four beaches were ‘best’, five were ‘good’, and ches are facing the challenge of destruction, caused by unreasonable two were moderate. The best beach was Yuandangao beach in low-level tourism development, coastal erosion and waste. The hard Tannan Bay, which is rarely affected by human activities. It has a engineering from fish farms seriously threatens beach systems, sandy coastline of 1.6 km and a belt of coastal dunes with a mean although there are tremendous economic benefits from aquaculture. F. Yu et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339 331

Fig. 2. Before and after nourishment of Pingtan Longfengtou Beach.

Fig. 3. Pictures of rural/natural beaches in Pingtan. (A.Tianmeiao beach, B. Daao Bay, C. Changjiang Bay, D. Etouwei sand spit).

4.2. Beach management on a developed island e Xiamen case study utilization and ecological degradation became obstacles to sus- tainable coastal development, associated with the great impact of 4.2.1. Beach management process rapid economic development (Hong and Xue, 2006). With a gradual Between 1980 and the early 1990s, social and economic devel- rise in awareness of marine protection (Table 3), beach manage- opment were major considerations in Xiamen. Coastal resource ment processes in Xiamen went through a process of “disorderly 332 F. Yu et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339

Table 2 Beach environmental issues existing in Pingtan Island.

Issues Cases

Sites Characteristics

Disorderly tourism development Tianmeiao beach in Occupied by several private proprietors, providing seafood, barbecue, camping and other entertainment services Tannan Bay along the coastline in the summer. Lacking lifeguard, safety facilities and enough trash bins. The toilets and showers were temporary simple structures with poor sanitary conditions, greatly lowering the landscape aesthetic value. These unplanned activities led to damage to the protective forest and headland, beach littering, and untreated sewage. Coastal erosion Daao Bay The most severely eroded coast in Pingtan. Steep cliff of about 10 m, and gently sloping beach. The weak cliff strength and high wave energy mean it is more easily affected by coastal erosion. Over the last 50 years, the coastline has continuously retreated. The average erosion rate was 1.46 m/a between 1983 and 2009 (Liu et al., 2011). In some sections, bedrocks are exposed by the loss of beach sediment. Rocks placed at the base of cliffs are used to protect against further erosion (Fig. 3B). Destruction of coastal dunes and Changjiang Bay Dissipative beach with consecutive dunes and flat beach face. A few decades ago, protective forests along the coast protective forest were planted to keep the wind down and protect inland properties. In recent years, a number of coastal dunes and protective forests were destroyed by sand mining and deforestation. Much domestic and fishing garbage, composed of plastic and wooden debris, above mean high sea level. Inappropriate hard engineering Etouwei sand spit Located in the southwest of Pingtan Island, extending to the west. Landward aquaculture ponds and seaward seawall in the eastern section of the Etouwei sand spit. The spit cuts off westward sediment transport, resulting in beach erosion and instability of the downstream sand spit. This inappropriate hard engineering did not respect the importance of the beach environment.

Table 3 Local legislations and Normative Documents related to beach management in Xiamen.

No. Names Date of promulgation (y/m/d)

R1 Regulation of Xiamen Municipality on environment protection 1994.10.1, abolished on 2004 R2 Interim regulation of Xiamen Municipality governing Tourism resources protection and development 1996.1.1 R3 Regulation of Xiamen Municipality on the protection of marine environment 1997.7.1 R4 Regulation of Xiamen Municipality on the administration of sea area 1997.4.1, amended on 2003.8.1 R5 Regulation of Xiamen Municipality on the management of sand, rock, and land resources 2003.8.1, amended on 2005.6.2 R6 Regulation on Scenic spots resources protection of Xiamen 2003.11.28 R7 Regulation of Xiamen Municipality on environment protection 2004.6.5, amended on 2009.8.1 R8 Regulation on marine environment protection of Xiamen 2010.5.1 R9 Regulation of Xiamen special economic zone on Cultural heritage conservation in Gulangyu Island 2013.1.1 R10 Regulation of Xiamen Municipality on city and country planning 2013.7.1 R11 Regulation of Xiamen special economic zone on ecological civilization construction 2015.1.1 D1 Decision on enhancing control of building along Island Ring Road and environment resources protection 2011.1.1 D2 Provision on the management of sea area (beaches) utilization along Island Ring Road 2014.6.15

R-Local Regulations(refers to Xiamen Statistical Bureau, 1994e2015), D- Normative Documents(refers to Xiamen Government, 2012 and Siming District Government, 2014). exploitation e Integrated Coastal Zone Management e coastal growth, the major coastal and marine environmental problems tourism development e ecological restoration” (Fig. 4). were habitat alteration and degradation, the deterioration of seawater and sediment quality, and species population decline 4.2.1.1. Stage I (before, 1994). The consideration of marine envi- (McCleave et al., 2003For managers, the sea had become a ronmental protection, beach exploitation and use was fairly disor- competitive domain for related governance and management derly during this period. Its use was never included in resource-use agencies. Fortunately, the local government realized the problems planning and seldom formed part of the government's manage- and was willing to address the situation. Xiamen was selected as a ment programs. Rapid urbanization had obvious impacts on the demonstration site for the GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Program for southeast coast, and land reclamation became the direct means to the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East expand urban space, including living space, airports, ports and Asian Seas. Through the application of integrated coastal man- harbors. The area of Xiamen Island has increased by 23.7% over the agement, this provided the government with the timely oppor- last 40 years, but the coastline has decreased by 26.8% (Qi et al., tunity to address its marine environmental problems (Chua et al., 2013). The reclamation of many bays straightened the coastline, 1997). which had negative effects on beaches, including encroachment on Based on this ICZM project in Xiamen (1994e1998), a beach beach space, loss of beach sediments, and damage by hard management framework was initially established, including coastal structures. management coordination mechanisms, Xiamen marine function Additionally, human activities like sand mining and hard engi- zoning, and local regulations (Hong and Xue, 2006). It provided the neering had negative effects on beaches, including occupying foundation for future specific beach management programs. space, coastal erosion, and protective forest destruction (Gao et al., Several local legislations were enacted to forbid sand mining and 2001; Shi and Cai, 2008), resulting in the degradation of the beach occupancy (R2, R3). More importantly, beach use conflict Wutong-Xiangshan beach and the east beaches of Gulangyu Island could be solved in line with R4, resulting in beach use changes from (Cao et al., 2009). Overall, this stage was typified by the natural aquaculture to tourism purposes. Additionally, the water quality of state of the beach being modified to an artificial state under various the main bathing beaches has been monitored in every summer human factors. season since 1998, and the results are published in the form of 10- day reports, which guide the public to choose the appropriate 4.2.1.2. Stage II (1994e2000). At the price of rapid economic swimming site. F. Yu et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339 333

Fig. 4. Beach management process in Xiamen.

4.2.1.3. Stage III (2000e2006). The authorities started to recognize entertainment, and thus a certain width of beach berm was the importance of beach environment protection (R5eR7). In 2000, necessary. Its outer line was designed to be perpendicular to the marine aquaculture was forbidden in the east sea area to provide dominant wave direction, with the purpose of less sediment more opportunities for coastal tourism (Zheng et al., 2005). Because transportation. To enhance beach stability, the nourishment sand of its convenient geographic location, abundant tourism resources, size was usually coarser than the native sand; for example, in and improvement of living standards, Xiamen's coastal tourism Tianquan Bay, which suffers from intense coastal erosion, gravel entered a new period of rapid development (Huang, 2003). was used as a nourishment material instead of sand. However, Meanwhile, the construction of the Island Ring Road from Bai- according to the research reports, using a specific grain size was not cheng to the Guanyin Mountain along the southeast coast was always possible because of poor sand availability or cost limitation. completed in September 2002, and is used for traffic and tourism. It was implemented in Zengcuoan beach and led to more sediment The golden coast of Xiamen Island was formed because of leisure loss than expected. Another important concern is beach profile facilities gradually being built along the road. The beach in- design. Intersecting profile type (Dean, 2002) is widely used in frastructures constructed included lifesaving stations, lifeguard Xiamen for generating a greater area of beach berm. towers, and toilets. 4.2.2. Experiences of beach management in Xiamen 4.2.1.4. Stage IV (2007e2015). The government began to realize the 4.2.2.1. Effective coastal management scheme. Xiamen was one of significance of the ecological and socio-economic aspects of the the earliest cites to implement an ICZM program in China, and beach environment, leading the other coastal cities of China in established the foundation for beach management (Table 5). terms of beach nourishment. The Phase I project in Guanyin Mountain is the first beach nourishment project on the China 4.2.2.2. Remarkable benefits from beach nourishment. mainland. Furthermore, all of the beaches along the southeast coast Examining beach nourishment projects in America and Europe were incorporated into the management mode of the ‘Xiamen revealed they were closely linked with coastal tourism develop- National Ocean Park’ and most of them had been nourished ment. Similarly, as the primary tool of beach management in China, (Table 4). implementation of beach nourishment expanded the leisure space The principle of beach nourishment project design in Xiamen and greatly promoted economic developments from island tourism was to make a beach that could serve both leisure and (Cai, 2015). In Xiamen, beach nourishment directly generated more 334 F. Yu et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339

Table 4 Beach nourishment projects in Xiamen and Engineering Parameters (Cai, 2015).

Areas Volume (m3) Median grain size (mm) Coastline length (m) Beach Width(m) Completion date

Phase I in Guanyin Mountain 740,000 0.3e0.66 1446 80 2007 East coast along Gulangyu Island 11,400 0.8e1.1 950 25 2007 Phase II in Guanyin Mountain 433,600 0.2e0.5 0.3e1.0 818 0e70 2010 Xiamen International Conference & Exhibition Center 735,000 0.4e0.66 1795 50 2012 Zengcuoan 165,000 0.6e1.0 792 8.8e81 2012 East coast in Tong'an Bay 650,000 0.5 4400 50e70 2012 Tianquan Bay 71,000 50e100 958 20 2013 Meihua in Gulangyu Island 61,000 0.7e1.5 294 25e45 2013 Gangzaihou in Gulangyu Island 55,000 0.7e1.5 287 25e35 2013

Table 5 Beach management framework under ICZM.

Beach management Effectiveness framework

Local legislation Sets the rules of beach protection in the fields of marine, tourism, urban planning and resources management. Reflected that beach protection perception was upgraded from resource management to tourism development control and ecological civilization (Fig. 4). Coordination management The government established a Marine Management and Coordination Office and integrated law enforcement groups involving various mechanism government departments. They ensure marine functional zoning is implemented practically, to harmonize the relationship between beach tourism development and environment protection. Marine functional zoning Managing planning of sea areas. Much work had been done to stop the pollution caused by excessive development of marine aquaculture, like the removal of fish farms on the east coast, which was designated for tourism, and the west sea area was designated for shipping (Cai, 2010). Technical support Routine monitoring of water quality, biomass, sediment, coastline change, and beach nourishment design and planning.

beach space for tourists and improved the city image. It successfully coastal area is influenced by a number of issues (Table 6). Overload attracted more visitors than before. The most famous scenic spots from visitors reflects the conflict between limited beach resources are located along the sandy coastline, including , and the growing tourist numbers, and raises the question of suffi- Hulishan Fort, Zengcuoan village, and Yefengzhai. From an cient facilities and safety services at bathing areas. Water quality aesthetic view, the eroded beaches were obviously inharmonious has always been one of the most important indexes in beach quality with these attractions. Thus, improvements in coastal environment assessments or awards. Nearshore water pollution has been a quality caused by beach nourishment can be an important driving restrictive factor in improving the quality of the marine environ- force to nearby tourist developments. ment of Xiamen. Pollution sources are mainly from the Jiulong Statistics show that annual tourist numbers and income have River, and domestic and industrial sewage from the urban area grown significantly since 2007 (Fig. 5). In 2014, there were (Guan, 2007). A significant difference between the beach environ- 53,378,600 tourists, an increase of 14.5% over the previous year, and ment in Xiamen and Pingtan is that many flood drainage pipelines more than three times the number reported in 2005. Tourist in- (with diameters of 1e6 m) were laid down along the Xiamen's come was $11.12 billion, an increase of 16.3% compared with 2013 beach coastline, to solve the waterlogging problem of the island. (Xiamen Statistical Bureau, 2015). Owing to strong tidal actions and the limitations of building tech- Beach nourishment projects also had significant social benefits, nology, those pipelines were exposed on the beach surface instead forming the unique Xiamen beach culture. After beach nourish- of being embedded into deeper positions. The need to protect the ment, Guanyin Mountain Beach became a major site hosting lives of local residents and keep property safe from floods in the sporting and cultural events, such as beach volleyball champion- rainy season makes this a very difficult problem to solve. ships, beach culture festivals, sand sculpture festivals, and outdoor concerts. During World Ocean Week in Xiamen, a beach sports 5. Discussion meeting was held that contributed to extending the content of is- land 3S (sun, sand, sea). The above content discusses the beach use types and manage- ment practices in typical islands, with different urbanization levels. 4.2.2.3. Beach quality improvement by coastal environment This section discusses strategic directions discovered through improvement program. In 2011, the normative document-D1 was SWOT analysis of beach management in Xiamen and Pingtan. issued (Fig. 4), governing building height along the beach, sewage treatment, and prohibition of beach space occupation. Based on this 5.1. Comparative SWOT analysis regulation, special actions were carried out to enhance the land- scape value of beaches, with 34 illegal buildings (playground, Xiamen is China's pioneer in the fields of ICZM, beach nour- catering) with an area of nearly 63,700 m2 removed between 2011 ishment, and the construction of marine ecological civilization, and 2012. In addition, the other important normative document-D2 reflecting the latest developments in beach management in China. was promulgated in 2014. This made provisions regulating com- In comparison with Xiamen, Pingtan lacks an appropriate beach mercial activities, prohibiting aquaculture and other damaging management scheme, and is still at the initial stage of the process. behaviors on beaches. This was enforced by routine patrols, However, it has begun to learn from the experience of developed creating a secure and clean beach space for tourists. islands in terms of management measures, such as beach nour- ishment. A comparative SWOT analysis framework was used to 4.2.3. Issues of urbanized beaches identify both positive and negative aspects of beach management As a result of urban and tourism development, the Xiamen on these two islands with different levels of urbanization (Table 7). F. Yu et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339 335

Fig. 5. Tourism development trend in Xiamen (a. and b. refer to Xiamen Statistical Bureau, 2015).

Table 6 Negative impacts on beach environment and management solutions.

Issues Characteristics Management solutions

Overload The coast between BaichengeTianquan Bay has the highest tourist density due to Nourish the beaches to provide more leisure space. from relatively convenient public transportation and proximity to other popular attractions, visitors resulting in very crowded beach space in summer. Nearshore Most of the environment conditions in the beach bathing areas are monitored in the Start the corrective “Xiamen nearshore water pollution control water peak tourist season every year. In 2014 this showed the health index and the number of program” in 2015, including improving the municipal pipe network pollution days suitable for swimming was far lower at Gulangyu Island and south of Xiamen and sewage treatment facilities, and promoting upstream sewage Island, mainly caused by high level of fecal coliform (Ocean & Fisheries Bureau of treatment and ecological protection of the Jiulong River Basin. Xiamen, 2015). Flood Lowers the coastal aesthetic value. Like the groins, the giant pipelines can also interrupt None yet. Their negative impact could be mitigated by regular beach drainage the longshore transport of sediment, causing beach erosion hot spots (Yu et al., 2013). nourishment. pipelines

5.1.1. Differences necessarily equipped to cope with the adverse consequences of The most significant gap between the islands is the coastal multiple use and space interactions across sectoral jurisdictions management scheme, seen from Strengths (XM) and Weaknesses and administrative boundaries. This results in a lack of coordination (PT). It remains decentralized and sectoral in Pingtan, and is not between the marine administrative department and the other

Table 7 SWOT analysis of beach management in Xiamen and Pingtan.

Xiamen (XM) Pingtan (PT)

Strengths 1. A series of local regulations 1. Natural beaches with good quality, less anthropogenic pressure 2. Coordinated management mechanism 3. Effective enforcement of marine functional zoning 4. Well-organized technical support Weaknesses 1. Insufficient facilities and safety services due to lack of earlier planning and 1. Inadequate local legislation increasing tourism development 2. Lacking of coordinated management mechanism 2. Nearshore water pollution 3. Weak implementation of marine functional zoning Opportunities 1. National Ocean Park will help establish a long-term beach nourishment plan 1. Construction of International Tourism Island will lead to more 2. Xiamen nearshore water pollution control program consideration of the beach environment 2. Tourism infrastructure construction will help reduce unplanned tourism activities Threats 1. Coastal erosion under climate change (storm surge, sea level rise) and flood 1. Coastal erosion under climate change (storm surge, sea level rise) drainage pipelines 2. The urbanization process may lead to ecological degradation of the beach 2. Overload from visitors from booming tourism 336 F. Yu et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339 departments managing land, environmental protection, tourism, Pingtan's beach tourism development is entering a period of rapid fisheries and agriculture (Fig. 6). Overall, there are about 20 or so growth, and needs to learn from the experiences of Xiamen to avoid related ministries and agencies, which are responsible for agricul- the phenomenon of ‘treatment after destruction’. Negative aspects ture, construction, flood control, environmental protection, trans- of urban beaches should be considered, such as insufficient facil- port, and natural resource exploitation in the coastal areas (Cao and ities and safety services, and flood drainage pipelines (Weaknesses Wong, 2007). Beach use conflicts and many environmental prob- (XM)). Appropriate beach management measures should be lems exist, also caused by a lack of relevant local laws. implemented step by step, in accordance with local conditions From the experience of ICZM in Xiamen, inter-agency conflicts (Fig. 7), to achieve the dual goals of coastal tourism development and overlapping jurisdiction can be alleviated by coordinated and ecological protection. management mechanisms and power re-allocation among the many agencies. Furthermore, specific local legislation for beach 5.2.1. Step 1. establish the beach management framework management has not yet been established, but relevant regulations This aims to overcome the Weaknesses (PT). Develop relevant can still motivate the beach management process. local laws. Establish a coordination mechanism under a marine administrative department, combined with the other departments 5.1.2. Similarities managing land, tourism, and forests. Formulate beach use and As an effective means of preventing coastal erosion and devel- conservation planning, aiming to lay out the construction of oping urban tourism, beach nourishment has become popular in tourism facilities on a scientific basis, and prevent encroachment China in recent years. More beach management programs are into beach ecological space with the process of urbanization. making use of beach nourishment as a primary tool to address Ideally, this framework should lead to effective implementation of beach erosion and to counter problems created by inappropriate marine functional zoning to solve beach use conflict between use of coastal structures. tourism and other industries. The main driving force of beach nourishment in China is the provision of wide, clean beaches to accommodate rapidly 5.2.2. Step 2. develop bathing areas increasing tourism. In this general trend, both islands implemented Referring to the criteria of the popular international beach beach nourishment and approved its effectiveness. In the case of performance awards (e.g. Blue Flag, Seaside Award, National Xiamen, overall implementation of beach nourishment requires Healthy Beaches Campaign, Green Coast Award) (Nelson and massive government funding, and the projects are usually located Botterill, 2002), propose standards for native bathing areas near population centers for greater economic benefit. From analysis appropriate to local natural conditions. The beaches should satisfy of Opportunity (XM) and Threats (XM) listed in Table 7, this mea- the evaluation requirements of the proposed standards, consisting sure maybe the most feasible strategy. Despite the current lack of of mandatory indicators dealing with the necessary facilities, water provisions in Pingtan, beach nourishment will be the primary quality, and safety services, which will enable the preparation of a means to restore the damaged coast with the expansion of urban future application to the international beach awards or quality space in the future. certification. An important component of this is completion of effective sewage treatment facilities and strict limits to the con- 5.2. Learning from experiences of beach management development struction of drainage pipelines. in Xiamen 5.2.2.1. Restore the damaged coast areas. Implement beach nour- Since the construction of this International Tourism Island, ishment projects to mitigate coastal erosion and build up beach

Fig. 6. Complex responsibilities in beach system based on some national laws (developed from Zhao et al., 2005). F. Yu et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339 337

Fig. 7. The future beach management strategies in Pingtan Island. resource reserves for tourism in the process of urban development. public participation (Li, 2011): (1) Combined with the beach man- Aquaculture activities should also be removed in the coastal areas agement framework, establish interactive participation mecha- designated for tourism according to marine functional zoning. nisms between managers and the public, respecting public opinions in adopting interviews, media, surveys and hearings; (2) 5.2.3. Step 3. construct a National Ocean Park Enhance public awareness of beach protection in easy-to-follow As a special type of marine protection area, the National Ocean forms of posters, warning signs, websites and brochures in Park should consist of key protected areas, ecological and resource coastal areas, to help the public understand the significance of restoration areas, and appropriate use areas (Yan et al., 2005). beach ecosystems. Furthermore, in line with the features of the sandy coasts in Ping- tan, the special areas of conservation could be established for their special geomorphology, such as where coastal dunes in Yuandan- 6. Conclusion gao beach and the Etouwei sand spit are well developed. (1) Types of beach use differ substantially between the two 5.3. Public participation in future beach management islands, with very different urbanization levels. Beaches in Xiamen are always used for entertainment and resorts; by Public participation is one of the central principles of ICZM contrast, beaches in Pingtan have various types of use, mostly (Cliquet et al., 2010). Considering major marine management by traditional industries. Of Pingtan's sandy coastline, 54.1% propositions without stakeholder involvement is nowadays not has no exploitation and only 11.7% is used for tourism, looked upon favorably (Kraan et al., 2014). In addition to traditional reflecting the impact of local socio-economic development beach measures concerning the physical environment and tourism, on beach use types. public participation in decision-making is also an essential (2) Xiamen Island, with its prosperous tourist industry, shows component in beach management. However, in China, the lack of that the beach management framework, including legisla- public participation is a consequence of a generally “top-down” or tion, coordinated management mechanisms, marine func- “centralized” decision-making mechanism, which blocks the input tional zoning and technology support, is the basis of of the public perspective. successful beach management. Beach nourishment is an During the ICZM process in Xiamen, public perspectives were effective engineering means of beach management, and respected to a certain extent, by the use of questionnaire, in- could generate significant social and economic benefits. terviews, stakeholder hearing, and willingness to pay for surveys From the successful case of Xiamen, beach nourishment (Cai, 2010). The public awareness campaign was used as a tool to could be a sustainable option in the long run for other coastal forge political commitments and the cooperation of the stake- areas. The coastal environment improvement program has holders, in addition to raising general environmental concerns had a positive effect dealing with environment problems on (Chua et al., 1997). By negotiating compensation payments, it pro- the island's developed urban beaches. However, some moted traditional aquaculture transformation to tourism and other negative impacts such as overload from visitors, nearshore industries. However, a community-based model was not used. The water pollution and flood drainage pipelines have occurred government kept citizens informed of its activities through public with the development of urban areas and tourism. awareness activities, but did not involve them in the program's (3) Xiamen was one of the earliest cities to implement beach planning and decision-making. However, there are departments management; its management perspective was transferred within the government charged with collecting feedback on com- from coastal development and protection to comprehensive munities' concerns (McCleave et al., 2003). ecological civilization. The comparative SWOT analysis of In Pingtan, the variety of coastal stakeholders is more compli- beach management between Xiamen and Pingtan shows that cated, mainly including fishermen, private tourism developers, the lack of a management scheme is the most significant tourism corporations, tourists, villagers, residents, and port owners. difference between them. Although at different levels of ur- Beach use conflicts will be merging more under urbanization pro- banization, beach nourishment has become a common cesses. It is suggested that the following points could be applied in management tool in both places. 338 F. Yu et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 130 (2016) 328e339

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